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ATHABASCA UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

UNIVERSITY OF LETHBRIDGE

Bridging the Gap: A Structural Model for Intervention

BY

VIVEKA DELAIRE

A Final Project submitted to the

Campus Alberta Applied Psychology: Counselling Initiative

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF COUNSELLING

Alberta

February 2006

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DEDICATION

To my family for all their support, I could not have done it without you!

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CAMPUS ALBERTA APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY: COUNSELLING INITIATIVE

SUPERVISOR SIGNATORY PAGE

Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research

The undersigned certifies that he or she has read and recommends to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research for acceptance, a final project entitled BRIDGING THE GAP: A STRUCTURAL MODEL FOR INTERVENTION submitted by VIVEKA A. DELAIRE in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Counselling.

Dr. Paul A. Jerry Project Supervisor March 26, 2006 Date

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CAMPUS ALBERTA APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY: COUNSELLING INITIATIVE

Digital Thesis and Project Room Release Form

Name of Author: Viveka Delaire Title of Final Project: Bridging the Gap: A Structural Model for Intervention Degree and Specialization: Master of Counselling: Counselling Psychology Year this Degree Granted: 2005 Permission is hereby granted to Athabasca University Library’s Digital Thesis and Project Room to have available an electronic (pdf) version of this final project. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright of this final project, and exception as herein before provided, neither the final project nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatever without the author’s prior written permission. ______________ Student Signature Box 523 Rocky Mountain House, Alberta. T4T 1A4 __________________________________ Student Address _________________ Date

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Abstract

This project is a literature review and conceptual map of Feuerstein’s model of cognitive

functions and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth edition (WISC-IV). It

attempts to combine the two models into a conceptual map that could be used to identify

and target an individual’s cognitive dysfunctions. The paper looks at the historical roots

of intelligence and intelligence testing, while attempting to bridge assessment (WISC-IV)

to intervention (Feuerstein’s Instrumental Enrichment program). The proposed model of

educational intervention is applied to a hypothetical case study and the project is

discussed in terms of practicality, potential drawbacks and future research possibilities.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Paul for introducing me into this fascinating topic. His guidance and

support got me through this program. Thank you!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………...………vi

Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………...………….vii

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………...…………x

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………...………..xi

Chapter 1…………………………………………………………………………………..1

Introduction………………………………………………………………………..1

Chapter 2…………………………………………………………………………………..6

Features of the Literature Review…………………………………………………6

Chapter 3…………………………………………………………………………………..8

Theoretical Foundations and Literature Review…………………………………..8

Historical Foundations of Intelligence Testing…………………………………..10

Theories of Intelligence……………………………………………………….....12

Cattell Horn Carroll Theory…………………………………………………...…14

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children……………………………………..…16

Feuerstein’s Theory……………………………………………………………...27

Pedagogy…………………………………………………………………………27

Jean Piaget……………………………………………………………………….28

Lev Vygotsky…………………………………………………………………….29

A Paradigm Shift………………………………………………………………....30

Mediated Learning Experience…………………………………………………..30

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Instrumental Enrichment…………………………………………………………31

Deficient Cognitive Functions………...…………………………………………39

Chapter 4…………………………………………………………………………………41

The Conceptual Map……………………………………………………………..41

How to Utilize the Map…………………………………………………………..44

Chapter 5…………………………………………………………………………………48

Discussion………………………………………………………………………..48

References……………………………………………………………………..…………53

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. WISC-IV Subtest Description………………………………………………….20

Table 2. Summary of the Key Characteristics in the Instrumental Enrichment

Program…………………………………………………………………………38

Table 3. WISC-IV Subtests Organized into Input, Processing and Output

Cognitive Functions……………………………………………………...…….41

Table 4. Feuerstein’s Model of Cognitive Functions and Proposed WISC-IV

Subtests………………………………………………………………………....43

Table 5. Summary of Erik’s WISC-IV Results………………………………………….46

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. WISC-IV Test Framework…………………………………………………….26

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Chapter 1

Introduction

As a teacher and school counsellor I examine educational psychological reports

and create individual program plans based on the presented recommendations. Although

general goals are useful for making appropriate accommodations for students, I would

like to take this one step further by bridging the gap between psychological assessment

and intervention.

Society’s attitude toward persons with disabilities has historically been complex,

fashioned at any given time by the prevailing culture, religion, government, and

economic conditions. Unfortunately, the care and training of individuals with

exceptionalities has followed historical trends, rather than creating them. Until the mid-

1700s, handicapped individuals were rarely looked upon with humane concern (Blanton,

1976). Although the historical record is unclear, throughout many ages, their conditions

were considered hopeless, and in most cultures, they were scorned as degraded and

inferior beings.

Intellectual disabilities have been recognized as an exceptional condition, and

numerous attempts have been made to define retardation within various disciplines

including medicine, psychology, social work and eduction (Sattler, 2001).The view of

these conditions are more flexible today than ever before, partially due to inclusive

education movements (Blanton, 1976). Today’s emphasis has shifted from innate

incurable levels of intelligence to a concept of general intellectual functioning and

adaptive behaviour.

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School-based assessment of intellectual ability has been conducted using norm-

referenced instruments such as the Wechsler scales (Wechsler, 2003) or the Stanford-

Binet (Thorndike, Hagen, & Sattler, 1986). Relative to other types of tests, intelligence

tests are the most common measurement device in the typical test battery, and they have

clearly had the greatest impact on educational decisions (Miller & Davis, 1981; Wagner

& Sternberg, 1984; Hale & Fiorello, 2004).

An alternative view, presented by Feuerstein (1980), has criticized the use of

psychometric tests and the traditional concept of measurement. He argues that traditional

measures reflect manifest levels of performance that do not address the potential capacity

or modifiability of the individual, particularly for children from culturally different

backgrounds. Based on the ideas of Vygotsky (1978) and his own elaborate theory of

cognitive development, Feuerstein believes that a lack of mediated learning experiences

is the single most important cause of retarded performance.

Unfortunately, intelligence tests have been criticized with respect to their ability

to perform the two most important functions of school-based assessments: classification

or placement, and remediation (Hutson, 1974; Oakland & Matuszek, 1977; Hale &

Fiorello, 2004). Empirical research regarding classification has focused almost

exclusively on technical characteristics of intelligence tests, as well as their potential for

bias. There is general agreement that the reliability of intelligence tests is satisfactory

(Anastasi, 1988; Sattler, 2001), and that claims of adequate concurrent and predictive

validity have been supported (Anastasi, 1988; Kaufman, 1994; Sattler, 2001; Wechsler,

2003).

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Over the past forty years, Feuerstein has been working toward the development of

procedures to facilitate active-modification programs for exceptional students. He has

been concerned with assessing the untapped cognitive potential of deprived children in

order to remedy their deficiencies through an active intervention program, which attempts

to build a more effective cognitive structure. The acquisition of such a structure will

enable a person of low mental ability to become more adaptable and flexible and

therefore more capable of comprehending, planning, and solving problems (Lewis &

Samuda, 1989).

The intervention program Instrumental Enrichment (IE) was designed by

Feuerstein (1980) to enhance the cognitive skills necessary for independent thinking. The

goal of the IE program is to shape the cognitive structure of the individual and to produce

further development. The aim of this program is to modify an individual by changing the

passive and dependent cognitive style into the characteristics of an autonomous and

independent thinker.

Feuerstein realized the environmental context of struggling children had been

unable to give order and meaning to the children’s skills set. The mass of different stimuli

they received from the world was not organized into any stream of experience that could

be recalled to assess new situations or solve new problems. Therefore, he developed an

intervention that enables children to make sense of the world around them. Through

mediation, students apply the principles they learn to any thinking situation and deal with

increasingly more complex problems and situations.

Feuerstein and his colleagues believe intelligence is not a static structure, but an

open, dynamic system that can continue to develop throughout life (Feuerstein, Rand &

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Hoffman, 1979). This perspective makes an enormous difference in how we perceive the

role of education. If intelligence is modifiable, and if indeed intelligence can be taught

and learned, education has a much greater role than might have been previously

imagined.

Literature supports diagnosis based on intelligence quotient (IQ) assessments in

schools, but little research exists on a structural model for how to intervene. Since the

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV) is based on a model of

information processing that is parallel to Feuerstein’s cognitive processing model, a

mapping of the WISC-IV subtests onto Feuerstein’s model would provide a selection of

interventions that could be based on IQ test performances. This will provide educators

and psychologists with a template for addressing some of the concerns that the WISC-IV

identifies in an individual’s learning. Capitalizing on the information provided by the

WISC-IV will allow professionals and caregivers to apply Feuerstein’s model to

maximize students’ learning potential and achieve greater academic growth.

Since many Alberta schools use the Wechsler Scales for Children for the

assessment of intelligence and cognitive functioning, I would like to map the WISC-IV

onto the Feuerstein’s model of cognitive processing. The WISC-IV is designed for

individuals between the ages of 6-16 (Weschsler, 2003a), therefore, the project will be

targeted at this age group.

The following paper presents a literature review and map supporting the idea of

using the WISC IV and Feuerstein’s model of cognitive processing as a means of

educational intervention. First, the historical roots of intelligence and psychometrics are

briefly discussed, then a comprehensive analysis of the WISC-IV, by looking at what it

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measures and the information-processing model that it works on. This is followed by a

summary of Feuerstein’s information-processing model. The project organizes the

components of the WISC-IV in an attempt to propose Feuerstein’s solutions for errors at

these particular stages in processing. Lastly, the paper addresses the implications for

educators and how this tool can be used to positively impact struggling learners using a

hypothetical example.

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Chapter 2

Features of the Literature Review

The purpose of the literature review was to fully understand both the historical

and current perspectives of intelligence and intelligence testing. Then, the review looked

specifically at Feuerstein’s model of cognitive function (Feuerstein, 1980), his

Instrumental Enrichment program, and the WISC IV (Wechsler, 2003a). Both qualitative

and quantitative research studies were used, these were obtained from a variety of sources

including primary journal articles, literature reviews, texts and resources. All of this

information was reviewed and selected based on the inclusion criteria that were

established.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Inclusion criteria were determined in consultation with the project’s supervisor.

The criteria identified for this project were research studies associated with Feuerstein,

the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, theories of intelligence and intelligence

testing. Since the project looks at both historical and current perspective, there were no

limitations set for publication dates; however, the primary research articles were all

available in full-text electronic format. Studies were excluded if they were not in English.

Steps in Conducting the Literature Review

The project idea originated from the project’s supervisor, Paul Jerry. Since the

author works within a school system (co-coordinating testing and individual program

plan development), she became keenly interested in the possibility of taking

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recommendations (from intelligence testing), one step further and providing an

intervention program that fit the specific needs of the individual.

Studies were conducted in secondary sources to obtain a general overview of the

topic of intelligence and intelligence testing. On-line searches were completed through

The University of Calgary Library using the keyword search terms intelligence,

intelligence testing, Feuerstein and WISC. Eight secondary source titles were obtained

through the University of Calgary Library.

The Campus Alberta electronic library was used to search for preliminary

research sources. The journal databases used included Academic Search Premier,

PsycInfo, ERIC (1. via Ebsco) and Journals@OVID FULL TEXT. The Yahoo and

Google search engine on the World Wide Web (WWW) was also utilized to search for

topics relating to the project.

The author conducted a search within each preliminary database to identify

literature that was conceptually related to the theme of intelligence, intelligence testing,

Feuerstein and the WISC. The search was limited to full-text, English language articles.

Articles were searched by using the keywords of: intelligence, intelligence testing,

Feuerstein, instrumental enrichment, mediated learning and WISC. Articles were

retrieved from a wide variety of journals.

Using this approach, the literature was reviewed until a saturation point was

reached. This occurred when the search no longer revealed new information, but rather

resulted in the same articles being found repeatedly.

A full text version of each article that was available in electronic format was

retrieved and printed. All of these articles related the project’s topic of intelligence and

intervention. A total of 217 full-text articles were identified from the electronic databases

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and electronic journal articles. After screening, 94 articles were excluded because they

did not meet the criteria outlined. Approximately 120 articles were kept that related to

intelligence and intervention, of those saved only the articles found in the reference

section were finally selected and used.

Each article was read and examined in a systematic manner. The articles were

reviewed to determine if they were an appropriate fit for the research topic. All relevant

articles were categorized and sorted according to the topic (intelligence, intelligence

testing, Feuerstein and WISC). Notes were taken to consolidate the information under

each of the projects main headings.

Any apparent researcher bias that appeared within a specific study was identified.

In assessing the research, research design, data analysis and methods and were

considered. The strengths and limitations of each study were analyzed when evaluating

the overall findings and conclusions.

The information was analyzed for thematic similarities to support the historical

perspective of the project. Current perspectives on intelligence and intelligence testing

were reported based on research support. The goal of the literature analysis of

Feuerstein’s Model of Cognitive Functions and the WISC was to discover the structural

similarities between them. Notes were made on all of the underlying factors and

similarities between the two psychoeducational tools.

Based upon the literature review findings, Feuerstein’s Model of Cognitive

Functions and the WISC IV subtests were complied and categorized according to

similarities and mapped together to create an intervention tool. This framework is

intended to guide psychologists and educators in working with students that struggle

academically within the school system. This literature review is an attempt to consolidate

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two sources of information into a tool that can be used to assist students with their

learning.

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Chapter 3

Theoretical Foundations and Literature Review

Historical Foundations of Intelligence Testing

Historically there has been a debate about the merit of using psychological

assessments for the purposes of education (Hale & Fiorello, 2004). The assessment of

individuals can be traced back to early philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle and Esquirol

(Sattler, 2001). Esquirol was one of the first to make a clear distinction between mental

illness and mental capacity. During the nineteenth century, Sir Francis Galton was the

first person credited with systematically assessing human abilities (Sattler, 2001).

Influenced by Darwin, Galton focused his research on linking heredity and human ability.

He believed that mental traits are based on physical factors, and are inheritable. The

psychometric field expanded due to his statistical concepts of regression to the mean and

correlation.

James Cattell was influenced by Galton’s approach to psychometrics (reaction

time and visual and sensory acuity). Cattell expanded these “mental tests” into a larger

test, adding items such as time for naming colors and two point discrimination for touch

sensation (Fancher, 1985). Cattell’s approach brought assessment of mental ability into a

quantitative measure.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

divised a different test that was considered a breakthrough in measuring intelligence

(Hale & Fiorello, 2004). Binet tried to develop a scale of measure to predict which

children would benefit most from educational experiences. The scale was geared towards

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higher-level reasoning and problem solving, unlike previous attempts that were

measuring simple sensory functions (Sattler, 2001). In 1905, the Binet-Simon Scale was

published and is considered to be the first practical intelligence test that could be

administered following careful instructions. Using a pragmatic approach, the test was

made up of a series of 30 short tasks relating to everyday problems of life (digit span,

attending to simple instructions, counting coins etc.). The tests were arranged in

increasing difficulty. Each level was matched to a specific developmental stage with the

average performance being the criterion.

Binet was a strong advocate of the importance of individual differences (Fancher,

1985). He believed that intelligence could appear in highly diverse manifestations. From

studying his own daughters’ unique character and intellectual style he understood that

two equally intelligent people could go about solving the same problem in completely

different ways. Given this, Binet’s underlying principles for using his tests included using

the scores as a practical devise for identifying mildly retarded and learning-disabled

children who need special help (Gould, 1981). The test was not designed to mark children

as incapable of learning, rather his philosophy was to diagnose difficulties in learning.

Given this, Binet differed radically from Galton, since Binet regarded intelligence as fluid

and evolving through learning. Galton; however, focused on the top end of the scale,

emphasizing genius which he attributed to hereditary.

After being introduced to North America by Henry Goddard, the original

Standford-Binet scale was modified (Sattler, 2001). Lewis Terman found that the Paris-

developed age norms did not work well for Californian school children. He revised the

test in 1916 and coined the term “intelligence quotient” (IQ). An average IQ score on a

Binet test was 100. Any score above 100 was deemed above average, while any score

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below 100 was considered below average. Counter to what Binet believed, IQ scoring

represented a fixed inborn quality of intelligence. Despite this difference in opinion, the

Binet test was enthusiastically accepted in North America.

IQ was seen as a “true” measure of human intelligence and was widely used by

the U.S. government as a screening device (Fancher, 1985). Unfortunately, the test was

used to marginalize the poor, disabled and minorities. Test outcomes were used to create

policies of segregation and institutionalization. Hilter then used these laws to create his

policy in Germany for “ethnic cleansing”(Gould, 1981).

Within a few decades David Wechsler introduced another intelligence test based

on 11 different subtests to form a scale (Sattler, 2001). Wechsler believed intelligence to

be part of an individual’s personality. Therefore, the Wechsler-Bellevue Scale was

designed to measure a global intellectual capacity with Verbal and Performance subtests.

Wechsler felt the Binet scales were too verbally based for use with adults, so he

incorporated both verbal and nonverbal abilities. This new clinical tool was aimed at

examining individual differences in test performance (Kaufman, 1994). The overall IQ

obtained from the scale represented an indicator of general mental ability with a mean

score of 100 (+/-15).

Theories of Intelligence

Despite a long history of mental testing, the concept and structure of intelligence

still has disparate views today (Hale & Fiorello, 2004). Defining an abstract concept

within concrete terms becomes a difficult task. This is echoed in the words of Terman

(1921) who recognized the danger of putting too much emphasis on a single test:

We must guard against defining intelligence solely in terms of ability

to pass the tests of a given intelligence scale. It should go without

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saying that no existing scale is capable of adequately measuring the

ability to deal with all possible kinds of materials on all intelligence

levels (p. 131).

The formal definition of intelligence began during the early nineteenth century.

Charles Spearman, a pioneer in the factor analytic approach, proposed a two-factor theory

of intelligence (Thorndike, 1997). This was composed of a trait of general intelligence

(g), and specific ability to a particular test (s). E.L. Thorndike tested the hypothesis of g

and found no support for the two-factor theory; rather he concluded that mental functions

did not have a common underlying factor.

This debate continued and Thorndike recognized that defining and measuring

intelligence was complex and could not be explained by a single construct (Thorndike,

1997). Intelligence testing, according to Thorndike, only measured a limited aspect of

intelligent behaviour, which he called “abstract intelligence”. He acknowledged at least

two other kinds of intelligence social (to understand and work successfully with people),

and mechanical (to work and understand concrete and special concepts).

Similar to Binet, Thorndike’s theory viewed intelligence as an integration of

many aspects of an individual. Although the Spearman-Thorndike debate was never

firmly resolved, it paved the way for continued debate over the nature of intelligence.

Thurstone supported Thorndike’s view that intelligence could not be regarded as a

unitary trait. He assumed that intelligence possessed a certain systematic organization,

with a structure that could be inferred through the statistical analysis of the patterns of

intercorrelations in a group of tests (Sattler, 2001).

During the mid-century (1925-1975), there was an explosion in the use of

intelligence testing (Thorndike, 1997). Group testing was common in schools and the

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field of clinical psychology, as led by David Wechsler, began applying measures of

intelligence to adults in contexts outside of education. More complicated statistical

measures (multiple factor analysis) took the theory of intelligence beyond the two-factor

model, and launched the intelligence debate into multidimensional theories.

Today, modern theories of intelligence lie somewhere between Spearman’s and

Thorndikes’s views. Many current theories are hierarchical and multifaceted, with a

general factor, g, and a variety of other cognitive processes subsumed under g. IQ is

generally viewed as an arbitrary summary index of many abilities (Sattler, 2001). Current

theories range from theories of global intelligence to multiple intelligence. Multifactor

theorists focus on cognitive functions derived from a variety of different sources, which

include, but are not limited to intelligence tests (Hale & Fiorello, 2004).

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory

Although numerous contemporary theories of intelligence exist, the Cattell-Horn-

Carroll (CHC) theory has had the most significant impact on recent developments in the

field of intelligence testing (Alfonso, Flanagan & Radwan, 2005). To date, the CHC

theory is the most comprehensive and empirically supported psychometric theory of the

structure of cognitive and academic abilities (Neisser et al., 1996). The CHC theory is the

foundation on which many new and recently revised intelligence batteries have been

based (Alfonso et al., 2005). Understanding the theoretical roots to current intelligence

tests help practitioners conceptualize the perspective from which these tests are

developed.

In the early 1940s, Raymond Cattell put forth the idea of a dichotomous

conceptualization of human cognitive ability (Cattell, 1971). He believed that fluid

intelligence (Gf) included inductive and deductive reasoning abilities. He suggested that

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crystallized intelligence (Gc) consisted primarily of acquired skills and knowledge that

are strongly dependent for their development on exposure to culture. Gf involves

adaptive and new learning capabilities and is related to mental operations and processes,

whereas Gc involves learned and well-established cognitive functions and is related to

mental products and achievements.

In 1965, John Horn expanded the Gf-Gc dichotomy to include four additional

abilities, including visual perception/processing (Gv), short-term memory (Gsm or short-

term acquisition and retrieval SAR), long-term storage and retrieval (Glr or tertiary

storage and retrieval TSR), and speed of processing (Gs) (Horn, 1991). Later, he added

auditory processing ability (Ga) and reaction time (Gt) and finally factors for quantitative

ability (Gq), and broad reading/writing (Gw) were added to the model.

John Carroll proposed that the structure of cognitive abilities could be understood

best using three strata that differ in breadth and generality (Carroll, 1993). According to

Carroll, the broadest and most general level of ability is represented by stratum III. This

is similar to Spearman’s (1927) concept of g and subsumes both broad (stratum II) and

narrow (stratum I) abilities.

During the late 1990s, McGrew (1997) attempted to resolve the differences

between the Cattell-Horn and Carroll models based on his research. McGrew proposed an

integrated theory, which is currently known as the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of

cognitive abilities. This theory consists of 10 broad cognitive abilities and more than 70

narrow abilities. The CHC theory omits a g or general ability factor, primarily because

the utility of the theory (in assessment-related disciplines) is in clarifying individual

cognitive and academic strengths and weaknesses (Flanagan & Ortiz, 2001).

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The various revisions and refinements of the theory of fluid and crystallized

intelligence has only began to influence intelligence test development recently. Today;

however, nearly every intelligence test developer acknowledges the importance of CHC

theory in defining and interpreting cognitive ability constructs, and most have used CHC

theory in the development of their intelligence tests (Alfonso et al., 2005).

In the past decade, Gf-Gc theory, and more recently, CHC theory, has had a

significant impact on the revisions of old intelligence batteries (Alfonso et al., 2005).

Although the authors of the most recent Wechsler scales have not stated that CHC theory

was used as a guide for revision, the authors acknowledge the research of Cattell, Horn,

and Carroll in their most recent manuals (Wechsler, 2002; 2003).

Weschsler Intelligence Scale for Children

Given the complexities of understanding intelligence, intelligence testing and

academic achievement it is important to understand the contextual and theoretical

foundations of assessment tools used today. Intelligence tests, despite their limitiations,

are an important part of neuropsychological assessment because they can generate

hypotheses about patterns of cognitive skills (Yeates & Donders, 2005).

The Wechler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) has been the most widely

used assessment tool of intellectual functioning of children (Reschly, 1997), and the

fourth edition is expected to continue in this role (Yeates & Donders, 2005). Since the

WISC-IV is just recently published with Canadian norms, it has not yet been the focus of

published research. However, the historical roots of the test are well documented and its

predecessor (the WISC-III) has endured the test of time.

As testing standards change, assessment tools must evolve to reflect these

recommendations (American Education Research Association, 1999). To reflect cultural

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sensitivity, advances in the field of cognitive/intellectual assessment and the need to

replace outdated norms. Therefore, the WISC-III had a shorter revision cycle than

previous WISC test batteries (Prifitera, Weiss, Saklofske, & Rolfhus, 2005).

The WISC-IV is an assessment tool that can be used in a variety of ways.

Historically its strength has been its robustness and its ability to provide information for a

wide variety of assessments, including neuropsychological (Prifitera et al., 2005). For the

purposes of this paper, the clinical utility of the WISC-IV lies in its ability to accurately

characterize the cognitive strengths and weaknesses of a child in order to better

understand how to provide meaningful instruction (McCloskey & Maerlender, 2005).

Caution must be exercised when comparing WISC-III and WISC-IV scores. Test

scores become inflated over time (Flynn, 1984). Therefore, the current norms found in

the WISC-IV give more precise scores for individuals. Data from the WISC-IV manual

suggest that the composite scores are 2 to 4 points lower than the WISC-III, with

performance subtests accounting for larger differences than verbal tasks (Prifitera et al.,

2005). Other factors may also impact changes across time include developmental growth,

impact of education support (or lack thereof) and social-emotional factors.

In addition to changes in norms, test items have been changed and updated to

avoid bias and address other validity issues. To address fairness, all items were reviewed

for bias and were either modified or replaced in the WISC-IV. The four-factor structure

of the WISC-IV moves beyond the Verbal-Performance dichotomy, and takes into

account recent theoretical advances and research findings on cognitive functions and

processes (Hale & Fiorello, 2004). This approach to testing, along with its predecessor,

has consistently been supported by research (Georgas, Weiss, von de Vijver, &

Saklofske, 2003; Grice, Krohn, & Logerquist, 1999; Wechsler, 2003).

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To further support the validy of the four-factor structure a study by Donders

(1997) found children with traumatic brain injury had lower Perceptual Organization and

Processing Speed index scores compared to the other scores. Compared to the

standardized sample of the WISC-III, depressed scores in these two indexes are

uncommon. Without a four-factor structure, important information could potentially be

missed.

Recently, Georgas, Weiss, Van de Vijver, and Saklofske (2003) provided results

supporting the robustness of the factor structure in countries in North America, Europe,

and Asia. Studies with psychiatric inpatients (Tupa, Wright, & Fristad, 1997) and

students with special needs ( Konold, Kush, & Canivez, 1997) have also supported the

construct validity of this structure.

The WISC-IV embodies a number of changes compared to the WISC-III, as

described in the Technical and Interpretive Manual (Wechsler, 2003b). One of the most

notable set of changes involves the elimination of certain subtests and the addition of

others. The Picture Arrangement, Object Assembly, and Mazes subtests from the WISC-

III have been eliminated. New subtests include Word Reasoning, Matrix Reasoning,

Picture Concepts, Letter-Number Sequencing, and Cancellation.

The overall test structure has also been altered. The four factor indexes have been

retained, but Verbal Comprehension index (VCI) is now defined by three core subtests

rather than four, because Information has been made a supplemental subtest. The

perceptual organization index (POI) has been renamed the Perceptual Reasoning index

(PRI), because the three core subtests that now define it (Block Design, Matrix

Reasoning, and Picture Concepts) place greater emphasis on fluid reasoning skills

(Wechsler, 2003b). To emphasize fluid reasoning skills rather than visual-spatial skills

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Object Assembly was eliminated and Picture Completion is now a supplementary subtest.

The Freedom from Distractibility (FFD) index has been renamed the Working Memory

index (WMI) to better reflect the nature of its subtests, which consists of Digit Span and

Letter-number Sequencing, with Arithmetic as a supplemental subtest. Finally, The

Processing Speed index (PSI) has a new supplemental subtest, Cancellation.

The changes that have been incorporated into the WISC-IV have potentially

significant implications for neuropsychological assessment. For example, with the PRI

and WMI are substantially different from the WISC-III’s POI and FFD indexes. Also,

more subtests from both WMI and PSI contribute to the Full Scale Intelligence Quotient

(FSIQ), which makes the WISC-IV less dependent on the traditional verbal and

nonverbal components.

The WISC-IV subtests are briefly described in Table 1. This is followed by a

description of each of the subtests adapted from Flanagan and Kaufman (2004).

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Table 1. WISC-IV Subtest Description. Adapted from Wechsler Intelligence Scale for

Children-Fourth Edition (2003). Published by The Psychological Corporation.

Subtest Description

Block Design While viewing a model or picture, the child used red and white blocks to recreate the design within a specified time limit.

Similarities The child is presented with two words that represent common objects or concepts and describes how they are similar.

Digit Span Digit Span Forward, the child repeats numbers in the same order as presented

aloud by the examiner. Digit Span Backward, the child repeats the numbers in the reverse order as presented.

Picture Concepts The child is presented with two or three rows of pictures and chooses one

picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic. Coding The child copies symbols that are paired with simple geometric shapes or

numbers. Using a key, the child draws each symbol in its corresponding shape or box within a specified time limit.

Vocabulary For Picture Items, the child names pictures that are displayed. For Verbal

Items, the child gives definitions for words that the examiner reads aloud. Letter-Number Sequencing The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers in

ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order. Matrix Reasoning The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from

five response options. Comprehension The child answers questions based on his or her understanding of basic

principals and social situations. Symbol Search The child scans a search group and indicates whether the target symbol(s)

match any of the symbols in the search group within a specified time limit. Picture Completion The child view a picture and then points to or names the important part missing

within a specified time limit. Cancellation The child scans both a random and a structured arrangement of pictures and

marks target pictures within a specified time limit. Information The child answers questions that address a broad rang of general knowledge

topics. Arithmetic The child mentally solves a series of orally presented math problems within a

specified time limit. Word Reasoning The child identifies the common concepts being described in a series of clues. ______________________________________________________________________________________________

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Block Design (PRI)

The Block Design subtest requires the examinee to replicate, using red-and-white

blocks, a set of modeled or printed two-dimensional geometric patterns. Each item has a

different time limit (increasing with difficulty) and the examinee’s age determines which

pattern he or she begins with. The patterns start off using two blocks, and then four and

eventually all nine blocks are used. This is the first subtest that is administered.

Similarities (VCI)

The similarities subtest requires the examinee to describe how two words that

describe common objects or concepts are similar. Age based starting points are given;

however, if a child does not obtain a perfect score on the first two administered items, the

preceding items are administered in reverse sequence until a perfect score on two

consecutive items is obtained. The similarities subtest is discontinued after five

consecutive zero-point responses.

Digit Span (WMI)

This subtest consists of two parts: Digit Span Forward and Digit Span Backward.

Digit Span Forward requires the examinee to repeat numbers as stated by the examiner.

Digit Span Backward requires the examinee to repeat numbers in the reverse order as the

examiner stated them. Everyone starts with the first item and each item has two trials. If

the examinee fails both trails of a Digit Span Forward item, testing is discontinued and

the examiner continues with the sample of Digit Span Backward. Numbers are read at a

rate of one per second and the examiner’s voice should drop slightly at the end of a

sequence, indicating the end.

Picture Concepts (PRI)

22

This new subtest requires the examinee to find one picture from each of the two

or three rows presented, to form a group with a common characteristic. The starting

points are age determined; however, if a zero score is obtained on the first two items

administered, the preceding items should be administered, in reverse order, until a perfect

score is obtained on two consecutive items. This subtest is discontinued after five-zero

point responses.

Coding (PSI)

The Coding subtest requires the examinee to copy symbols that are paired with

either numbers or geometric shapes using a key within a specified time limit. Two

different Coding forms are available: Form A for ages 6-7 and Form B for ages 8-16.

Left-handed children are given an extra response booklet so that he or she may have an

unobstructed view of the Coding key. This subtest is discontinued after 120 seconds.

Vocabulary (VCI)

The Vocabulary subtest requires the examinee to name pictures or provide

definitions for works. This subtest has aged based starting points, if a child does not

obtain a perfect score on the first two administered items, the preceding items are

administered in reverse sequence until a perfect score on two consecutive items is

obtained. The first two verbal items on the subtest require the examiner to provide an

example of a 2-point response if the child does not spontaneously give a 2-point

response. The Vocabulary subtest is discontinued after five consecutive zero-point

responses.

Letter-Number Sequencing (WMI)

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The Letter-Number Sequencing subtest requires the examinee to listen to a

sequence of numbers and letters and recall the numbers in ascending order and the letters

in alphabetical order. The starting points are age based and if the examinee provides an

incorrect response on the trail or sample item, the examiner is required to provide the

correct response and readminister the trial. The test is discontinued when a child obtains

three zero-point responses on all three trails of an item or if the child fails to correctly

respond on the qualifying item.

Matrix Reasoning (PRI)

The Matrix Reasoning subtest requires the child to complete the missing portion

of a picture matrix by selecting one of five options. The starting points for Matrix

Reasoning are age based. If the child does not obtain a perfect score on the first two

items, the preceding items should be administered in reverse order until a perfect score on

two consecutive items is obtained. The test is discontinued after four consecutive zero-

point responses.

Comprehension (VCI)

The Comprehension subtest requires the examinee to answer a series of questions

based on his or her understanding of general principles and social situations. The

Comprehension subtest has aged based starting points. If the child does not obtain a

perfect score on the first two items, the preceding items should be administered in reverse

order until a perfect score on two consecutive items is obtained. The test is discontinued

after four consecutive zero-point responses.

Symbol Search (PSI)

The Symbol Search subtest requires the examinee to scan a search group and

indicate the presence or absence of a target symbol or symbols within a specified time

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limit. The subtest has two forms: Symbol Search A for children aged 6-7 and Symbol

Search B for children 8-16. The subtest is discontinued after 120 seconds, and there are

no reverse rules for the Symbol Search subtest.

Picture Completion (PRI)

The Picture Completion subtest is supplemental, and requires the examinee to

view a picture and name the essential missing part of the picture within a specified time

limit. Picture Completion subtest has aged based starting points. If the child does not

obtain a perfect score on the first two items, the preceding items should be administered

in reverse order until a perfect score on two consecutive items is obtained. The test is

discontinued after six consecutive zero-point responses. Correct feedback is provided if

the child gives an incorrect response to the first two items.

Cancellation (PSI)

The Cancellation subtest requires the examinee to scan both a random and

structured arrangement of pictures and mark target pictures within a specified time limit.

This subtest is supplemental and all children start with the sample item, continue to the

practice items, and then begin Item 1. There are no reverse rules on this subtest and it is

discontinued after 45 seconds have elapsed.

Information (VCI)

The Information subtest is supplemental and requires the examinee to answer

questions that address a wide range of general-knowledge topics. The Information subtest

has aged based starting points. If the child does not obtain a perfect score on the first two

items, the preceding items should be administered in reverse order until a perfect score on

two consecutive items is obtained. The test is discontinued after five consecutive zero-

point responses. The examiner should provide correct feedback if the child provides an

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incorrect answer on the first two items. This is done in order to teach the child the type of

response expected from each item.

Arithmetic (WMI)

The Arithmetic subtest is supplemental, and requires the examinee to mentally

solve a variety of orally presented math problems within a specified time limit. This

subtest has aged based starting points. If the child does not obtain a perfect score on the

first two items, the preceding items should be administered in reverse order until a perfect

score on two consecutive items is obtained. The test is discontinued after four

consecutive zero-point responses.

Word Reasoning (VCI)

The Word Reasoning subtest requires the examinee to identify a common concept

being described by a series of clues; this is the last supplemental test. There are two aged

based starting points 6-9 year olds begin with Sample Item A and B, then Item 1; 10-16

year olds begin with Sample Items A and B, then Item 5. If a child aged 10-16 does not

obtain a perfect score on either of the first two items administered, the preceding items

should be administered in reverse order until a perfect score on two consecutive items is

obtained. The Word Reasoning subtest is discontinued after five consecutive zero-point

responses.

Scoring the WISC-IV

Administration of the WISC-IV results in three types of scores: raw scores, scaled

scores, and Indexes/Full Scale IQ scores (Wechsler, 2003). The total number of points

earned on a single subtest is the raw score. This score is not norm referenced and in order

to interpret an examinee’s performance relative to the general population the raw scores

are converted into standard scores (i.e., a scaled score, Index or IQ). Each subtest

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produces a scaled score. These are then used to calculate the factor indexes and IQ (refer

to Figure 1). Intellectual abilities are distributed along the normal curve in the general

population.

The WISC-IV was standardized on 2, 200 children from 6-16 years old, stratified

on age, sex, race, parental education level, and region of the United State (Wechsler,

2003). This was then standardized on a Canadian population (1, 100) to produce

Canadian Norms (Wechsler, 2004). Reliability studies indicate high reliability, with the

FSIQ score averaging .97 across age levels (Hale & Fiorello, 2004). The individual

subtests reliabilities range from .70-.90, and the four Index scores range from .88-.94.

The test shows considerable evidence of validity, including a validity index of .89 with

the WISC-III. Overall, the WISC-IV appears to be a better instrument than its

predecessor. The subtests are factorally complex, making them rich clinically. The

overall structure of the WISC-IV is more closely aligned with current cognitive and

neuropsychological theory than its’ predecessors (Hale & Fiorello, 2004).

VCI PRI Similarities Block Design Vocabulary Picture Concepts Comprehension Matrix Reasoning Information Picture Completion Word Reasoning

FSIQ

WMI PSI Digit Span Coding Letter-Number Symbol Search Sequencing Cancellation Arithmetic

27

Figure 1. WISC-IV Test Framework. Adapted from Wechsler Intelligence Scale for

Children-Fourht Edtion (2003). Published by The Psychological Corporation.

Feuerstein’s Theory

The cognitive revolution in learning theory has brought dramatic changes in the

process and understanding of child development and pedagogy (Kozulin & Presseisen,

1995). Inspired by the works of Piaget and Vygotsky, Feuerstein and his colleges believe

that the notion of a learner is anchored to the phenomenon of mediated learning

experience as distinct from the experience of direct learning. This theory places emphasis

on the constructive activity of the student, the cognitive-developmental appropriateness

of material, and the involvement of the teacher in the design and implementation of

classroom activities above and beyond a mere provision of information. Thus, before

focusing on Feuerstein, it is imperative to offer a brief outline of both Piagetian and

Vygotskian of learning.

Pedagogy

…[O]ur work is not merely to share information but to share in the intellectual

and spiritual growth of our students. To teach in a manner that respects and cares

for the souls of our students is essential if we are to provide the necessary

conditions where learning can most deeply and intimately begin (hooks, 1994,

p.13).

Teaching and learning have roots in developmental psychology. Language is central and

indispensable in human development and is the backbone to curriculum and school

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programs. Both Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky relate language to learning; however; they

differ significantly in their analysis of learning and language development.

Jean Piaget

According to Piaget (1969), understanding is built as the individual undertakes

action on objects and reflects on the result of those actions. Language then develops and

is used to describe the individuals’ position in the world. Rogoff (1993) points out that

relationships and social interactions were not a critical component to Piaget’s theory.

However, for “Piaget, cognitive development is an individual process that may be

influenced by social interaction” (Rogoff, 1993, p. 125).

The Swiss Piaget was influenced by the Euro-American focus on the individual as

a sole and autonomous player who makes his or her way often in spite of social

constraints. Therefore, this social, political and historical context that shaped his theory,

has been very influential in North American schools today.

Lev Vygotsky

Vygotsky’s developmental theory has emphasis on the importance of

relationships in development and in learning. Vygotsky describes language as a process

of social interaction. It begins as an internalization process from caregivers to child,

which later fuels the inner language and voice of one’s own (Rogoff, 1993). Thought is

then developed concurrently with language, and relationships are central to the learning

process. “Cognitive development is a socio-cultural process” conducted in “participation

and communication” with others (Rogoff, 1993, p. 125).

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According to Vygotsky (1978), a child is first and foremost a member of a

particular socio-cultural group. Education reflects the process by which an individual

acquires a personal version of his or her group’s culture. The major theme of Vygotsky's

theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the

development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural

development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level;

first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).

This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of

concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals."

(p57).

A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive

development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of

development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development of the

ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with

adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.

Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of

socialization. For example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or

adults is for the purpose of communication but once mastered they become internalized

and allow "inner speech".

A counterpart of Piaget’s, the Russian Vygotsky was influenced by the socio-

cultural context that emphasized the social and communal. While Piaget emphasizes

knowledge through interaction with the concrete world, Vygotski views this as a process

30

being mediated through interactions with others. Three major classes of mediators were

suggested: material tools, psychological tools, and other human beings (Kozulin, 1990).

A Paradigm Shift

“Schools are the conscious embodiment of the way we want our next generation

to understand their world and their place in it” (Meier, 1995, p. 132). Today, in our

multicultural society, there is no longer a single point of view that dominates. Therefore,

educators need to construct contexts that promote dialogue that seek to construct

knowledge within a complex multicultural and diverse context. When dialogues include

knowledge from varying perspectives validity can be relational to socio-cultural contexts

and learners can seek a common ground rather than a consensus (Burbules & Rice, 1991;

Weisbord, 1992). This approach to learning will help all individuals develop and flourish,

which will guide them into becoming contributing members of society. This alternative

perspective to education and learning is the essence of Feuerstein’s theory.

The central task of education today is not to confirm what is but to equip young

men and women to meet that change and to imagine what could be, recognizing

the value in what they encounter and steadily working it into their lives and

visions. (Bateson, 1989, p. 74).

While Vygotsky made no attempt to elaborate the activities of human mediators

beyond their function as symbolic tools, Feuerstein and his colleagues, expanded on this

idea and created the mediated learning experience theory (Kozulin & Presseisen, 1995).

Mediated Learning Experience (MLE)

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MLE theory appeared as a product of several decades of work with culturally

different groups, culturally deprived individuals, learning disabled and mentally

handicapped children and adolescents (Feuerstein, Rand, & Rynders 1988; Feuerstein,

1990). Feuerstein’s notion of a learner is anchored to the phenomenon of mediated

learning experience as distinct from the experience of direct learning. According to

Feuerstein, the child is exposed to two types of learning situations. The situation of direct

learning includes an unmediated interaction between learning material and the child’s

mind. If the child’s mind is ready to accept this material it will benefit from it. If,

however, the child does not know how to accept the material, cannot identify its meaning,

or does not know how to respond, the second type of learning, the mediated one, becomes

crucially important.

The mediated learning experience can be defined as a quality of interaction

between child and environment, which depends on the activity of an initiated and

intentioned adult who interposes him/herself between the child and the world. In

the process of such mediation the adult selects and frames stimuli for the child,

creates artificial schedules and sequences of stimuli, removes certain stimuli and

makes the other stimuli more conspicuous…Mediated learning experiences are a

very important condition for the development of the very unique human

conditions of modifiability, or the capacity to benefit from exposure to stimuli in a

more generalized way than is usually the case” (Feuerstein, 1991, p.26).

Instrumental Enrichment (IE)

Instrumental Enrichment (IE) was developed for use with low-performing Israeli

adolescents (Feuerstein, Rand, Hoffman, & Miller, 1980). Most of the early IE studies

32

involving populations similar to the Israeli target population show that the program is

effective (Adams, 1989; Burden, 1987; Savell, Towhig, Douglas, 1986). In subsequent

years, the program has been attempted and studied with a more diverse population that

includes immigrants and minorities (Kozulin, 1997), regular classrooms, gifted educaton

(Blagg, 1991), and deaf students (Keane, 1987; Martin, 1984). The studies indicate that

the program works best to ameliorate learning difficulties that arise from environmental

maladjustment, specific learning disabilities, or related problems. The age and level of

initial performance are not limiting, and the instructional pace of the program and

instruction must vary in accordance with different students' learning needs.

IE is a paper-and-pencil curriculum administered three to five times a week over a

two to three year period. Each lesson takes about one hour and can be used as part of a

school program. IE is taught to a whole class in a specific sequence (Harth, 1988). The

500+ exercises are divided into fifteen instruments. Each instrument primarily focuses on

one deficient cognitive function as defined by Feuerstein. Each of the instruments is

designed to focus on the process of learning directly rather than addressing any specific

curriculum skill or content area, which has allowed the program to be used worldwide.

With the underlying belief that cognition and intelligence is modifiable, the goal

of the program is to promote the affinity to learn and to be modified through the mediated

experience (Feuerstein et al., 1980). Instrumental Enrichment is designed to make the

student learn how to problem solve by using specific cognitive skills and/or adaptive

behaviours. Six instructional sub-goals have been identified by Feuerstein and his

colleagues (1980) to achieve cognitive modification, these include: correcting deficient

cognitive functions, teaching the tools necessary to master the IE tasks, mediating

33

intrinsic motivation through habit formation, mediating insight and reflective thinking,

producing task-intrinsic motivation, and mediation a shift in the individual’s view of

becoming an active generator of information rather than a passive recipient.

Williams and Kopp (1994) conducted a study showing significant gains on

standardized tests in reading, math, social studies, and science in an American middle

school. In addition to student achievement, there were significant changes in teachers

related to greater motivation and enhanced thinking skills. In Canada, a two-year IE

project involved a population of nine hundred students, starting in the fourth or seventh

grade. This population was divided into three treatment groups: (1) IE; (2) the Strategies

Program for Effective Learning/Thinking; and (3) the traditional curriculum and

instruction (control). The first two treatment groups received two hours of intervention

per week, and all three groups were pre and post tested by the same measures. The report

indicates that the fourth grade IE students' achievement surpassed the achievement of the

controls on the Mathematics Concepts and Applications subtest of the Canadian

Achievement Test (CAT). The seventh grade IE students outperformed the control group

significantly on the Mathematics computation and Mathematics Concepts and

Applications subtests. The differences in reading achievement as measured by CAT in

this study were not reported to be significant (Mulcahy, 1994).

Proponents of IE claim that the program results in an improvement in school

achievement, cognitive ability and classroom behaviour. However, because some

outcome studies have produced negative results, Romney and Samuels (2001) undertook

a meta-analysis in order to provide a more reliable and comprehensive assessment of the

efficacy of IE. A total of 40 controlled studies, comprising 47 different samples, were

34

examined. Significant, although modest, average effect sizes were found in all three areas

(achievement, ability, and behaviour), with the most extensive improvement being made

in ability. Gains in spatial/perceptual ability were related to the length of the intervention

(number of hours) and self-esteem was related to age, with older children showing

increases and younger children showing decreases. This provides powerful evidence for

those considering using such a programme in schools.

The total program involves about 300 hour of exercises, which can be timed

according to the particular needs of each student; however, typically the program is

spread over a two-three year period (Feuerstein et al., 1988). The following is a brief

description of each instrument in the IE program (adapted from Feuerstein et al., 1988):

Organization of Dots

In the Organization of Dots, the student looks for shapes in a nebulous, irregular

cloud of dots. The task becomes more complicated by varying the density of the dots and

increasing the complexity of the figures and changing their orientation. The task requires

focus and is designed to inhibit trial-and-error type responses. Organization of Dots is

usually the first instrument taught because of its highly motivating nature.

Analytic Perception

Analytic Perception is designed to correct the blurred, sweeping, and global

perception that results in incomplete and imprecise information processing. The student

learns that any whole may be divided into parts through structural or operational analysis.

Students learn that the division of a whole into parts is arbitrary and depends on the

external criteria, needs, and goals.

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Instructions

Instructions emphasizes the process of decoding verbal instructions. This is then

translated into a motor act, which is encoded into a verbal response. The tasks counteract

impulsivity by encouraging planned behaviour and reducing egocentricity. Students learn

to look for key words and relations, while being encouraged to clarify ambiguity through

asking appropriate questions.

Orientation in Space I

Orientation in Space I seeks to enhance the ability to use concepts and a stable

system of reference for describing spatial relationships. Students learn that perception

depends on a frame of reference between pairs of objects and/or events, this shifts as a

result of a change in the position of one or both parties to the relationship.

Orientation in Space II

Orientation in Space II deals with the use of compass points and coordinates.

Positions are fixed and constant; they need no reference by which to describe position,

location, or orientation. In later tasks, the relative personal system of spatial reference is

combined with the absolute universal system.

Categorization

Categorization focuses on the orientation of data into superordinate categories on

the basis of common unifying principles of classification. The student learns to determine

the relationship by which to organize objects and events. However, they also learn that it

is possible to divide and redivide the same universe according to many different criteria.

36

For example, a plane, a truck, a boat and a car could be labelled as motorized vehicles or

they could be labelled as being made out of metal.

Representational Stencil Design

In representational Stencil Design, the student completes a complex sequence of

steps involving a purely representational reconstruction of design. The overlaying

separate stencils, differing in colour, size and shape of the figures cut out of them creates

the modeled design. To complete the task, the student must analyze the complex design,

identify its components, and mentally superimpose the necessary stencils, keeping in

mind the nature of the transformation that is occurring.

Family Relations

In Family Relations the family is the paradigm for all social institutions, and

kinship is the carrier for the teaching of symmetrical, asymmetrical, and hierarchical

relationships. The conservation of identity over transformations is presented through the

multiplicity of roles family members can assume.

Numerical Progressions

Numerical Progressions attacks an episodic grasp of reality by compelling the

student to seek laws and relationships even when there seems to be no connection. The

ability to anticipate and predict future events, explain the past, and construct new

situations through generating rules based on past observations leads the student to a

feeling of mastery through predicting patterns.

Comparisons

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Comparisons induces an awareness of the importance and meaning of

comparative behaviour, established the prerequisites for comparison, and provides tasks

for specific practice in determining similarities and differences. Students learn to

compare two objects or events alone the same continuum, using a common dimension.

Syllogisms

Syllogisms focuses on the inferences that can be made from known relationships.

Tasks require a more advanced level of abstract thinking but are based on learning

acquired in earlier instruments. Syllogisms attempt to produce an intrinsically orientated

need for deductive and inductive reasoning, inferential thinking, and logical proof.

Temporal Relations

Temporal Relations teaches concepts and systems of reference by which students

can understand time as both an object and a dimension. From the initial concept of time

as a measurable stable interval, the focus is expanded to include the relativity of past,

present and future, and the unidirectional flow from one tense to another. Divergent

responses and exploration of alternatives are encouraged.

Transitive Relations

Transitive Relations, like Syllogisms, require sophisticated information

processing and use formal logic. The instrument explores the differences existing

between members of ordered sets that can be described in terms of larger than, equal to,

and smaller than. Rules governing transitive thinking are taught.

Illustrations

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Lastly, Illustrations deals with the interaction among cognitive, affective, and

motivational components of behaviour. The instrument depicts humorous situations as

well as those in which there is a strong link between objective reality and subjective

perception. Situations lead to the perception of equilibrium and a subsequent search for

an explanation for the transition of one frame to another.

Rather than providing rote types of tasks, IE is designed to demand organization,

abstract thinking, inferential thinking and it requires meaningful contributions from the

learner. In many respects, the tasks represented in the IE program appeal to improve fluid

processing rather than crystallized intelligence. The cognitive structures and processes of

the program are designed to act as a catalyst for overall academic achievement

(Feuerstein et al., 1988).

Table 2. Summary of the Key Characteristics in the Instrumental Enrichment Program.

Goals Enhancement of learning and thinking skills by correction of

specific deficient cognitive and metacognitive functions to

increase achievement.

Enhancement of self-concept and intrinsic motivation to learn and solve problems.

Features

Structured paper-and-pencil exercises that gradually increase in levels of difficulty and abstraction.

Mediation of the cognitive and affective challenges by teachers trained to deliver the program.

Classroom strategies that bridge the IE learning to academic and nonacademic areas.

39

Adapted from Ben-Hur (2002).

Deficient Cognitive Functions

Deficient Cognitive Functions are the result of insufficient mediated learning

experiences (Feuerstein et al., 1980). According to Feuerstein’s theory, deficient

functions are responsible for, and reflected in, retarded cognitive performance. These

form the prerequisites for thinking that underlie the internal structure of though.

Feuerstein’s proposed deficiencies provide a means for understanding and diagnosing the

reasons for an individual’s poor academic performance. Therefore, the IE program is

intended to correct and redevelop the functions responsible for the retarded performance.

For example, in order for a student to classify something a number of thought processes

must occur. These include: systematic and precise data gathering, dealing with two or

more sources of information simultaneously, and the ability to compare the objects being

classified. Failure to correctly classify an object may be caused from an inability to apply

the logical operations governing classification or may result from deficiencies in the

Results

Research shows IE students outperform controls on measures of intellect and affect.

Enhanced student academic success in mathematics, science, social studies, and reading.

A systemic reform that makes concrete the belief that all students can learn how to learn and succeed.

Improved school attendance and reduction of school dropout by the enhancement of students' intrinsic motivation for learning.

Reduction of behavior problems due to decreased learner frustrations.

Impact on Instruction

Enhanced reciprocity in the learning teaching process. Development of a mediational style of teaching as opposed to teaching as informing.

Development of teachers’ ability to assess students’ cognitive development and apply it to the classroom.

40

underlying cognitive functions. Therefore, in order for teachers and psychologists to

effectively help a child, understanding the source or his or her error is essential.

Feuerstein’s theory has broken cognitive function into a three-phase process

(Feuerstein et al., 1980). The input, elaboration (or processing) and output phases are not

regarded as operating in isolation of each other. These phases represent an artificial

representation of the complex multi-dimensional workings of the brain. Therefore, from a

neuropsychological perspective, Feuerstein’s breakdown of cognitive functions fits with

the CHC theory of intelligence. Since the WISC-IV has been developed around the CHC

theory of intelligence combining Feuerstein’s model of cognitive dysfunctions with the

WISC-IV should be theoretically possible.

Historically intelligence and intelligence testing have a rich background in many

different theoretical roots and have international influence. Therefore, combining a

world-renowned intervention tool with a North American assessment is possible

considering the foundations of psychological assessment and intervention.

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Chapter 4

The Conceptual Map

Education and curriculum are constantly changing; similarly the construct of

intelligence and intelligence testing will continue to evolve. The proposed conceptual

map is an attempt to bridge assessment to intervention by utilizing the WISC-IV with

Feuerstein’s Instrumental Enrichment program.

Table 3 is a summary of the WISC-IV subtests. Each subtest has been broken

down into input (gathering information), processing (elaboration or using information)

and output (expressing the conclusion) cognitive function (Kaufman, 1994; Flanagan &

Kaufman, 2004). By organizing the WISC-IV into an input/processing/output model I

was able to combine the two instruments into a conceptual assessment/intervention map

(Table 4).

Table 3. WISC-IV Subtests Organized into Input, Processing and Output Cognitive

Functions.

Subtest Input: Processing: Output:

Block Design (BD)

visual & auditory perception

holistic reasoning (whole-part), synthesis (part-whole) spatial processing, speed of processing, nonverbal reasoning

visual-motor coordination

Similarities (SI)

auditory perception of simple words

verbal conceptualization, detail discrimination, verbal reasoning / concept formation, degree of abstract thinking

verbal expression

Digit Span (DS)

attention, distractibility, auditory perception

Short-term acquisition and retrieval, short-term memory, encoding for further processing, rote recall

simple vocal

Picture Concepts (PCn)

visual perception of meaningful stimuli

perceptual (visual) organization, holistic processing, detail discrimination, visual long-term

simple motor or verbal

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memory Coding (CD)

visual perception of stimuli

integrated brain function (verbal-sequential& visual-spatial), sequential processing, encoding for further processing, short-term memory

processing speed, visual-motor coordination, psychomotor speed

Vocabulary (VC)

auditory perception of simple verbal stimuli

verbal comprehension, verbal / fund of knowledge, long-term memory, language development

verbal expression

Letter-Number Sequencing (LN)

attention, distractibility, auditory perception

Short-term acquisition and retrieval, short-term memory, encoding for further processing, rote recall, speed of processing, organization skills

simple vocal

Matrix Reasoning (MR)

visual perception of abstract stimuli, auditory processing of complex instructions

integrated brain function (verbal-sequential& visual-spatial), sequential processing, encoding for further processing, short-term memory

processing speed, visual-motor coordination, psychomotor speed

Comprehension (CO)

auditory. perception of verbal stimuli

verbal conceptualization, cause-effect, common sense, social judgment, applied reasoning

Verbal expression

Symbol Search (SS)

visual perception of abstract stimuli, auditory processing of complex instructions

perceptual org., integrated brain (see Coding), encoding for further use, short-term memory (visual), speed of processing, speed of visual search

processing speed, visual-motor coordination, identification of stimuli

Picture Completion (PCm)

visual perception of meaningful stimuli

perceptual (visual) organization, holistic processing, detail discrimination, visual long-term memory, whole-part

simple vocal, processing speed

Cancellation (CA)

visual perception of stimuli

short-term memory (visual), speed of processing, speed of visual search

processing speed, visual-motor coordination, psychomotor

Information (IN)

auditory perception of complex stimuli

fund of knowledge, long-term memory, semantic memory

simple vocal

Arithmetic (AR)

auditory perception, mental alertness, distractibility (attn.)

short-term memory, Short-term acquisition and retrieval, computational skill, long-term memory, speed of processing

simple vocal

Word Reasoning (WR)

auditory perception of simple verbal stimuli

verbal conceptualization, detail discrimination, verbal reasoning / concept formation, abstract thinking

simple vocal

Adapted from Kaufman (1994), and Flanagan & Kaufman (2004). Subtests in italics are supplementary.

Given the information from Table 3, the WISC-IV subtests were combined with

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Feuerstein’s model of cognitive functions (Wood, Scott, & Taddeo, 2000; Medicine Hat

Educational Consultant, 2004) on the basis of similarity. For example, “Clear Perception”

during the input phase is the manner in which things are perceived (Feuerstein et al.,

1980). The WISC-IV subtests that require a clear mental picture, or rely on a visual

stimulus (during the input phase) include: Picture Concepts, Coding, Matrix Reasoning,

Symbol Search and Cancellation. This comparative process was repeated until all of

Feuerstein’s cognitive functions were matched to corresponding WISC-IV subtests. The

results of this process are summarized in Table 4. Subtests are identified as follows:

Block Design (BD), Similarities (SI), Digit Span (DS), Picture Concepts (PCn), Coding

(CD), Vocabulary (VC), Letter-Number Sequencing (LN), Matrix Reasoning (MR),

Comprehension (CO), Symbol Search (SS), Picture Completion (PCm), Cancellation

(CA) Information (IN), Arithmetic (AR), Word Reasoning (WR).

Table 4. Feuerstein’s Model of Cognitive Functions and Proposed WISC-IV Subtests.

Feuerstein’s Model of Cognitive Functions and Proposed WISC-IV Subtests

INPUT PHASE GATHERING

INFORMATION

ELABORATION PHASE

PROCESSING OR USING INFORMATION

OUTPUT PHASE

EXPRESSING THE CONCLUSION

Cognitive Function

Deficient Cognitive Function

Cognitive Function

Deficient Cognitive Function

Cognitive Function

Deficient Cognitive Function

Clear Perception SS, CA, PCn, CD, MR

Blurred and Sweeping Perception

Accurate Definition of the Problem CO, AR

Inadequacy in Recognizing and/or Defining the Problem

Using Clear and Precise Language VC, IN, CO, WR

Egocentric Communications

Systematic Exploration BD, PCn, PCm, SS

Impulsive Exploratory Behavior

Selection of Relevant Cues SI, PCn, PCm

Inability to Select Relevant vs. Irrelevant Information

Thinking Things Through Before Responding BD

Trial and Error Behavior

Precise and Accurate Labeling VC, WR, IN, CO

Lack of Appropriate Labels

Internalization of Information IN, CO

Lack of, or Impaired, Internalization Internalization

Waiting Before Responding All: Based on observations

Impulsivity

Well-developed Orientation in

Lack of, or Impaired

Planning Behavior MR, BD

Lack of, or Impaired, Planning Behavior

Staying Calm All: Based on

Blocking

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Time BD, PCm, MR

Temporal and/or Spatial and Space Orientation

observations

Conservation of Constancies PCm, MR

Lack of, or Impaired, Abilitv to Conserve Constancies

Broad Mental Field- remembering experience IN, CO

Narrowness of the Mental Field Precision and Accuracy in Communicating Data and Information AR

Lack of Precision and Accuracy in Communicating, Data and Information

Capacity to Consider More Than One Source of Information BD, LN, CD

Inability to Use Two or More Sources of Information at Once

Recognizing and Understanding Relationships SI, PCn

Lack of a Need for Establishing, Relationships EPISODIC GRASP OF REALITY

Clear Visual Transport CD, MR, SS

Deficiency in Visual Transport

Need for Precision Accuracy, and Completeness in Data Gathering CD, BD, CA

Lack of precision, accuracy, and completeness in data gathering

Spontaneous Comparative Behavior SI, PCn

Lack of Spontaneous Comparative Behavior

Adequate Verbal Tools WR, IN, CO, VC

Inadequate Verbal Tools

Categorizing PCn, WR, SI

Inability to Categorize Projection of Virtual Relationships CO, SI, WR

Difficulty in Projecting Virtual Relationships

Inferential-Hypothetical Thinking CO, SI, WR

Lack of, or Impaired, Inferential-Hypothetical Thinking

Using, Logic to Arrive at and Defend Conclusions SI, WR, CO

Lack of a need for Pursuing Logical Evidence

Spontaneous Summative Behavior CD, MR

Lack of a Need for Summative Behavior

Adequate Verbal Tools WR, IN, CO, VC

Inadequate Verbal Tools (for elaboration)

How to Utilize the Conceptual Map

In theory, the conceptual map could be used as a tool to select IE programming

suitable for improving the individual’s area of need. This would be determined by the

student’s WISC-IV subtest scores. For example, if a student performed poorly on the

subtest “Picture Concepts” the examiner could hypothesize whether this was an input,

elaboration or output phase concern. If the examinee was unable to pick out the common

characteristics from the presented pictures, a reasonable hypothesis might be that the low

subtest score was the result of in inability to conserve constancies (input phase). Given

this conclusion, the student could work to develop this cognitive deficiency by focusing

on the IE tasks that develop this skill. This hypothesis could be tested by using other

45

cognitive, behavioural, or curriculum-based measures to evaluate the student’s progress

over time (Hale & Fiorello, 2004).

Identifying a student’s strengths and difficulties while providing interventions to

ameliorate the problems links assessment information to intervention. The proposed

conceptual map is an attempt to bridge the WISC-IV to an existing intervention program,

Instrumental Enrichment.

Numerous factors affect the conclusions and hypothesis’ about a student’s test

performance, including test behaviour, linguistic/cultural sensitivity, technical adequacy,

and ecological validity (Hale & Fiorello, 2004). Being aware of these factors while

formulating hypothesis’ about subtest scores is critical in the interpretation of the

proposed map. Sattler (2001) provides guidelines for observing specific behaviours that

may indicate performance variability and psychological problems. These observations,

combined with anecdotal information from parents and teachers can provide important

contextual information when interpreting the map (Hale & Fiorello, 2004).

Illustrative Example

This section presents a hypothetical example of how to use the map. “Erik” was

referred for psychoeducational testing by his teacher due to academic difficulties,

primarily in the area of reading. His teacher noted that he has difficulties recognizing

certain words (that he should know by grade 6), and he had difficulties decoding

unfamiliar words. Erik’s reading comprehension is well below grade level. He struggles

with identifying details accurately and often cannot pinpoint the main idea. Although

Erik can communicate his ideas verbally, his written products generally are difficult to

read and very elementary in nature. Finally, Erik is beginning to experience difficulties in

math, a subject in which he has historically performed average or better.

46

During the administration of the WISC-IV Erik appeared engaged and motivated;

however, during vocabulary-based tasks his enthusiasm was notably less. For example,

many of his answers on vocabulary items were brief. Finally, Erik used a very slow and

labor-intensive approach to processing speed tasks.

On the WISC-IV, Erik earned a Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) of 83, which ranks his

overall ability at the 13th percentile and classifies his global IQ as falling within the

Average Range. Erik’s Indexes ranges from 70 on PSI, to 98 on the VCI, suggesting that

Erik’s intelligence is best understood by his performance on the separate WISC-IV

indexes, namely, Verbal Comprehension (98), Perceptual Reasoning (90) Indexes were

similar and combined to yield a General Ability Index (GAI). The GAI differs from the

FSIQ in that it is not influenced directly by Erik’s performance in working memory and

processing speed tasks.

Erik earned a GAI of 93, classifying his general level of intellectual ability in the

Average/Within Normal Limits. The PSI, a measure of Processing Speed (Gs), represents

Erik’s ability to perform simple, clerical-type tasks quickly. Erik’s PSI of 70 indicates

that he is Below Average/Normative Weakness in this area. His ability in this area is

significantly lower than his ability in other areas. Overall, Erik’s processing speed is a

notable weakness and suggest that he has difficulties in this basic psychological process,

which will determine his area for IE intervention.

Table 5. Summary of Erik’s WISC-IV Results.

WISC-IV RESULTS

Index

Percentile

Verbal Comprehension Index 98 45th

Perceptual Reasoning Index 90 25th

Working Memory Index 83 13th

47

Processing Speed Index 70 2nd

Full Scale IQ 83 13th

Upon examining Erik’s difficulties in PSI, the Conceptual Map indicate that the

PSI subtests correspond to mainly Input and Output Phase cognitive functions, with the

exception of the Coding, which falls under the Elaboration Phase. Given this, Erik’s IE

program could focus on tasks designed to develop “Clear Perception”, “Systematic

Exploration” and the “Capacity to Consider More Than One Source of Information” to

address deficient cognitive function during the Input Phase. During the Elaboration

Phase, his EI program would target “Spontaneous Summative Behavior”. Lastly, Erik’s

deficient cognitive function in the Output Phase would target Clear Visual Transport.

Since the IE program is designed to be administered over a 2-3 year period, Erik’s

progress could easily be assessed through readministering the WISC-IV after program

completion. This falls within the allowable retesting time limit as outlined by the WISC-

IV Administration and Scoring Manual (Wechsler, 2003).

The Cognitive Map is designed as a guide to potential intervention tool to assist

struggling learners. By focusing on each individual’s area of greatest need, based on

his/her WISC-IV results, the potential exists to maximize the individual’s potential in the

areas that he/she needs most.

48

Chapter 5

Discussion

The following section focuses on the complexities and potential benefits of the

project. One of the difficulties was combining a static assessment tool with a dynamic

intervention. Although, from a neuropsychological perspective, there are similarities in

the theoretical basis of both the WISC-IV and Feuerstein’s model of cognitive functions,

further research is needed to explore whether or not using a standardized assessment tool

to determine IE programming can be successful. Also, the proposed map as an

intervention tool breaks away from Feuerstein’s standardized model for intervention.

Ethically, before changing the program’s delivery model, permission would have to be

sought from the program’s creators.

Another potential drawback to this proposed intervention is cost. In order for a

school or school district to implement the IE program teachers, and teaching aides require

special training, and materials need to be purchased. The overall start-up expense of the

program (training costs and materials) is equivalent to a year’s salary for one teaching

assistant. Keeping in mind; however, once the program is established, and operational,

there are minimal cost requirements to maintain it.

The balance between fiscal responsibility and child-centered decisions is always a

tenuous debate. One might argue that the IE program results speak for themselves, and

provide a long-term cost effective program that could benefit an entire student

population, thus reducing the need for individual student support in the long-term. On the

other hand, if a school or school division is not willing to commit to the program for an

extended period of time, the initial start-up costs would appear to be rather exorbitant.

49

In Alberta, a possible solutions and area for future research, would be to pursue

purchasing and piloting the program through the Alberta Initiative for School

Improvement (AISI) grant. AISI funding supports the improvement of student learning by

encouraging teachers, parents, and the community to work collaboratively to introduce

innovative and creative initiatives based upon local needs and circumstances

(Government of Alberta, 2005). It would be exciting to pursue and implement the IE

program through AISI because Feuerstein’s philosophy fits the funding criteria of

developing relationships, strategies, and practices that provide long-term benefits to

teaching and learning.

From an educational perspective, when teachers are balancing curriculum content,

student abilities (individual differences), and the educational context, meeting the needs

of all learners becomes increasingly difficult. Therefore, implementing an existing

program that promotes academic and intellectual growth would provide educators with a

means of individual program plan (IPP) development to enhance cognitive development.

Assisting students to develop cognitive and metacognitive strategies for learning will

provide the most effecting means of addressing learning problems within the complex,

integrated classrooms of today.

Psychoeducational assessment is currently used within the school context to

produce suggestions for educational remediation, programming and supports. When

educators adjust the nature of student programs in response to assessment information,

student learning improves (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Phillips & Karns, 1995). Since IPPs

are working documents that are constantly modified and changed to match a student’s

progress, and needs, a program like IE could easily be incorporated as one of many

educational supports.

50

The IE program could be implemented within different contexts in schools. For

example, it could be offered as a stand-alone option for students with academic

difficulties as an elective course. IE could also be incorporated into a study-skills

program or an existing resource room/learning assistance classroom. It could also be

implemented school-wide or individually. Funding and training costs for an IE program

could be accessed through the school’s (or school division’s) special education budget

allocation.

The IE program materials are designed so that mere exposure will have a positive

effect on students, with the structure of the program being supported by quality teaching

and mediation. The mediated learning experience (MLE) builds a foundation for

cognitive development and change through interpersonal and focused intervention (Falik,

2000). The interpersonal relationship between student and teacher (or teacher’s aide)

encourages individuals to excel at their own pace. The goal is for “bridging” to occur as

the student learns to generalize what he or she has learned to other situations (Falik,

2000). Ultimately, students change from passive recipients of information to confident,

active learners eager to master increasingly challenging academic tasks.

Interestingly, I noted elements of Feuerstein’s MLE built into the WISC-IV. In

particular, the subtest Information specifically outlines that the examiner should model a

good response if the examinee is unable to produce a correct answer. This embodies the

essence of MLE and the IE program, and provides evidence of the project’s assumption

that IE and the WISC-IV are compatible.

Feuerstein’s MLE theory is an attempt at understanding individual differences in

cognitive development. Both MLE and Instrumental Enrichment (IE) focus on the

formation of the cognitive prerequisites of learning in students. The process of

51

acquisition of learning material requires certain cognitive prerequisites beyond the basic

functions of perception, memory, and attention (Feuerstein et al., 1988). In theory, the

student should be able to detect the problem from the data, select the relevant parameters,

and form a hypothesis in an attempt to solve the problem. The inadequate school

performance of the student can easily stem from an underdevelopment of these

prerequisites rather than poor acquisition of specific rules of operations. Thus, through

using tools (such as the WISC-IV) for identification of the cognitive prerequisites that are

lacking, IE creates a bridge that allows teachers to develop the cognitive deficiencies in a

systematic way.

Another benefit the Feuerstein and his colleagues (1980) note is the rapport that is

created between the teacher-student partnership. As counsellors know, an established

rapport or working alliance fosters an intrinsic motivation to self-improve (Hiebert,

2002). Task-intrinsic motivation promotes life-long learning and the motivation to do

tasks well (Feuerstein et al., 1988).

The proposed map is intended to provide educators and other professionals with a

template for intervention depending on the nature of the cognitive dysfunction. This

could potentially assist educators with programming for students, which in turn will seek

to sharpen critical thinking with concepts, skills, strategies, operations, and techniques

necessary for independent learning. It could also be used as a tool to diagnose and correct

deficiencies in thinking and help students master metacognitive skills that are required to

become life-long learners. Research supports using IE in its’ entirety to improve

academic success and cognitive development (see Table 2), the question now is whether

or not these gains will be made when using IE to address specifically targeted cognitive

52

dysfunctions (as proposed in the case study of Erik). This will be an area for future

research.

53

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