derecho mexicano del medio ambiente

43
DERECHO MEXICANO DEL MEDIO AMBIENTE: LA APLICACIÓN Y PARTICIPACIÓN PÚBLICA DESDE LA FIRMA DE TLC DE COOPERACIÓN AMBIENTAL ACUERDO C HRISTOPHER N. B Ehre * Tabla de contenidos I. INTRODUCCIÓN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 II. ANTECEDENTES DE DE MÉXICO La legislación ambiental. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 A. Una historia de la centralización. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 B. Inversión Extranjera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 C. Respuestas del Medio Ambiente. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 III. EJEMPLOS DE DE MÉXICO Cumplimiento Ambiental. . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 A. La financiación inadecuada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 B. las diferentes tradiciones legales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 C. Tendencias de la ejecución y la participación del público. . . . . 340 IV. CONLUSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 I. I NTRODUCCIÓN Con las negociaciones relacionadas con el Área de Libre Comercio de las Américas ("ALCA") en furia, el debate sobre cuál es el adecuado relación entre comercio internacional y medio ambiente

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TRANSCRIPT

DERECHO MEXICANO DEL MEDIO AMBIENTE: LA APLICACIN

AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION SINCE THE SIGNING Y PARTICIPACIN PBLICA DESDE LA FIRMA

OF NAFTA'S ENVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION DE TLC DE COOPERACIN AMBIENTAL

AGREEMENT ACUERDO

C C

HRISTOPHER HRISTOPHER

N. B N. B

EHRE Ehre

* *

Table of Contents Tabla de contenidos

I. I.

INTRODUCTION . INTRODUCCIN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 327

II. II.

BACKGROUND OF MEXICOS ANTECEDENTES DE DE MXICO

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION . La legislacin ambiental. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 328

A. A History of Centralization . A. Una historia de la centralizacin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 329

B. Foreign Investment . B. Inversin Extranjera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 330

C. Environmental Responses . C. Respuestas del Medio Ambiente. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 332

III. III. EXAMPLES OF MEXICOS EJEMPLOS DE DE MXICO

ENVIRONMENTAL ENFORCEMENT . Cumplimiento Ambiental. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 336

A. Inadequate Funding . A. La financiacin inadecuada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 338

B. Differing Legal Traditions . B. las diferentes tradiciones legales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 339

C. Enforcement Trends and Public Participation . C. Tendencias de la ejecucin y la participacin del pblico. . . . . . . . . 340 340

IV. IV. CONLUSION . CONLUSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 343

I. I I. I

NTRODUCTION NTRODUCCIN

With the negotiations surrounding the Free Trade Area of the Con las negociaciones relacionadas con el rea de Libre Comercio de las

Americas (FTAA) raging, the debate over what is the proper Amricas ("ALCA") en furia, el debate sobre cul es el adecuado

relationship between international trade and environmental relacin entre comercio internacional y medio ambiente

protection that colored the NAFTA negotiations a decade ago is proteccin que color las negociaciones del TLCAN hace una dcada es

being rekindled. se reaviv.

1 1

This is a manifestation of globalization trends, Esta es una manifestacin de las tendencias de la globalizacin,

which, if defined as the growing interdependence between peoples que, si se define como la creciente interdependencia entre los pueblos

across national borders, have provided opportunities for travs de las fronteras nacionales, han permitido a los

international cooperative efforts to address common challenges. esfuerzos de cooperacin internacional para abordar retos comunes.

Notably, experimentation with the regional side agreements that Sobre todo, la experimentacin con los acuerdos paralelos regional que

made NAFTA possible concerning labor rights and environmental hicieron del TLCAN posible de los derechos laborales y ambientales

protection,haswidened the potential for proliferating human rights proteccin, haswidened el potencial para la proliferacin de los derechos humanos

Page 2 Pgina 2

328 328

J.TRANSNATIONAL LAW & POLICY J. TRANSNACIONAL Ley y poltica

[Vol. [Vol. 12:2 12:02

2. 2. Phillip Berkowitz & Eduardo Ramos Gomez, Recent Developments in Mexico A Labor Phillip Berkowitz y Eduardo Ramos Gmez, los acontecimientos recientes en Mxico un trabajo

and Employment Law Perspective , 31 I y la perspectiva de Derecho del Trabajo, de 31 aos que

NT NT

' "

L L

L. N L. N

EWS EWS

12 (2001). 12 (2001).

3. Id. 3. Id.

4. Id. 4. Id.

5. 5. Francisco S. Nogales, The NAFTA EnvironmentalFramework, Chapter 11 Investment Francisco S. Nogales, El EnvironmentalFramework TLCAN, el captulo 11 de Inversin

Provisions, and The Environment , 8 A Disposiciones, y Medio Ambiente, 8 A

NN NN

. . S S

URV URV

. . I Yo

NT NT

' "

L L

& C Y C

OMP OMP

. . L. 97, 104-06 (2002). L. 97, 104-06 (2002).

along side of liberalized trade in less industrialized countries such junto a la liberalizacin del comercio en los pases menos industrializados,

as Mexico. como Mxico.

A recent article in the AmericanBarAssociation's International Un artculo reciente en el Internacional de AmericanBarAssociation

Law News noted the successes and challenges remaining within Ley de Noticias tom nota de los xitos y retos pendientes en

Mexico's labor and employment laws since the signing of NAFTA. Laboral de Mxico y las leyes de empleo desde la firma del TLCAN.

2 2

The article reports that recent legislation is improving labor- El artculo seala que la reciente legislacin es mejorar la mano de obra

management relations and wage rates are on the rise. relaciones entre la direccin y los salarios estn aumentando.

3 3

However, Sin embargo,

concerns about freedom of association have been raised by non- preocupacin sobre la libertad de asociacin se han planteado por los no

governmentallaborrights organizations and labor unions who have governmentallaborrights organizaciones y sindicatos que han

submitted their grievances beyond national government resources presentaron sus quejas ms all de los recursos del gobierno nacional

to the labor institution created by the North American Agreement a la institucin de trabajo creado por el Tratado de

on Labor Cooperation. de Cooperacin Laboral.

4 4

A parallel institution for environmental Una institucin paralela para el medio ambiente

cooperation exists which was created by the North American cooperacin existe, que fue creado por el norteamericano

Agreement for Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC). Acuerdo para la Cooperacin Ambiental ("ACAAN"). This Este

institution, called the Commission for Environmental Cooperation la institucin, la Comisin para la Cooperacin Ambiental

(CEC), accepts submissionsfrom anycitizen or non-governmental ("CCA"), acepta submissionsfrom anycitizen o no gubernamentales

organization that resides in one of the parties to NAFTA which organizacin que se encuentra en una de las partes en el TLCAN, que

petition the CEC to investigate and publish a factual record of peticin a la CCA a investigar y publicar un expediente de hechos de

alleged failures by a member state to enforce its environmental presunto incumplimiento por un Estado miembro para hacer valer su medio ambiente

laws. las leyes.

5 5

Because the CEC has accepted numerous submissions Debido a que la CCA ha aceptado numerosas comunicaciones

concerning Mexico's environmental protection record, like the ABA sobre registro de proteccin del medio ambiente de Mxico, al igual que el ABA

article on Mexico's labor laws, this article outlines Mexicos artculo sobre las leyes laborales de Mxico, este artculo describe de Mxico

successes and its remaining challenges in the realm of the xitos y sus desafos pendientes en el mbito de la

environment. el medio ambiente. Unlike the ABA article, the author will take a more A diferencia de la ABA artculo, el autor deber adoptar un enfoque ms

historically comprehensive and comparative approach to outlining enfoque de la historia completa y comparativa de esbozar

the trends in Mexico's promulgation and enforcement of its las tendencias de la promulgacin de Mxico y el cumplimiento de sus

environmental laws. las leyes ambientales. Throughout this article particular attention A lo largo de esta atencin particular, su artculo

is paid to the role of the public and its potential to influence these atencin a la funcin de la opinin pblica y su potencial para influir en estas

critical aspects of environmental regulation at the grass roots level. los aspectos crticos de la regulacin ambiental en el nivel de base.

II. II. B B

ACKGROUND OF ANTECEDENTES DE LA

M M

EXICO XICO

' "

S S

E E

NVIRONMENTAL AMBIENTAL

L L

EGISLATION LEGISLACIN

Before one can engage in a serious comparison between two Antes de poder realizar una comparacin seria entre dos

legal regimes such as United States and Mexican environmental regmenes jurdicos, tales como Estados Unidos y del medio ambiente mexicano

laws, a couple of preliminary contrasts must be made. leyes, un par de contrastes preliminar debe ser hecho. Although Aunque

both countries' constitutions provide for federal structure of las constituciones de ambos pases para proporcionar la estructura federal de

government, each has approached its concept of federalism gobierno, cada uno se ha acercado a su concepto de federalismo

differently over the centuries. diferente a lo largo de los siglos. Notably, if one defines federalism by Cabe destacar que, si se define por el federalismo

Page 3 Pgina 3

Spring, 2003] Primavera de 2003]

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS DESARROLLOS RECIENTES

329 329

6. See Jos Ma. 6. Vase Jos Ma. Serna de la Garza, Constitutional Federalism in Latin America, 30 C Serna de la Garza, federalismo constitucional en Amrica Latina, 30 C

AL AL

. .

W. I W. I

NT NT

' "

L L

LJ 277, 287 (2000) (contrasting the Mexican Constitution's use of the word LJ 277, 287 (2000) (en contraste el uso de la Constitucin mexicana de la palabra

expressly in defining federal legislative jurisdiction with the absence of the word in the "Expresamente" en la definicin de la competencia legislativa federal con la ausencia de la palabra en el

Tenth Amendment of the United States Constitution). Dcima Enmienda de la Constitucin de los Estados Unidos).

7. Id. at 289. 7. Id. En el 289.

8. 8. J J

AMES AMES

E. H E. H

ERGET ERGET

& J & J

ORGE ORGE

C C

AMIL AMIL

, A , A

N N

I Yo

NTRODUCTION TO THE INTRODUCCIN A LA

M M

EXICAN EXICAN

L L

EGAL EGAL

S S

YSTEM SISTEMA

4 (1978). 4 (1978).

9. Id. 9. Id.

10. Id. at 5. 10. Id. A 5.

11. 11. F F

RANCISCO Rancisco

A A

VALOS Valos

, T , T

HE HE

M M

EXICAN EXICAN

L L

EGAL EGAL

S S

YSTEM SISTEMA

2-3 (1992). 2-3 (1992).

12. Id. at 3-4. 12. Id. A 4.3.

how rigidly a nation's governmental powers are bifurcated into cmo rgidamente los poderes gubernamentales de una nacin se bifurca en

State and federalspheres, Mexico's governmental structure is more Estado y federalspheres, estructura de gobierno de Mxico es ms

federal than the United States. federal de los Estados Unidos. According to Article 117 and 124 of De acuerdo con el artculo 117 y 124 del

Mexico'sConstitution, all powersnot expressly attributed to federal Mexico'sConstitution, todos powersnot expresamente atribuidas a federal

authorities and not prohibited from the States are reserved to the autoridades y que no est prohibido de los Estados se reservan a los

States. Estados.

6 6

This rigid system for the division of powers allows no room Este sistema rgido de divisin de poderes no deja espacio

for concurrent powers (ie a State's ability to occupy a field de facultades concurrentes (es decir, la capacidad del Estado para "ocupar" un campo

delegated to the federation) but does allow for cooperation or delegado a la federacin), pero que permiten la cooperacin o

coordination in the design and implementation of public policy. la coordinacin en el diseo e implementacin de polticas pblicas.

7 7

A. A History of Centralization A. Una historia de la centralizacin

The history of Mexico's Constitution shows a tendency towards La historia de la Constitucin de Mxico muestra una tendencia a la

centralization.This centralization has determined whether State or centralizacin centralization.This ha determinado si el Estado o

federal actors have primary jurisdiction over environmental los agentes federales tienen jurisdiccin primaria sobre el medio ambiente

protection. proteccin. Much like England's colonial structure in early North Al igual que la estructura colonial de Inglaterra a principios del Norte

America impacted the United States' constitutional evolution, the Amrica del afectado la evolucin de los Estados Unidos constitucional, el

Spanish colonial structure in Mexico during the 16th Century had La estructura colonial espaola en Mxico durante el siglo 16 haba

profound repercussions on Mexico's constitutional evolution. una profunda repercusin en la evolucin constitucional de Mxico.

8 8

The La

English colonies were established separately over time for varying Ingls colonias se establecieron por separado en el tiempo para variar

reasons the pursuit of business enterprises, the avoidance of razones de la persecucin de las empresas, la evitacin de

religious persecution, etc. persecucin religiosa, etc

9 9

As a result, the English colonies were Como resultado, las colonias de Ingls se

underno central royal authority comparableto the Spanish Viceroy. underno central de la autoridad real comparableto el virrey espaol.

This centralized Spanish authority assisted the conquistadors in Esta autoridad espaola centralizada la asistencia a los conquistadores en

their common goals of gold and heathen conversion. sus objetivos comunes de oro y la conversin de "paganos".

10 10

Although Mexico achieved independence from Spain in the early Pese a que Mxico se independiz de Espaa en los primeros

19th Century, an independence movement would linger for two Siglo 19, un movimiento de independencia se retrasara por dos

more generations as it strove to overcome the de facto rulers of ms generaciones que se esforzaron para superar a los gobernantes de facto de

Mexico, the centralized military and clergy. Mxico, el ejrcito centralizado y el clero.

11 11

Even then, as liberal Incluso entonces, como liberal

proponents ascended to power and drafted the 1857 Constitution, proponentes ascendi al poder y redact la Constitucin de 1857,

civil liberties and anti-clerical clauses in the Constitution were not las libertades civiles y las clusulas anticlericales en la Constitucin no se

enforced until the 1910 Mexican revolution, which resulted in the vigencia hasta la revolucin mexicana de 1910, que dio lugar a la

1917 Constitution of the United Mexican States that is still in force 1917 Constitucin de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, que an est en vigor

today. hoy en da.

12 12

Despite the long history of centralization, the 1917Constitution A pesar de la larga historia de centralizacin, la 1917Constitution

codified powers retained by state and local authorities, which can poderes codificado retenidos por las autoridades estatales y locales, que pueden

Page 4 Pgina 4

330 330

J.TRANSNATIONAL LAW & POLICY J. TRANSNACIONAL Ley y poltica

[Vol. [Vol. 12:2 12:02

13. 13. Francisco Avalos, The Legal Personality of the Colonial Period of Mexico, 83 L Francisco Avalos, la personalidad jurdica de la poca colonial de Mxico, L 83

AW AW

L L

IBR IBR

. .

J. 393, 395 (1991) ( quoting J. O J. 393, 395 (1991) (citando a J. O

TS TS

C C

APDEQUI APDEQUI

, I , I

NSTITUCIONES NSTITUCIONES

231 (1959) ( quoting Reales 231 (1959) (citando a Reales

Cdulas y Ordenes, tomo VII, folios 468-69, 836-41)). Cdulas y rdenes, tomo VII, folios 468-69, 836-41)).

14. 14. Constitucin Poltica de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, [C Constitucin Poltica de los estados unidos Mexicanos, [C

ONST ONST

. . 1917] [Constitution] 1917] [Constitucin]

art. arte. 40 (Mex.) (as amended), translated in O 40 (Mex.) (modificada), traducido en O

RGANIZATION OF ORGANIZACIN DE

A A

MERICAN MERICANA

S S

TATES ESTADOS

, ,

C C

ONSTITUTION OF THE ONSTITUCIN DE LA

U U

NITED NIDOS

M M

EXICAN EXICAN

S S

TATES ESTADOS

(1964). (1964).

15. See Robert Bejesky, An Analytical Appraisal of Public Choice Value Shifts for 15. Vase Robert Bejesky, una evaluacin analtica de Eleccin Pblica Cambios Relacin

Environmental Protection in the United States & Mexico , 11 I De Proteccin Ambiental de los Estados Unidos y Mxico, 11 I

ND ND

. . I Yo

NT NT

' "

L L

& C Y C

OMP OMP

. . L. R L. R

EV EV

. . 251, 251,

279 (2001). 279 (2001).

16. 16. James F. Smith, Confronting Differences in the United States and Mexican Legal James F. Smith, Frente diferencias en los Estados Unidos y Mxico Legal

Systems in the Era of NAFTA, 1 US-M Sistemas en la era del TLCAN, Estados Unidos 1-M

EX EX

. . LJ 85, 89 (1993). LJ 85, 89 (1993).

17. 17. P P

RICE ARROZ

W W

ATERHOUSE ATERHOUSE

, D , D

OING Oing

B B

USINESS IN EMPRESARIALES EN

M M

EXICO XICO

49-50 (1991). 49-50 (1991).

18. Id. at 1. 18. Id. A 1.

trace their roots back to the relationship between the Spanish remontan sus races a la relacin entre los espaoles

crown and the indigenous Aztec legal system. la corona y el sistema legal indgena azteca. As early as 1530, the Ya en 1530, el

centralized Spanish crown had given up on applying uniform laws centralizado de la Corona espaola haba renunciado a la aplicacin de las leyes uniformes

to all of its colonial possessions. a todas sus posesiones coloniales. Such tolerance of local customs Esta tolerancia de las costumbres locales

was reflected in the concept of derecho indiano , which accorded se refleja en el concepto de Derecho indiano, que otorga

respect for indigenous law wherever such laws did not directly respeto del derecho indgena donde tales leyes no directamente

conflict with Catholicism or the basic principles of the Spanish conflicto con el catolicismo o los "principios bsicos de los espaoles

people. personas. "

13 13

This system of concordant authority survives in Title 2, Este sistema de autoridad concordantes sobrevive en el Ttulo 2,

Chapter 1, Article 40 of the 1917 Constitution, which ensures a Captulo 1, Artculo 40 de la Constitucin de 1917, lo que asegura una

federal, democratic, representative Republic composed of free and "Federal, democrtico, representativo Repblica, integrada por libre y

sovereign States. Estados soberanos. "

14 14

Much like in the United States, the latter half of the 20th Al igual que en los Estados Unidos, la segunda mitad del siglo 20

Century saw the erosion of state's rights as the centralized federal Siglo se produjo la erosin de los derechos del estado como el federal centralizada

government expanded its jurisdiction. Gobierno ampli su jurisdiccin.

15 15

This could be seen in the Esto podra ser visto en el

dominance of the executive branch of the Mexican federal predominio de la rama ejecutiva del federal mexicano

government, constitutional amendments, and the institution of gobierno, las enmiendas constitucionales, y la institucin de

several federal models for state legislation. varios modelos federales de la legislacin estatal.

16 16

In the face of such A la vista de tales

erosion, Mexican State legislatures have retained exclusive rights la erosin, las legislaturas Estado mexicano han mantenido los derechos exclusivos

to certain environmentally hazardous industries, which they have a ciertas industrias peligrosas para el medioambiente, que han

used to protect their environments from foreign investors. utilizado para proteger su medio ambiente de los inversores extranjeros. Such Tal

activities exclusivelyreserved tothe Mexican States include oiland actividades enel exclusivelyreserved los Estados Unidos Mexicanos incluyen oiland

other hydrocarbons, basic petrochemicals, electricity, generation of otros hidrocarburos, petroqumica bsica, electricidad, generacin de

nuclear energy, and radioactive materials. la energa nuclear y material radiactivo.

17 17

B. Foreign Investment B. Inversin Extranjera

During the mid-1990s, Mexico was praised by prospective A mediados de la dcada de 1990, Mxico fue elogiado por los posibles

investors as having foreign investment rules that have been los inversionistas que tienen reglas de inversin extranjera que han sido

considerably liberalized, strong government efforts to reduce liberalizado considerablemente, "los grandes esfuerzos del gobierno para reducir

inflation, a continuing trend to reprivatize government-owned la inflacin, una tendencia continua a reprivatizar propiedad del gobierno

enterprises, a low-cost, easily trainable workforce, and a generally las empresas, de bajo costo, mano de obra fcilmente entrenable, y en general un

mild climate. clima templado ".

18 18

This attractive climate for trade and foreign direct Este clima atractivo para el comercio y la inversin extranjera

investment (FDI) was notalways so inviting. de inversin ("IED") se notalways tan atractivo. From the formation De la formacin

of the 1917 Constitution until the 1970s, foreign investment was de la Constitucin de 1917 hasta la dcada de 1970, la inversin extranjera se

Page 5 Pgina 5

Spring, 2003] Primavera de 2003]

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS DESARROLLOS RECIENTES

331 331

19. 19. Jorge Camilet. Jorge Camilet. al., Restrictions on Foreign Investment , in A al., restricciones a la inversin extranjera, en un

N N

I Yo

NTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCCIN A LA

D D

OING Oing

B B

USINESS IN EMPRESARIALES EN

M M

EXICO XICO

45, 46 (William E. Mooz, Jr. ed., 1995). 45, 46 (William E. Mooz, Jr. ed., 1995).

20. Id. at 47. 20. Id. A los 47.

21. 21. J. Hayden Kepner, Jr., Mexico's New Foreign Investment Regulations A Legal J. Hayden Kepner, Jr., de Nuevo Mxico Reglamento de Inversin Extranjera A Legal

Analysis , 18 S Anlisis, el 18 S

YRACUSE YRACUSE

J. I J. I

NT NT

' "

L L

L. & C L. & C

OM OM

. . 41, 44 (1992). 41, 44 (1992).

22. Id. at 45. 22. Id. A 45.

23. 23. Camil, supra note 19, at 47. Camil, supra nota 19, en el 47.

24. 24. Kepner, supra note 21, at 47. Kepner, supra nota 21, a las 47.

25. Id. 25. Id.

26. 26. Camil, supra note 19, at 47. Camil, supra nota 19, en el 47.

27. Id . 27. Id.

28. Id. at 47-48. 28. Id. En 47-48.

29. 29. North American Free Trade Agreement, Dec. 17, 1992, Can.-Mex.-US, 32 ILM 289 Acuerdo Norteamericano de Libre Comercio, 17 de diciembre de 1992, Can.-Mex.-Estados Unidos, 32 ILM 289

(entered into force Jan. 1, 1993). (Entr en vigor el 1 de enero 1993).

30. 30. Camil, supra note 19, at 49. Camil, supra nota 19, en el 49.

31. 31. Claudia Schatan, The Environmental Impact of Mexican Manufacturing Exports Claudia Schatan, el impacto ambiental de las exportaciones manufactureras mexicanas

Under NAFTA , in G Bajo el TLCAN, en G

REENING REENING

NAFTA TLCAN

T T

HE HE

N N

ORTH NORTE

A A

MERICAN MERICANA

A A

GREEMENT CUERDO

O O

N N

E E

NVIRONMENTAL AMBIENTAL

C C

OOPERATION COOPERACIN

(David Markell & John Knox eds., forthcoming July 2003) (David Markell y John Knox eds., De prxima aparicin julio de 2003)

severely restricted and investment in some activities was closed severamente restringida y la inversin en algunas actividades se cerr

outright. por completo.

19 19

The 1973 Foreign Investment Law (FIL) set forth a La Ley 1973 de Inversiones Extranjeras ("FIL") establecen un

principle that foreign investment could not exceed 49% of any principio de que la inversin extranjera no puede superar el 49% de los

business venture within Mexico with special exceptions only rarely negocio de riesgo dentro de Mxico con excepciones especiales slo en raras ocasiones

granted and difficult to obtain. concedido y difcil de obtener.

20 20

The 1973 FIL set up the Foreign La FIL 1973 cre el Exterior

Investment Commission (FIC) from which all potential investors Comisin de Inversiones ("CIE") de la que todos los inversores potenciales

had to receive approval. tuvo que recibir la aprobacin.

21 21

It exercised this discretionary authority Ejerci este poder discrecional

in line with the nationalistic xenophobic philosophy of the time and en lnea con la filosofa nacionalista xenfoba de la poca y

thus permitted very few foreign investors. por lo tanto permita a los inversionistas extranjeros muy pocos.

22 22

Throughoutthe presidential term of Miguel de la Madrid (1982- Throughoutthe mandato presidencial de Miguel de la Madrid (1982 -

1988), Mexico experienced a mild reversal of the governments 1988), Mxico experiment un cambio leve de la del gobierno

attitude toward foreign investment as a reaction to worldwide actitud hacia la inversin extranjera como una reaccin a todo el mundo

recession and the withdrawal of foreign loans. la recesin y la retirada de los prstamos extranjeros.

23 23

As President he Como Presidente,

passed the Guidelines on Foreign Investment and Proposals for its aprob las Directrices sobre Inversin Extranjera y propuestas para su

Promotion in 1984, which turned Mexico's formerly defensive Promocin en el ao 1984, que se convirti antes de Mxico defensiva

policies to active promotion of foreign investment alternatives in polticas para la promocin activa de "alternativas de inversin extranjera" en

order to meet the new national development priorities. para responder a las nuevas prioridades nacionales de desarrollo.

24 24

The FIC El FIC

fell into line with the new attitude approving 93% of all requests for cay en lnea con la nueva actitud que se aprueba el 93% de todas las solicitudes de

majority foreign ownership presented to it from 1982 to 1988. la propiedad extranjera mayoritaria que le han presentado desde 1982 hasta 1988.

25 25

This new attitude toward foreign investment was further Esta nueva actitud hacia la inversin extranjera fue ms

solidified with the election of President Carlos Salinas de Gortari. solidificado con la eleccin del presidente Carlos Salinas de Gortari.

26 26

President Salinas' 1989Regulations greatlyliberalized restrictions 1989Regulations presidente Salinas greatlyliberalized restricciones

on foreign investment but were still limited by the 1973 FIL. a la inversin extranjera, pero era an limitada por la FIL 1973.

27 27

However, in 1993 the 1973 FIL gave way to a new FIL that shifted Sin embargo, en 1993, la FIL 1973 dio paso a una nueva FIL que cambi

presumptions to accepting foreign investment unless the FIL presunciones para aceptar la inversin extranjera a menos que la FIL

expressly provided otherwise. disponga expresamente otra cosa.

28 28

Mexico's signing of the NAFTA, La firma de Mxico en el TLCAN,

29 29

which went into force on January 1, 1993, committed Mexico to que entr en vigor el 1 de enero de 1993, compromete a Mxico

phaseout many of the remaining restrictions onforeign investment eliminacin de muchas de las restricciones remanentes onforeign inversin

over a fifteen-year period. durante un perodo de quince aos.

30 30

Annual flows of foreign investment Los flujos anuales de inversin extranjera

have doubled between the first and second half of the 1990s. se han duplicado entre la primera y segunda mitad de la dcada de 1990.

31 31

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332 332

J.TRANSNATIONAL LAW & POLICY J. TRANSNACIONAL Ley y poltica

[Vol. [Vol. 12:2 12:02

(manuscript at 219, on file with author). (Manuscrito en 219, en poder del autor).

32. 32. Bejesky, supra note 15, at 274 (relying on investigations done by environmentalists Bejesky, supra nota 15, en 274 (basndose en investigaciones realizadas por los ecologistas

who interviewed public leaders, businesses and, white and blue collar workers). que entrevist a los lderes pblicos, las empresas y los trabajadores de cuello blanco y azul).

33. 33. Douglas W. Alexander & L. Roberto Fernandez R., Environmental Regulation of Douglas W. Alexander y Roberto Fernndez R. L., de Regulacin Ambiental

Business in Mexico , in A Negocios en Mxico, en un

N N

I Yo

NTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCCIN A LA

D D

OING Oing

B B

USINESS IN EMPRESARIALES EN

M M

EXICO XICO

233-34 (William E. 233-34 (William E.

Mooz, Jr., ed., 1995). Mooz, Jr., ed., 1995).

34. Id. at 234-35. 34. Id. En 234-35.

35. 35. Anne Rowely, Mexico's Legal System of Environmental Protection , 24 E Anne Rowely, de Rgimen Jurdico de Mxico de Proteccin del Medio Ambiente, 24 E

NVTL NVTL

L. R L. R

EP EP

. .

10,431, 10,448 (1994). 10.431, 10.448 (1994).

36. Id. at n.12. 36. Id. En n.12.

37. Id . 37. Id. at 10,432. a 10.432.

38. 38. Alexander & Fernandez, supra note 33, at 235 (SEDESOL stands for the Secretaria Alexander y Fernndez, supra nota 33, en 235 (SEDESOL representa la Secretaria

de Desarrollo Social or the Ministry of Social Development). de Desarrollo Social o el Ministerio de Desarrollo Social).

These political and legal changes reflected a public willingness to Estos cambios polticos y jurdicos refleja la voluntad del pblico para

suffer the inevitableenvironmentaldeterioration that follows rapid sufren las inevitableenvironmentaldeterioration que sigue un rpido

industrializationin order to counter povertyand rampant financial industrializationin a fin de contrarrestar povertyand rampante financiera

crisis. crisis.

32 32

C. Environmental Responses C. Medio Ambiente Respuestas

In response to the environmental problems inherent in En respuesta a los problemas ambientales inherentes a

industrial growth and trade liberalization, Mexico adopted the el crecimiento industrial y la liberalizacin comercial, Mxico adopt el

General Law on Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection, Ley General del Equilibrio Ecolgico y Proteccin al Ambiente,

which took effect March 1, 1988 (the Ecology Law). que entr en vigor 1 de marzo 1988 (la Ley de Ecologa).

33 33

The Ecology La Ecologa

law was followed by numerous regulations later that year: la ley fue seguido por numerosas regulaciones finales de ese ao:

Environmental Impact Regulations (June 8, 1988), the "Reglamento de Impacto Ambiental" (8 de junio de 1988), "la

Atmospheric Pollution Regulations (November 26, 1988), and the Reglamento de la Contaminacin Atmosfrica "(26 de noviembre de 1988), y" la

Hazardous Waste Regulations (November 26, 1988). Reglamento de Residuos Peligrosos "(26 de noviembre de 1988).

34 34

In 1994, Anne Rowley, a staff attorney in the International En 1994, Anne Rowley, un abogado de la Internacional

Activities Division of the United States Environmental Protection Actividades de la Divisin de Proteccin Ambiental de Estados Unidos

Agency (EPA) Office of General Counsel noted that in only six Agency ("EPA") Oficina del Abogado General seal que "en slo seis

years Mexico has established the foundation of a credible legal aos, Mxico ha establecido los cimientos de una credibilidad jurdica

framework to control environmental contamination. marco para el control de la contaminacin ambiental ".

35 35

Many Muchos

UnitedStates environmentalstatutes are media specific such as the Environmentalstatutes ESTADOSUNIDOS son los medios de comunicacin especficos, como el

Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act and the Resource Conservation Ley de Agua Limpia, la Ley de Aire Limpio y la Conservacin de los Recursos

and Reclamation Act. y de Recuperacin de ley. They were generally developed individually Que se desarrollaron en general de forma individual

and in response to specific crises. y en respuesta a crisis concretas. Mexico's Ecology Law, however, Ley de Ecologa de Mxico, sin embargo,

has a broad reach contained in one comprehensive law. tiene un alcance amplio contenido en una ley integral.

36 36

Furthermore, Mexico's legislature was able to enact such a Adems, la legislatura de Mxico fue capaz de promulgar una

comprehensive legal framework in a short amount of time because marco jurdico global en un corto perodo de tiempo, porque

Mexican law derives expressly from the 1917 Mexican La ley mexicana se deriva expresamente del mexicano 1917

Constitution. Constitucin.

37 37

At the top of the framework provided by the Ecology Law, sits En la parte superior del marco establecido por la Ley de Ecologa, se sienta

the Ministry of Social Development (SEDESOL), the executive el Ministerio de Desarrollo Social ("SEDESOL"), el ejecutivo

agency entrusted to administer the Ecology Law. organismo encargado de administrar la Ley de Ecologa.

38 38

It issues Emite

ecological Technical Standards which, as defined by the Ecology normas tcnicas ecolgicas que, tal como se define por la Ecologa

Law, set forth the requirements, specifications, conditions, Ley, establece los requisitos ", las especificaciones, condiciones,

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RECENT DEVELOPMENTS DESARROLLOS RECIENTES

333 333

39. Id. at 235-36. 39. Id. En 235-36.

40. Id. ; see also Michael Robins, Comment The North American Free Trade Agreement: 40 Id, vase tambin Michael Robins, comenta el Acuerdo de Libre Comercio de Amrica del Norte..:

The Integration of Free Trade and the Environment , 7 T La integracin de Libre Comercio y Medio Ambiente, 7 T

EMPLE Emple

I Yo

NT NT

' "

L L

. . LJ 123, 129 (1993) LJ 123, 129 (1993)

(stating that harmonization of Technical Standards are common in trade liberalizing (Donde se afirma que la armonizacin de normas tcnicas comunes en la liberalizacin del comercio

agreements). acuerdos).

41. 41. Rowely, supra note 35, at 10,433 ( citing Federal Law on Measurement and Rowely, supra nota 35, en 10 433 (citando la Ley Federal sobre Metrologa y

Standardization, in Diario Oficial de la Federacin , July 1, 1992, at 48-66). Normalizacin, en el Diario Oficial de la Federacin, 1 de julio de 1992, a 48-66).

42. Id . 42. Id. ( citing Exec. Order No. 12,291, 46 Fed. Reg. 13,193 (Feb. 19, 1981)). (Citando Exec. Ordenanza N 12.291, de 46 aos la Reserva Federal. Reg. 13,193 (19 de febrero de 1981)).

43. Id . 43. Id. at n.23. en el n 23.

44. 44. Alexander & Fernandez, supra note 33, at 237. Alexander y Fernndez, supra nota 33, en el 237.

45. 45. 42 USC 4321, et seq. (2000). 42 USC 4321, et seq. (2000).

46. 46. Rowely, supra note 35, at 10,436 ( citing a portion of the National Environmental Rowely, supra nota 35, en 10 436 (citando a una parte de la Nacional del Medio Ambiente

Protection Act, 42 USC 4332(C)). Ley de Proteccin, 42 USC 4332 (C)).

47. 47. J J

AMES AMES

E. H E. H

ERGET ERGET

& J & J

ORGE ORGE

C C

AMIL AMIL

, A , A

N N

I Yo

NTRODUCTION TO THE INTRODUCCIN A LA

M M

EXICAN EXICAN

L L

EGAL EGAL

S S

YSTEM SISTEMA

72 (William S. Hein ed., 1978). 72 (William S. Hein ed., 1978).

procedures, parameters, and permissible limits that must be procedimientos, parmetros y lmites permisibles que deben ser

observedwhere activitiescauseor may cause ecological imbalance, observado ", donde activitiescauseor puedan causar desequilibrios ecolgicos,

or harm the environment. o daar el medio ambiente.

39 39

NAFTA directives for the harmonization of member states TLCAN directrices para la armonizacin de los estado miembro

environmental laws make it likely that Mexico will develop a body leyes ambientales hacen que "es probable que Mxico se desarrolle un cuerpo

of Technical Standards comparable in scope to those issued by the de Normas Tcnicas comparable en su alcance "a los emitidos por el

EPA. EPA.

40 40

During the mid-1990s, Mexico intended to complete and A mediados de la dcada de 1990, Mxico tena la intencin de completar y

promulgate 71 new technical norms. 71 promulgar normas tcnicas nuevas. This was touted a very Este fue un muy promocionado "

ambitious goal due to the Federal Law on Measurements and meta ambiciosa ", debido a la Ley Federal sobre Metrologa y

Standardization enacted in 1993, which required proposed norms Normalizacin promulgada en 1993, lo que requiere normas propuestas

to achieve desired goals at the highest netbenefit feasibleto society para alcanzar las metas deseadas en el ms alto NetBenefit sociedad feasibleto

feasible. factible.

41 41

Althoughcapable of hindering environmental legislation, Althoughcapable de obstaculizar la legislacin ambiental,

this requirement does not appear to be as rigid as the cost-benefit este requisito no parece ser tan rgido como el costo-beneficio

analysis requirements of Executive Order 12291 for United States anlisis de requisitos de la Orden Ejecutiva 12291 de los Estados Unidos

regulatory initiatives. las iniciativas legislativas.

42 42

This executive order requires all United Esta orden ejecutiva requiere que todos las

States Federal agencies take no regulatory action unless theychose Estados agencias federales tomar ninguna medida reglamentaria, a menos theychose

the regulatory alternative involving the least cost to society with la alternativa reglamentaria "que implica el menor costo para la sociedad", con

objectives that will maximize net benefits to society. objetivos que van a "maximizar los beneficios netos para la sociedad."

43 43

Beyond issuing technical standards, SEDESOL also has the Ms all de la emisin de normas tcnicas, la SEDESOL tambin tiene el

importanttask of EnvironmentalImpact Evaluation. importanttask de Evaluacin EnvironmentalImpact. Under Article En virtud del artculo

28 of the Ecology Law, all works or actions that may either 1) cause 28 de la Ley de Ecologa, todas las obras o acciones que, o bien puede: 1) la causa

ecological imbalance or 2) exceed the limits and conditions of desequilibrio ecolgico o 2) excede los lmites y condiciones de

environmental regulations or technical standards, cannot be las regulaciones ambientales o las normas tcnicas, "no puede ser

carried out without preparation of an environmental impact llevado a cabo sin la preparacin de un impacto ambiental

statement environmental impact statements and prior declaraciones de impacto ambiental y antes de

authorization from the corresponding federal, state or local la autorizacin de la correspondiente federal, estatal o local

environmental agencies. agencias de medio ambiente. "

44 44

Under the United States National Del Programa Nacional de Estados Unidos

Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) Environmental Policy Act de 1969 ("NEPA")

45 45

and its implementing y su implementacin

regulations, EISs are required to be prepared only for major reglamentos, EIS deben estar preparados slo para la "gran

Federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human Acciones federales que afecten significativamente la calidad de los recursos humanos

environment. medio ambiente ".

46 46

Since Mexico has a greater amount of nationalized Dado que Mxico tiene una mayor cantidad de nacionalizados

industries that function as federal entities las industrias que funcionan como entidades federales

47 47

and EISs are required EIS y se requieren

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[Vol. [Vol. 12:2 12:02

48. 48. Alexander & Fernandez, supra note 33, at 237. Alexander y Fernndez, supra nota 33, en el 237.

49. 49. Rowely, supra note 35, at 10,436 Rowely, supra nota 35, a 10.436

50. Id. 50. Id.

51. 51. Joseph E. Sinnott, The Classic Civil/Common Law Dichotomy and its Effect on the Joseph E. Sinnott, la dicotoma Derecho Clsico Civil / comunes y sus efectos sobre la

Functional Equivalence of the Contemporary Environmental Law Enforcement Mechanisms La equivalencia funcional de los mecanismos contemporneos de Derecho Ambiental de Aplicacin

of the United States and Mexico , 8 D de los Estados Unidos y Mxico, 8 D

ICK ICK

. . J. E J. E

NVTL NVTL

. . L. & P L. & P

OL OL

' "

Y Y

273, 285-86 (1999). 273, 285-86 (1999).

52. 52. Alexander & Fernandez, supra note 33, at 236-37. Alexander y Fernndez, supra nota 33, en 236-37.

53. Id. 53. Id.

54. Id. 54. Id.

55. Id. at 239-41. 55. Id. En 239-41.

in Mexico for all activities with potential environmental impact, en Mxico para todas las actividades con impacto ambiental potencial,

public and private, , pblicas y privadas

48 48

Mexico's impact evaluation system is El sistema de Mxico es la evaluacin de impacto

potentially more comprehensive than the United States system. potencialmente ms amplio que el sistema de los Estados Unidos.

By requiring risk studies and contingency plans to combat Por los estudios de riesgo que requieran y los planes de contingencia para combatir la

environmental emergencies, Mexico's environmental impact emergencias ambientales, el impacto ambiental de Mxico

evaluation system may also be broader in its scope of monitoring sistema de evaluacin tambin puede ser ms amplia en su mbito de control

highly dangerous activities than the United States system. actividades altamente peligroso que el sistema de los Estados Unidos.

49 49

However, the Mexican environmental impact evaluation system Sin embargo, el mexicano Evaluacin de Impacto Ambiental

may be less comprehensive than the United States system in that puede ser menos amplio que el sistema de los Estados Unidos en ese

it does not require evaluation of the cumulative impact of past, no se requiere la evaluacin del impacto acumulado del pasado,

contemporaneous or potential future projects. contemporneas o de los posibles proyectos de futuro.

50 50

Whether more Si ms

comprehensive or broaderin scope, Mexico's environmental policies amplio alcance o broaderin, las polticas ambientales de Mxico

are significantly more centralized due to the source of most son mucho ms centralizada debido a la fuente de la mayora de

environmental laws concentrated in the federal Ecology Law. las leyes ambientales se concentr en la Ley de Ecologa federal.

51 51

1. 1. State versus Federal Authority Estado frente a la Autoridad Federal

This centralization, however, does not mean complete Esta centralizacin, sin embargo, no significa completa

deprivation of participation for states. privacin de la participacin de los estados. Title I, Chapter II of the Ttulo I, Captulo II de la

Ecology Law allows state and local governments to legislate in all Ley de Ecologa permite a los gobiernos estatales y locales para legislar en todos los

environmental areas except those specifically reserved to the las reas del medio ambiente, salvo las especficamente reservadas a la

Federal Government, so long as such laws are consistent with the Gobierno Federal, siempre y cuando las leyes sean compatibles con la

Ecology Law. Ecologa Derecho.

52 52

Article 46 gives federal, state, and local authorities El artculo 46 da a las autoridades federales, estatales y locales

power to designate protected natural areas, each with certain facultad de designar las reas naturales protegidas, cada una con ciertas

specific restrictions depending on the character of the area in restricciones especficas en funcin del carcter de la zona en

question. cuestin.

53 53

Special reserves of land which specifically prohibit Reservas especiales de la tierra que prohben especficamente

population centers in such areas can be established so long as the centros de poblacin en esas zonas se puede establecer siempre y cuando el

areas are biogeographically representative of the country and reas son "punto de vista biogeogrfico" representante del pas y

their uses are educational, recreational or investigative in nature. sus usos son educativos, recreativos o de investigacin en la naturaleza.

54 54

National parks, natural monuments, national marine parks, areas Los parques nacionales, monumentos naturales, parques nacionales marinos, reas

for protection of natural resources, areas for the protection of flora para la proteccin de los recursos naturales, reas para la proteccin de la flora

and fauna, urban parks, and zones subject to ecological y fauna, parques urbanos y zonas sujetas a las exigencias ecolgicas

preservation can also be established with only the latter two open conservacin tambin se puede establecer que slo los dos ltimos abiertos

to State and local jurisdiction. a la jurisdiccin estatal y local.

55 55

As an example of State and local power vis a vis federal power, Como un ejemplo del poder del Estado y locales vis a vis el poder federal,

the Mexican State of San Louis Potosi entered the international el estado mexicano de San Luis Potos entr en el internacional

spotlight when its ecological decree of September 20, 1997 centro de atencin cuando su decreto ecolgico de 20 de septiembre 1997

Page 9 Pgina 9

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RECENT DEVELOPMENTS DESARROLLOS RECIENTES

335 335

56. 56. UnitedMexican States v. Metalclad Corp., [2001] 89B.CLR3d 359 (Can.), additional Estados UnitedMexican v. Metalclad Corp., [2001] 89B.CLR3d 359 (Can.), adicionales

reasons stated in [2001] 95 BCLR3d 169 (Can.), aff'g Metalclad Corp. v. United Mexican razones expuestas en [2001] 95 BCLR3d 169 (Can.), aff'g Metalclad Corp. v. Unidos Mexicanos

States, 16 ICSID R Estados, 16 ICSID R

EV EV

.F F .-

OREIGN OREIGN

I Yo

NV Nevada

. . LJ 168 (2001) (Int'l Centre for Settlement of LJ 168 (2001) (Centro Internacional de Arreglo de

Investment Disputes Aug. 30, 2000), available at 40 ILM 36 (2001) (holding that Diferencias Relativas a Inversiones 30 de agosto 2000), disponible en 40 ILM 36 (2001) (sosteniendo que

Metalclad's property had been improperly expropriated in violation of Article 1110 of Propiedad de Metalclad haba sido mal expropiados en violacin del Artculo 1110 del

NAFTA). TLCAN).

57. Id. 57. Id.

58. Id . 58. Id.

59. Id . 59. Id. The writ of amparo (defined infra text accompanying notes 59-60) filed by the El recurso de amparo (que se define el texto infra que acompaa las notas 59-60) presentada por el

municipality was ultimately dismissed on the basis that such a proceeding was not available municipio finalmente fue rechazada sobre la base de que tal procedimiento no estaba disponible

to a municipal body (as opposed to a private person) for the purpose of challenging a decision a un organismo municipal (en oposicin a una persona privada) con el propsito de impugnar una decisin

of another level of government, the proper method being a Constitutional Controversy. de otro nivel de gobierno, el mtodo apropiado para ser una controversia constitucional.

60. 60. Constitucin Poltica de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, [C Constitucin Poltica de los estados unidos Mexicanos, [C

ONST ONST

. . 1917] [Constitution] 1917] [Constitucin]

tit. tit. I, ch. I, cap. I, art. I, art. 39 (Mex.) (as amended), translated in O 39 (Mex.) (modificada), traducido en O

RGANIZATION OF ORGANIZACIN DE

A A

MERICAN MERICANA

S S

TATES ESTADOS

, ,

C C

ONSTITUTION OF THE ONSTITUCIN DE LA

U U

NITED NIDOS

M M

EXICAN EXICAN

S S

TATES ESTADOS

(1964). (1964).

61. Id. tit. 61. Id. Tit. II, ch. II, cap. IV, art. IV, art. 103. 103.

62. Id. art. 62. Id. Arte. 107. 107.

expropriated land owned by an American corporation for the propiedad de las tierras expropiadas por una empresa norteamericana para la

preservation of certain species of cacti. la conservacin de ciertas especies de cactus.

56 56

This action by the state Esta accin por parte del Estado

came after a controversy arose between its municipality of se produjo despus de una controversia surgida entre su municipio de

Guadalcazar, near where the American corporation built their Guadalcazar, cerca de donde la empresa estadounidense construy su

landfill without receiving a municipal permit, and Mexican federal vertedero sin recibir un permiso municipal y federal de Mxico

authorities, which represented that the corporation had the las autoridades, lo que representa que la sociedad tena la

authoritative permission required to commence the project. permiso de autoridad para iniciar el proyecto.

57 57

The La

municipal government officially denied a permit but only after the el gobierno municipal neg oficialmente un permiso, pero slo despus de la

corporation secured permission to operate the landfill through an empresa obtuvo el permiso para operar el relleno sanitario a travs de un

agreement with federal sub-agencies of the Secretariat of the acuerdo con la sub-agencias federales de la Secretara de la

Environment, Natural Resources and Fishing. Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca.

58 58

Although the A pesar de la

controversy between local and federal power was never decided on controversia entre el poder local y federal no se decidi

its merits, sus mritos,

59 59

it is representative of the new conflict of laws issues es representativa del nuevo conflicto entre legislaciones

flowing from Mexico's promulgation of environmental protection que fluye desde la promulgacin de Mxico de la proteccin del medio ambiente

policies. las polticas.

2. 2. Public Participation La participacin del pblico

Mexico's Constitution states that all government power is Mxico la Constitucin establece que todo el poder del gobierno es

derived from the people emana del pueblo

60 60

and it provides the mechanism of amparo y proporciona el mecanismo de amparo

to empower citizens to call upon Constitutional rights embodied capacitar a los ciudadanos a recurrir a los derechos constitucionales consagrados

therein. en el mismo.

61 61

Amparo or shelter suits grant federal courts Amparo o "refugio" se adapte a conceder los tribunales federales

jurisdiction to decide controversies arising from laws or acts of competencia para resolver las controversias que surjan de las leyes o actos de

authorities that violate individual guarantees under the Las autoridades que violen las garantas individuales en virtud del

Constitution. Constitucin. Such suits are limited by Article 107, which requires Estos trajes estn limitados por el artculo 107, que requiere

that amparo suits be prosecuted at the instance of only injured que los juicios de amparo ser procesado en el caso de slo heridos

parties and that such judgments only affect the right of the partes y que dichas sentencias slo afectan a la derecha de la

individual who brought the suit. persona que present la demanda.

62 62

This express grant of federal Esta concesin expresa del gobierno federal

judicial jurisdiction by the Mexican Constitution is comparable to jurisdiccin judicial de la Constitucin Poltica de Mxico es comparable a la

the United States' version of standing. la versin de los Estados Unidos de pie. Considering the many Teniendo en cuenta los muchos

nationalized industries which count as federal entities, citizen las industrias nacionalizadas que cuenta como entidades federales, los ciudadanos

Page 10 Pgina 10

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[Vol. [Vol. 12:2 12:02

63. 63. H H

ERGET ERGET

& C Y C

AMIL AMIL

, supra note 8, at 72. , Supra nota 8, a las 72.

64. 64. Rowely, supra note 35, at 10,434 n.39. Rowely, supra nota 35, en el n. 39 10434.

65. Id . 65. Id. at 10,435. a 10.435.

66. Id. at 10,436. 66. Id. A 10.436.

67. Id. at 10,434. 67. Id. A 10.434.

68. 68. CarlosAngulo & Jorge Vazquez, Export Promotion Programs, in A CarlosAngulo y Jorge Vzquez, Programas de Promocin de Exportaciones, en un

N N

I Yo

NTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCCIN A LA

D D

OING Oing

B B

USINESS IN EMPRESARIALES EN

M M

EXICO XICO

87 (William E. Mooz, Jr. ed., 1995). 87 (William E. Mooz, Jr. ed., 1995).

69. 69. Laura J. Van Pelt, Countervailing Environmental Subsides A Solution to the Laura J. Van Pelt, compensatorios Subvenciones Ambiental Una solucin a la

enforcement is potentially greater in Mexico than in the United la aplicacin es potencialmente mayor en Mxico que en Estados Unidos

States. Estados.

63 63

The large public role with respect to the Ecology Law begins El papel importante del pblico con respecto a la Ley de Ecologa comienza

with Article 18, which requires SEDESOL to promote the con el artculo 18, que requiere SEDESOL para promover la

participation of social groups and organizations in all participacin de grupos sociales y organizaciones de todos

environmental planning. la planificacin ambiental. Article 33 of the Ecology Law and Article El artculo 33 de la Ley de Ecologa y el artculo

39 of the Environmental Impact Regulation (EIR), require 39 del Reglamento de Impacto Ambiental ("EIR"), requieren

SEDESOLto allow any person to consult the files of any mandatory SEDESOLto permitir a cualquier persona a consultar los archivos de cualquier obligatorios

EIS. EIS. Article 41 of EIR allows anyone to request that SEDESOL El artculo 41 de EIR permite que cualquiera pueda solicitar que la SEDESOL

compel any entity undertaking an activity with potential obligar a una entidad llevar a cabo una actividad con gran potencial

environmentally negative effects to submit an EIS. el medio ambiente efectos negativos de presentar una DIA. The Federal La Federal

Law on Measurementsand Standardizationrequires that proposed Ley de Standardizationrequires Measurementsand la propuesta

Norms be published and subject to a ninety-day public review and Las normas se publicarn y sujeto a una revisin pblica de noventa das y

comment period. perodo de comentarios.

64 64

Despite these avenues open to civil society, there have been no A pesar de estas vas abiertas a la sociedad civil, no ha habido

regulations adopted to implement the public participation regulaciones adoptadas para aplicar la participacin pblica

provisionsof the Ecology Lawwhich would provide needed guidance provisionsof la Lawwhich Ecologa proporcionar la orientacin necesaria

to the public on how to obtain access to files on mandatory EISs. al pblico sobre cmo obtener acceso a los archivos de EIA obligatoria.

65 65

Unlikethe UnitedStates' NEPA requirement for an opportunity for Requisito Unlikethe ESTADOSUNIDOS 'NEPA una oportunidad para

public comment on draft EISs, the Mexican public cannot even view comentarios del pblico sobre el proyecto de EIA, el pblico mexicano no puede ni siquiera ver

an EIS until it is final. una EIS hasta que sea final.

66 66

But all hope is not lost for public access Pero la esperanza no se pierde el acceso del pblico

and participation inthe promulgation of environmental legislation. y la participacin enel promulgacin de la legislacin ambiental.

Non-governmental organizations have been growing in political Las organizaciones no gubernamentales han estado creciendo en la vida poltica

strength since the meeting between theMexican Secretary of Social fuerza desde la reunin entre el Secretario de Desarrollo Social theMexican

Development on May 28, 1992 and more than 100 environmental Desarrollo el 28 de mayo de 1992 y del medio ambiente de ms de 100

(NGOs), which resulted in documented procedures for ("ONG"), que dio lugar a procedimientos documentados para

consultation on matters concerning the environment. consultas sobre cuestiones relacionadas con el medio ambiente.

67 67

III. III. E E

XAMPLES OF JEMPLOS DE

M M

EXICO XICO

' "

S S

E E

NVIRONMENTAL AMBIENTAL

E E

NFORCEMENT PLICACIN

Regardless of who promulgates them, or with what level of Independientemente de quien los promulga, o con qu nivel de

public participation, environmental legislation is worthless unless la participacin pblica, la legislacin ambiental no vale nada a menos que

effectively enforced. de manera efectiva. As a general example, the maquiladora Como ejemplo general, la industria maquiladora

program, which dates back to the 1965 Border Industrialization programa, que se remonta a la Industrializacin de la Frontera 1965 "

Program and was intended to promoteMexican exports, Programa "y estaba destinada a las exportaciones promoteMexican,

68 68

resulted resultado

in rapid industrialization near the United States-Mexican border. en la rpida industrializacin cerca de los Estados Unidos, la frontera de Mxico.

This program ultimately lead to serious environmental Este programa en ltima instancia conducir a graves problemas ambientales

contamination and pollution-related diseases. la contaminacin y las enfermedades relacionadas con la contaminacin.

69 69

Under the En el marco del

Page 11 Pgina 11

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RECENT DEVELOPMENTS DESARROLLOS RECIENTES

337 337

Environmental Inequities of the North American Free Trade Agreement , 29 T Las inequidades ambientales del Tratado de Libre Comercio de Norteamrica, 29 T

EX EX

. . I Yo

NT NT

' "

L L

LJ LJ

123, 126 (1994). 123, 126 (1994).

70. Id. at n.23. 70. Id. En n.23.

71. Id. 71. Id.

72. 72. Elvia R. Arriol, Voices from the Barbed Wires of Despair: Women in the Elvia R. Arriol, Voces de los alambres de pas de la Desesperacin: La mujer en el

Maquiladoras , Latina Critical Legal Theory, and Gender at the US-Mexico Border, 49 Maquiladoras, latinas Teora Crtica Jurdica y de Gnero en la Frontera Mxico-Estados Unidos, de 49 aos

DePaul L. Rev. 729, 755 n.115 (2000) (criticizing a range ofsocioeconomic and culturaleffects DePaul L. Rev. 729, 755 n.115 (2000) (criticando una amplia ofsocioeconomic y culturaleffects

resulting from the maquiladora industry). resultantes de la industria maquiladora).

73. 73. Schatan, supra note 31, at 221. Schatan, supra nota 31, en 221.

74. 74. Angulo & Vazquez, supra note 68, at 88. Angulo y Vzquez, supra nota 68, a los 88 aos.

75. 75. Van Pelt, supra note 69, at 133. Van Pelt, supra nota 69, en 133.

76. 76. Rowely, supra note 35, at n.39; 139 C Rowely, supra nota 35, en el n. 39, 139 C

ONG ONG

. . R R

EC CE

. . 9875-10048 (daily ed. Nov. 17, 1993) 9.875-10,048 (edicin diaria. 17 de noviembre 1993)

(debate in the United States House of Representatives); 139 C (Debate en la Cmara de Representantes de Estados Unidos), 139 C

ONG ONG

. . R R

EC CE

. . 16602-22, 16709, & 16602-22, 16709, y

16712-13 (daily ed. Nov. 20, 1993) (debate in the United States Senate). Cf. Schatan, supra 16712-13 (edicin diaria. 20 de noviembre 1993) (debate en el Senado de Estados Unidos). Cf. Schatan, supra

note 31, at 212 (concluding that no shift of pollution-intensive industries to Mexico has nota 31, en 212 (la conclusin de que ningn cambio de industrias altamente contaminantes en Mxico ha

occurred since the signing of NAFTA, although neither has intensified trade created funds ocurrido desde la firma del TLCAN, aunque ninguno se ha intensificado el comercio creado fondos

used for environmental protection); see generally Alejandro Nadal, Corn in NAFTA Eight utilizados para la proteccin del medio ambiente); vase en general Alejandro Nadal, de maz en el TLCAN Ocho

Years After: Effects on Mexican Biodiversity , in G Despus de aos: efectos sobre la biodiversidad de Mxico, en G

REENING REENING

NAFTA: T TLC: T

HE HE

N N

ORTH NORTE

A A

MERICAN MERICANA

A A

GREEMENT CUERDO

O O

N N

E E

NVIRONMENTAL AMBIENTAL

C C

OOPERATION COOPERACIN

(David Markell & John Knox eds., (David Markell y John Knox eds.

forthcoming July 2003) (manuscript at 228, on file with author) (discussing the detrimental prximo julio de 2003) (manuscrito en 228, en poder del autor) (discutiendo la perjudicial

effects of intensified trade between the United States and Mexico on the genetic resources efectos de intensificar el comercio entre Estados Unidos y Mxico sobre los recursos genticos

on the North American ecosystem). en el ecosistema de Amrica del Norte).

maquiladora program foreigners were permitted to set up 100% programa de maquiladora "los extranjeros se les permiti establecer 100%

foreign owned and managed companies that could import, duty- las empresas extranjeras de propiedad y gestin ", que podra importar, impuestos

free, all component and maintenance parts in order to eventually libre, todos los componentes y piezas de mantenimiento con el fin de la larga

export them from Mexico abroad. exportarlos de Mxico en el extranjero.

70 70

In 1990 there were an "En 1990 haba un

estimated 1,857 plants and 449,587 workers in the maquiladora estima que 1.857 trabajadores de las plantas y los 449.587 en la industria maquiladora

industry. de la industria. "

71 71

This number had risen to over 560,000 workers by Este nmero se haba elevado a ms de 560.000 trabajadores

1994. 1994.

72 72

Between 1994 and 1998, foreign investment in the maquila Entre 1994 y 1998, la inversin extranjera en la maquila

industry grew 24% annually and by September of 2000 made up la industria creci un 24% anual y en septiembre de 2000, compuesto por

21% of the total foreign investment within Mexico. 21% de la inversin extranjera total en Mxico.

73 73

Due to high Debido a los altos

levels of industrialization and congestion, the establishment of niveles de industrializacin y la congestin, el establecimiento de

maquiladoras within Mexico City faced severe restrictions unless maquiladoras en Ciudad de Mxico enfrentan severas restricciones a menos que

investingcompanies didnot generate pollution duringproduction. investingcompanies nose duringproduction generar contaminacin.

74 74

Nevertheless, as of 1994, only slightly more than half of the United Sin embargo, a partir de 1994, slo un poco ms de la mitad de los Estados Unidos

States maquiladora plantswere complying with Mexican hazardous Estados maquiladora plantswere cumplir con peligrosos de Mxico

waste disposal regulations. normas de eliminacin de residuos.

75 75

During the United States Congressional NAFTA negotiations, Durante el Congreso de Estados Unidos las negociaciones del TLCAN,

many NGOs and individuals warned of a myriad of detrimental muchas organizaciones no gubernamentales e individuos advirti de una mirada de perjudicial

consequences of further trade liberalization a possible increase of consecuencias de la liberalizacin del comercio un posible aumento de

trans-boundarypollution having already begun inthe maquiladora trans-boundarypollution que ya ha comenzado enla industria maquiladora

program; the migration of United States industries to escape programa, la migracin de los Estados Unidos para escapar de las industrias

expensively strict United States environmental laws increasing caro estrictas leyes de los Estados Unidos cada vez mayor del medio ambiente

overall pollution in Mexico; the integration and interdependence of la contaminacin en general en Mxico, la integracin y la interdependencia de

bi-national economics leading to the harmonization of binacional de la economa que lleva a la armonizacin de las

environmental laws and an overall decrease in the United States' las leyes ambientales y una disminucin general de los Estados Unidos "

strictness; and under-regulated Mexican imports posing health rigor, y no estn suficientemente reglamentados importaciones mexicanas de peligrosa para la salud

risks from misuse of pesticides. los riesgos del mal uso de pesticidas.

76 76

These concerns were politically Estas preocupaciones eran polticamente

appeased with the NAAEC, the supplemental environmental aplacado con el ACAAN, el suplemento del medio ambiente

Page 12 Pgina 12

338 338

J.TRANSNATIONAL LAW & POLICY J. TRANSNACIONAL Ley y poltica

[Vol. [Vol. 12:2 12:02

77. 77. Van Pelt, supra note 69, at 132; North American Agreement on Environmental Van Pelt, supra nota 69, en 132; Acuerdo de Cooperacin Ambiental de Amrica

Cooperation, Sept. 13, 1993, Can.-Mex.-US, 32 ILM 1480 (1993). Cooperacin, 13 de septiembre de 1993, Can.-Mex.-Estados Unidos, 32 ILM 1480 (1993).

78. 78. Sinnott, supra note 51, at 274. Sinnott, supra nota 51, en 274.

79. 79. Alexander & Fernandez, supra note 33, at 261. Alexander y Fernndez, supra nota 33, en 261.

80. 80. Sinnott, supra note 51, at 295. Sinnott, supra nota 51, en 295.

81. Id. 81. Id.

82. Id. 82. Id.

83. 83. Kevin P. Gallagher, The CEC and Environmental Quality: Assessing the Mexican Kevin P. Gallagher, de la Calidad y Medio Ambiente de la CCA: Evaluacin de los mexicanos

Experience , in G La experiencia, en G

REENING REENING

NAFTA: T TLC: T

HE HE

N N

ORTH NORTE

A A

MERICAN MERICANA

A A

GREEMENT CUERDO

O O

N N

E E

NVIRONMENTAL AMBIENTAL

C C

OOPERATION COOPERACIN

(David Markell & John Knox eds., forthcoming July 2003) (manuscript at 193, (David Markell y John Knox eds., De prxima aparicin julio de 2003) (manuscrito en 193,

on file with author). en el archivo del autor).

84. 84. Schatan, supra note 31, at 219. Schatan, supra nota 31, en 219.

85. Id . 85. Id.

agreementattached to NAFTA butbecause the NAAEC provides for agreementattached a butbecause TLCAN ACAAN establece

very limited relief to individuals, it offers the parties to NAFTA alivio muy limitado a las personas, ofrece a las partes del TLCAN

little incentive to actually improve environmental enforcement. pocos incentivos para mejorar realmente la legislacin ambiental.

77 77

As a result of this debate, two theories accounting for the Como resultado de este debate, dos teoras de contabilidad para la

disparity of enforcement effectiveness between the United States disparidad de la eficacia de la aplicacin entre los Estados Unidos

and Mexican environmental law have been documented by Joseph y el derecho ambiental mexicano han sido documentados por Joseph

E. Sinnott: inadequate funding and differing legal traditions (civil E. Sinnott: falta de financiacin y las diferentes tradiciones legales (civiles

law versus common law) theory. la ley frente al derecho comn) la teora.

A. Inadequate Funding A. inadecuada financiacin

The more prevalent inadequate-funding theory is supported by La ms frecuente-financiacin inadecuada teora est apoyada por

the fact that Mexico's overall enforcement performance has el hecho de que el rendimiento de la aplicacin general de Mxico ha

increased as more money has been devoted to enforcement aumento a medida que ms dinero se ha dedicado a la aplicacin de

endeavors. esfuerzos.

78 78

During the second half of his administration, "Durante la segunda mitad de su administracin,

President Salinas increased the budget for environmental El presidente Salinas aument el presupuesto para el medio ambiente

enforcement steadily and significantly, which translated into a aplicacin de manera constante y significativa, que se tradujo en una

similar increase in inspections and plant closures. aumento similar en las inspecciones y cierres de plantas. "

79 79

When the Cuando el

Ecology Law was originally adopted, the Mexican government Ley de Ecologa se aprob inicialmente, el gobierno mexicano

increased the environmental protection budget from $95 million in aument el presupuesto de proteccin ambiental de US $ 95 millones en

1988 to $1.8 billion by 1991. 1988 a US $ 1,8 millones en 1991.

80 80

Of those funds, enforcement De estos fondos, la ejecucin

allocations increased from $4.2 million in 1988 to $78 million by aumento de las asignaciones de $ 4.2 millones en 1988 a US $ 78 millones

1992. 1992.

81 81

Actual enforcement followed suit; the amount ofinspections La aplicacin real de lo mismo, la cantidad ofinspections

tripled and the amount of fines assessed and plants either partially triplic y la cantidad de multas impuestas y las plantas, ya sea parcial

or permanently closed increased one hundred fold between 1988 o permanentemente cerrados aument cien veces entre 1988

and 1993. y de 1993.

82 82

However, after NAFTA was adopted by Mexico the rate of Sin embargo, despus del TLCAN fue adoptado por Mxico, la tasa de

environmental inspections fell dramatically leading some to inspecciones ambientales se redujeron drsticamente llevando a algunos a

speculate the motives behind what initially appeared to be especular los motivos detrs de lo que inicialmente pareca ser

improvements. mejoras.

83 83

As of 1999, Mexico's gross domestic product A partir de 1999, el producto interno bruto de Mxico

(GDP) was growing by 10-14% annually. ("PIB") estaba creciendo a un 10-14% al ao.

84 84

However, only 0.6% of Sin embargo, slo el 0,6% de

the GDP are being invested into environmental protection. del PIB se invierte en proteccin del medio ambiente.

85 85

Mexico, unfortunately, has not attempted to encourage industry to Mxico, por desgracia, no ha tratado de alentar a la industria de

comply with environmental rules by providing federal money to cumplir con las normas ambientales al proporcionar fondos federales para

Page 13 Pgina 13

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339 339

86. 86. Gallagher, supra note 83, at 193. Gallagher, supra nota 83, en 193.

87. 87. Schatan, supra note 31, at 221. Schatan, supra nota 31, en 221.

88. 88. Gallagher, supra note 83, at 189-90. Gallagher, supra nota 83, en 189-90.

89. Id. at 275. 89. Id. De 275.

90. Id. at 279. 90. Id. En 279.

91. Id. 91. Id.

92. 92. Rowely, supra note 35, at 10, 432. Rowely, supra nota 35, a las 10, 432.

93. 93. Sinnott, supra note 51, at 281. Sinnott, supra nota 51, en 281.

94. Id. 94. Id.

purchase new technology. compra de nueva tecnologa.

86 86

Much of the maquila industry lacks Gran parte de la industria de la maquila no tiene

sufficient infrastructure to combat the serious environmental infraestructura suficiente para combatir los graves del medio ambiente

damage caused by the intensified trade alongthe border. daos causados por la frontera alongthe intensificado el comercio.

87 87

Between Entre

1985 and 1999, scholars calculate, that Mexico has suffered the 1985 y 1999, los expertos calculan que Mxico ha sufrido el

following increases in environmental damage: siguientes incrementos en los daos ambientales:

[R]ural soil erosion grew by 89%, municipal solid [R] erosin de los suelos naturales creci en un 89%, slidos municipales

waste by 108%, water pollution by 29%, and air los residuos en un 108%, la contaminacin del agua en un 29%, y el aire

pollution by 97%. la contaminacin en un 97%. Disaggregating air pollution, La desagregacin de la contaminacin del aire,

sulfur dioxide grew by 42%, nitrous oxides by 65%,

hydrocarbons by 104%, carbon monoxide by 105%,

and particulate matter by 43%.

88 88

B. Differing Legal Traditions

The more adventurous differing legal traditions theory was

developedfrom imposing classicmodelsof the civil and common law

traditions on to their respective enforcement mechanism.

Regardless, a closer look at each environmental enforcement

mechanisms shows that differinglegal traditions have littleimpact

on enforcement effectiveness.

89 89

The environmental enforcement

mechanisms found in both countries today defy the classic and

stereotypical characteristics of their respective legal traditions.

90 90

Comparing early models of these legal traditions emphasizes the

differences in the sources of law and the role played by the judiciary

in the law-making process.

91 91

The classic model says that civil law

codes like the one in Mexico rely less on binding judicial precedent

and more on administrative proceedings as a means of developing

and enforcing the law.

92 92

In contrast, judicial review of

constitutional violations by the Mexican government through the

writ of amparo has given rise to the limited form of binding

precedent known as jurisprudentia.

93 93

Taken together with the

fact that United States law has come to rely primarily on statutory

sources of law, especially in the area of environmental protection,

this represents a convergence of the legal traditions towards

practical uniformity.

94 94

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95. Id. at 287.

96. Id. at 288.

97. 97. Alexander & Fernandez, supra note 33, at 256.

98. 98. Sinnott, supra note 51, at 288.

99. Id. at 289.

100. Id. at 291.

101. Id.

102. 102. Alexander & Fernandez, supra note 33, at 260-61.

103. Id. at 260.

Sinnott also discusses another possible basis for the disparity in

enforcementeffectiveness: thefactthatenvironmental enforcement

efforts are primarily centralized in Mexico's federal government

under SEDESOL even though the Ecology Law does not mandate

this. este.

95 95

Most municipalities and even States lack adequate resources

to implement their own enforcement mechanisms leaving

SEDESOL to pick up the slack.

96 96

According to the Ecology Law,

inspections should be coordinated among federal, state and local

authorities, with states and municipalities empowered to inspect

cities and verify compliance, even in areas and matters of federal

jurisdiction.

97 97

Enforcement efforts are not centralized under the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), SEDESOL's United

States counterpart; rather states and municipal governments play

an active role in administering environmental protection needing

only to report their progress back to the EPA.

98 98

Neither legal

framework is more advantageous if implemented properly.

Centralized systems with sufficient staffs of inspectors can provide

as comprehensive jobs as local ones; while decentralized systems,

if there is efficient cooperation between authorities, can provide

coordinated, holistic evaluations of the environmental impact on

individual entities.

99 99

As further evidence of systemic convergence, the EPAs

continualcommitmentto avoid litigationhas resulted in reliance on

negotiated settlements and has diminished their reliance on the

judiciaryfor dispute resolution.

100 100

Nearly95% of all administrative

and civil judicial actions are resolved through negotiated consent

agreements, which reflects the EPA's recognition of litigation as an

inefficient dispute resolution tool.

101 101

C. Enforcement Trends and Public Participation

Negotiated settlements and voluntary environmental audits

have provided Mexico low-cost enforcement mechanisms.

102 102

Through the threat of stiff sanctions, SEDESOL is able to negotiate

settlements to remedy both current violations and even pre-1988

violations, to which the Ecology Law's retroactivity does not reach,

in exchange for leniency on the current violation.

103 103

Through A travs de

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341 341

104. Id. at 261.

105. 105. Alicia A. Saimos, NAFTA's SupplementalAgreement: In Need of Reform , 9 NYI

NT NT

' "

L L

L. R L. R

EV EV

. . 49, 63 (1996).

106. 106. Rowely, supra note 35, at 10,432.

107. 107. John R. Zebrowski, Pollution Gets Attention: Mexico's Environmental Laws Get

Tougher , 16 N

AT AT

' "

L L

LJ 25, 28 (1993) (PROFEPA stands for la Procuradura Federal para

la Proteccin Ambiental or the Federal Procuration for Environmental Protection; INE

stands for el Instituto Nacional de Ecologa or the National Institute of Ecology).

108. 108. Rowely, supra note 35, at 10,434.

109. Id.

110. 110. Van Pelt, supra note 69, at 133.

111. 111. Bejesky, supra note 15, at 253-54.

environmentalaudits,if companies risking environmental violation

voluntarily submit to inspection and commit to remediation,

SEDESOL tacitly waives its right to sanction the company and

gives it a reasonable amount of time to carry out remediation.

104 104

Despite the drastic disparity in funding, eg in 1991, Mexicos

budget towards environmental enforcement was $.48 per capita

compared to $24.40 per capita in the United States,

105 105

Rowelys

article concluded that Mexico's environmental law had a solid

foundationand beginningstructure that [was] sufficientto alleviate

some of the concerns expressed by NGOs and others. . . . . . . "

106 106

Mexico's government has taken some steps to further this progress.

In June of 1992, Mexico decentralized SEDESOL into severalunits

including the National Institute of Ecology (INEC) and the

FederalAttorney for the Protection of the Environment (PFPA).

107 107

Citizens are able to register complaints about harmful

environmental conditions to PROFEPA, which is then responsible

for receiving, investigating and otherwise addressing such

complaints. quejas.

108 108

Unfortunately, the EcologyLaw only grants the right

that complaints to PROFEPA must, within 30 days, receive

confirmation that an investigation has occurred and what, if any,

enforcement steps are being taken.

109 109

Whereas citizens' groups and non-profit organizations serve in

the United States as private attorneys general by monitoring

industry and government compliance with environmental laws,

since 1992 Mexico lacked all of the following: community right-to-

knowlaws which allow public monitoring ofindustrial compliance;

required examinations of alternative actions or opportunities for

public comment on environmentally impacting projects; and citizen

suitprovisions authorizing citizens to bring actionsagainstMexican

industriesor the government for noncompliance.

110 110

But wouldthese

mechanisms be appreciated or even utilized? Rapid Rpido

industrialization in response to financial crisis tends to develop

public interest only in regulations that protect labor and society

interests, but it does not enhance environmental protection despite

blatant detriments to the natural environment.

111 111

Without any

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J.TRANSNATIONAL LAW & POLICY

[Vol. [Vol. 12:2 12:02

112. Id. at 272-73.

113. 113. Raul M. Sanchez, Mexico's El Cuchillo Dam Project: A Case Study of Nonsustainable

Development and Transboundary EnvironmentalHarms , 28 UM

IAMI

I Yo

NTER

-A -A

M M

.LR

EV EV

. . 425,

429 (1996) [hereinafter Sanchez, El Cuchillo I ].

114. Id. at 426.

115. 115. Raul M. Sanchez, Mexico's El Cuchillo Dam Project: A Case Study of Nonsustainable

Development and TransboundaryEnvironmentalHarms , 30 UM

IAMI

I Yo

NTER

-A -A

M M

.LR

EV EV

. . 629,

642 (1999) [hereinafter Sanchez, El Cuchillo II ] (relying on D. Kevin Dunn & Jessica L.

Wood, Substantive Enforcement of NEPA Trough Strict Review of Procedural Compliance:

Oregon Natural Resources Council v. Marsh in the Ninth Circuit , 10 J. E

NVTL

. . L. & L

ITIG

. .

499, 501 (1995)).

116. 116. Sanchez, El Cuchillo I , supra note 113, at 434.

117. Id. at 425.

118. Id at 425, n.1.

grassroots incentives, it is possible that NAFTA's intermingling of

environmentalconcerns with Mexico's dependence on foreign direct

investment was the best way to foster change in their

environmental protection regime.

112 112

But to rely on decisions made at the NAFTA level, far from the

level where their effects take place, may run the risk that

international political interests will take priority over local

environmental interests. Mexico's El Cuchillo Dam Project offers

an unfortunate example of the consequences that result from an

entanglement of international politics with environmental

protection leading to alack of vigorous environmentalenforcement.

The Project's immediate harms caused severe reduction of water

levels in certain reservoirs down river, the remainder of which

became highly polluted, centered in the Mexican State of

Tamaulipas.

113 113

The dam project took place in less than six years

between 1988 and 1994 during former President Carlos Salinas de

Gortari's administration.

114 114

A comparable project in the United

States would have taken over ten years just to get through the

litigation over potential environmental impacts.

115 115

The La

environmentalimpact statementsmadebyMexicanauthorities and

released by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) that

funded the project never contemplated potential impacts to

Tamaulipas.

116 116

RaulM. Sanchez compared the actionsof both the United States

and Mexican governments with respect to the Project, with

principles found in the International Conference on Water and the

Environment, on January 31, 1992. These principles state that

development and management of water projects should be based on

a participatory approach, where each level of user, planner and

policy maker, is involved and aware of the project's importance.

117 117

Such an approach involves decisions being made at the lowest

appropriate level with full public consultation with regard to

planning and implementation.

118 118

Against this measure Sanchez

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343 343

119. Id. at 429, n.12.

120. Id. at 434.

121. See generally Jonathan Graubart, Giving Meaning to New Trade-Linked Soft Law

Agreements on Social Values: A Law in Action Analysis of NAFTA's Environmental Side

Agreement , 6 UCLA J. I

NT NT

' "

L L

L. & F

OREIGN OREIGN

A A

FF FF

. . 425 (2001-2002) (demonstrating how

environmental activists can use the citizen submission process as political pressure on

Mexico to enforce environmental standards); see also Paul Stanton Kibel, The Paper Tiger

Awakens: North American Environmental Law After the Cozumel Reef Case , 39 C

OLUM

. . J. J.

T T

RANSNAT

' "

L L

L. 395 (2001) (concluding that the CEC's factual record, while not determining

that Mexico failed to enforce its environmental law, demonstrates Mexico's action

inconsistent with Mexican environmental law).

found that both governments fall short: the Mexican government

for directly failing to consult the population of Tamaulipas,

119 119

and y

the United States government for failing to recognize the indirect

impacts on American citizens whose taxes indirectly contributed to

the Project through the IDB.

120 120

IV. IV. C C

ONCLUSION ONCLUSIN

Through the unfortunate example of El Cuchillo, a microcosmic

landscape of Mexico's environmental protection policies unfolds,

leaving foreign investors and the common people of Mexico in

diametric tension. The federal authorities, with primary influence

over the shape and enforcement of Mexico's environmental laws,

play the critical role of intermediary between the two groups.

Meanwhile, as Mexico's states and municipalities receive more tax

revenues from foreign investment funds, their potential to eventu-

ally exercise their legislative and policing influence over their own

environments grows. At Mexico's grassroots level, however,

participation seems more ambiguous. While the NAAEC provides

Mexico's general public with a unique political mechanism for

environmental protection,

121 121

the public's capacity to formally

participate on matters of promulgation and enforcement in Mexico

may remain deficient as the debate whether to prioritize poverty

alleviation over environmental protection takes place among

internationaltrade ministers with littleaccountabilityor transpar-

ency.