derogatory language in intergroup context: are “gay” and “fag” synonymous? andrea carnaghi...
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Derogatory language in intergroup context:
Are “gay” and “fag” synonymous?
Andrea Carnaghi & Anne Maass
University of Padova
-DPSS-
ULB-14/11
ULB-14/11
• In October 2004, the Italian Minister for Italians Abroad, Mirko Tremaglia, commented the defeat of Rocco Buttiglione at the European Parliament by publicly stating:
“Poor Europe. The fags are in the majority”.
Derogatory group label
• DGLs have been tackled from two vantage points within the Social Cognition
• The first line of investigation has addressed derogatory group labels as cognitive representations of ethnic groups (Palmore, 1962; Mullen & Johnson, 1993; 1995; Mullen, Rozell, & Johnson, 2000; 2001).
Derogatory group label
• The second line of research, consisting of only few, isolated studies, has focused on the impact of derogatory ethnic labels on the evaluation of minority targets (Greenberg et al., 1985; Kirkland et al., 1987; Simon et al., 1996).
our set of studies is on the line of this strand of research
Derogatory group label
• Greenberg and Pyszczynski (1985, p.156) claimed that “the overhearing of derogatory labels would automatically activate negative feelings and beliefs associated with the group in question”.
• EXP• White-American participants were exposed to a
debate between a White and a Black person who either won or lost the debate.
Derogatory group label
• the confederate criticized the Black confederate
in an ethnically derogatory (i.e.; "there's no way that nigger won the debate")
in an ethnically neutral manner (i.e.; "there's no way that pro debator won the debate")
Participants evaluated the verbal skill of the target
Derogatory group label
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
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3,5
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evalaution of verbal skill
DGL
no criticism
Derogatory group label
• participants were presented either with a derogatory ethnic label (“nigger”) or with a label that made no reference to ethnicity (“pro-debator”) but not with an ethnic label referring to the same category (such as “Black”).
Derogatory group label
• It therefore remains unclear whether the derogatory ethnic label (“nigger”) led to negative target evaluations because of its derogatory nature or because of its reference to a specific ethnic minority group (Blacks).
Derogatory group label
• Simon and Greenberg (1996)
• VI: Nigger vs. Black vs. No label
• Participants were classified with respect to their level of prejudice towards Afro Americans: Pro-Black, Anti-Black, Ambivalent
• VD: participants’ evaluation on + and – traits (irrelevant to the stereotype of Afro-American)
Derogatory group label
• Results• Pro-Black: control = Black = Nigger
• Anti-Black: control > Black = Nigger
• Ambivalent: control = Black < Nigger
• No evidence that Nigger would triger any different evaluation of the target
• At least, positive evaluation of the target for the Ambivalents
Derogatory group label
• TO SUM UP…
• derogatory terms and category labels could be considered, at least in part, as synonymies
• BUT a more accurate analysis may suggest that there are reasons to believe that prior studies may not be entirely conclusive.
Previous studies: limits
• Implicit vs. explicit attitude
• The first limit of previous studies is that they have involved explicit judgments of the minority target
• - are sensitive to social and normative constraints, such as societal norms of non-discrimination
• - whereas implicit measures are, at least in part, free of normative pressures, such as social desirability
Previous studies: limits
• They have failed to distinguish between stereotypic (vs. non- stereotypic) content and valence.
• The distinction between stereotypicality and valence appears relevant in view of research conducted by Wittenbrink and colleagues (1997; 2001) on Withe’ s attitude towards Afro-American
Previous studies: limits
Stereotype: cognitive/descriptive component of perceivers’ attitude toward a group
Prejudice: affective/evaluative component of perceivers’ attitude toward a group
• Question:• Do DGLs elicit more stereotypic view or
higher prejudiced view ?
Previous studies: limits
• No distinction between pure cognitive (or affective) effects of being exposed to a derogatory label from those triggered by a public context of discrimination.
• it is still unclear whether the lack of any effect of the derogatory labels on participants’ reactions is due to a sort of isomorphism between category and derogatory labels or to participants’ tendency to avoid any form of compliance with the source of discrimination.
…our studies…
rely on implicit measure (free-associations paradigm, approach-avoidance paradigm, subliminal semantic prime paradigm)
disentangle cognitive and affective mechanisms
disentangle the effects of mere exposure from those of social influence
Pilot study: free association
• N=50 participants (N=25 w and N =25 m)
experiment concerning the way people freely associate concepts to a given word.
they were presented with a booklet comprising a series of 5 stimulus-words.
For each word, participants were asked to spontaneously report the first three concepts that came to their mind.
Pilot study: free association
Four words were irrelevant to sexual orientation terms (i.e., sun, crapper, American, lion)
The fifth word was always the critical prime-word: category label (i.e., homosexual) or a derogatory label (i.e., fag).
go back to their free associations and judge the valence of each word they had previously reported on a bipolar scale ranging from – 2 (= very negative) to + 2 (= very positive).
Pilot study: free association
• Valence
-0,8
-0,6
-0,4
-0,2
0
0,2
0,4
valence CL
DGL
Pilot study: free association
• Limits of the Pilot study:
• Valence as unidemsional factor studies on the positive-negative assimetry showed that valence is a bidimensional variable
• Free association paradigm taps a controlled process
Study 1: IAAT
• IAAT paradigm• Theoretical assumption: the evaluative component
of an attitudinal object is also comprised of the behavioral representation associated with that object which
• This behavioral representation is typically compatible with approach or avoidance movements.
• Several studies have shown that approach-like movements are faster for positive than negative attitudinal objects, whereas avoidance-like movements are faster for negative than positive objects
• High reliability of the measure also for social stimuli
Study 1: IAAT
• *Participants engaged in a
categorization task• * flowers vs.
insects • * using Ap for F• and Av for I• * using Ap for I• and Av for F
app
avv
stimulus
PP
Study 1: IAAT
• IAAT
• Response latencies of approach are faster for Flowers than Insects
• Response latencies of avoidance are faster for Insects than Flowers
• High reliability for social stimuli (Italian names and Cheense names)
Study 1: IAAT
• Implicit approach-avoidance paradigm
• Approach: positive items
• Avoidance: negative items
• Approach: faster for positive items than negative items
• Avoidance: faster for negative items than positive items
Study 1: IAAT
• Participants had to sort different items in two classes: social items vs. non-social items
• Non social items: bottle, paper…
• Social items:
• American, Italian, African as FILLERS
• &
• Gay, southern as category labels
• Fag, terrone as derogatory group labels
Study 1: IAAT
• Results:
0
200
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1600
approach avoidance
category
derogatory
Pilot & Study1
• these two studies provide consistent evidence for the idea that derogatory and neutral category labels elicit different affective reactions
• they failed to analyze the relationship between derogatory labels and attitude towards a given group with respect to stereotype and prejudice.
Study 2: subliminal priming paradigm
• disentangle the stereotypic content from the valence-based content
• Unaware of being exposed to the target labels
• Automatic reactions
Study 2: subliminal priming paradigm
• Heterosexual participants --> lexixal decision task
• Prime 18 ms• masking 1000ms• Target 250 ms• Answer recoded time as dependent variable
• Reaction times as measure of semantic accessibility
• Primes: gay & homosexual = category • Primes: fag & fairy = derogatory• Targets:• stereotypical +• stereotypical -• counter-stereotypical +• counter-stereotypical -• irrelevant +• irrelevant -
Study 2: subliminal priming paradigm
• derogatory primes differed from category primes in terms of…
• stereotype
• prejudice
• stereotypical prejudice
Study 2: subliminal priming paradigm
• Stereotype hypothesis:
• Compared to Category primes Derogatory primes
• Speed RTs for stereotypical targets
• Slow down Rts for counter-stereotypical targets
• Do not affect Irrelevant targets
• Regardless of the valence of those targets
Study 2: subliminal priming paradigm
• Prejudice hypothesis:
• Compared to Category primes Derogatory primes
• Speed RTs for negative targets
• Slow down Rts for positive targets
• Regardless of the stereotypicality of those targets
Study 2: subliminal priming paradigm
• Stereotypic prejudice hypothesis:• Derogatory primes: • Speed RTs for negative stereotypical targets • Slow down Rts for positive stereotypical targets• Category primes:• Activate positive and negative stereotypical
targets in a more balanced fashion
Study 2: subliminal priming paradigm
• Main effect
• No interaction with the prime equal level of stereotyping for category and derogatory labesl
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
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15
accessibility
stereotypical
irrelevant
counter-stereotypica
Study 2: subliminal priming paradigm
• Prime by valence interaction:
-15
-10
-5
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15
pos neg
category
derogatory
Study 2: subliminal priming paradigm
• Sum Up…
• Derogatory group labels affect the perceivers’ prejudice but not the perceivers’ stereotype
• Confirming the Pilot Study and the Study 1, derogatory group labels weakend the strenght of category-positive association
Study 2: subliminal priming paradigm
• Limits:
• We relied on heterosexual participants but what about homosexual participants?
• Do they react in the same way?
• Study 3 addressed this issue with the same experimental procedure
Study 3: subliminal priming paradigm
Hypothesis 1:
• stereotype held by a dominant group towards a stigmatized minority group massively permeates mass-media and representation of groups are transmitted and reproduced throughout interpersonal communication
• the “cultural stereotype” of homosexuals, as well as the derogatory labels associated with that group, may be just as accessible to homosexuals as it is to heterosexuals
• Titti De Simone : “after all, also us homosexuals have been educated to be heterosexuals”.
Study 3: subliminal priming paradigm
• Hypothesis 2:
• emotional reactions of anger are more likely to emerge when perceivers see the target of an offensive action as a part of their own group
• one would expect homosexuals (i.e., the target of the derogatory labels in our studies) to evaluate derogatory group labels, such as fag, as much more harmful than heterosexuals
Study 3: subliminal priming paradigm
• Hypothesis 3• homosexual participants may no longer conceive
terms like fag or fairy as negative labels. • Minority groups import derogatory language, originally
created by hostile majority groups, into minority speech, thereby changing the implicit valence of such terms
• Re-framed by minority members in a positive manner thus to reclaim them as terms of pride
• All terms referred to the ingroup, which is positively valued, becomes positively connoted
Study 3: subliminal priming paradigm
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pos neg
category
derogatory
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pos neg
category
derogatory
homosexualsheterosexuals
Confirming hypothesis 3
Conclusion…
• 1-derogatory group labels affect perceivers’ automatic evaluation of the target group
• 2-derogatory group labels reduced the positive valenced associations but do not affect the negative-valenced associations
• 3-assymetry between majority group and minority target group
Conclusion
• Poor Europe. The fags are in the majority” (Tremaglia Mirko)
• Fag is not a synonymous of gay