Desalination

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Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)

Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)

Desalination Water from Water

Edited by

Jane Kucera

Copyright © 2014 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.

Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Massachusetts.Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Cover design by Kris Hackerott

Library of Congr ess Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-118-20852-6

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

In fond memory of Julius “Bud” Glater, my thesis advisor and mentor, and a pioneer in the development of water desalination

technologies

vii

Contents

Preface xviiContributing Authors xixNotice from the Publisher xxxi

Section I Introduction 1

1 Introduction to Desalination 3Jane Kucera1.1 Introduction 31.2 How Much Water is There? 4

1.2.1 Global Water Availability 41.2.2 Water Demand 61.2.3 Additional Water Stress Due to

Climate Change 71.3 Finding More Fresh Water 8

1.3.1 Move Water from Water-Rich to Water-Poor Areas 8

1.3.2 Conservation and Reuse 91.3.3 Develop New Sources of Freshwater 10

1.4 Desalination: Water from Water 121.4.1 Drivers for Desalination 121.4.2 Feed Water Sources for Desalination 141.4.3 Current Users of Desalinated Water 181.4.4 Overview of Desalination Technologies 181.4.5 History of Desalination Technologies 211.4.6 The Future of Desalination 29

1.5 Desalination: Water from Water Outline 32Abbreviations 34References 35

viii Contents

Section II Traditional Thermal Process 39

2 Thermal Desalination Processes 41Joachim Gebel2.1 Thermodynamic Fundamentals 41

2.1.1 First and Second Rule of Thermodynamics 412.1.2 Boiling and Boiling Point Elevation 482.1.3 Heat Transfer 512.1.4 Compression of Gases 55

2.2 Mass- and Energy Balances 562.2.1 Single-Stage Evaporation 562.2.2 Multiple-Effect Distillation (MED) 652.2.3 Multi-Stage-Flash – Evaporation (MSF) 832.2.4 Multiple-Effect Distillation with

Thermally Driven Vapour Compression 972.2.5 Single-Stage Evaporation with

Mechanically Driven Vapour Compression 1092.3 Performance of Thermal

Desalination Processes 1152.3.1 Defi nition of Gained Output Ratio 1152.3.2 Single Purpose vs. Dual Purpose Plants 1192.3.3 Specifi c Primary Energy Consumption 133

2.4 Historical Review 1392.5 State-of-the-Art 143

2.5.1 Multiple-Effect Distillation (MED) 1432.5.2 Multi-Stage-Flash Evaporation (MSF) 1482.5.3 Multiple-Effect Distillation with

Thermally Driven Vapour Compression 1492.6 Future Prospects 150References 154

Section III Membrane Processes 155

3 The Reverse Osmosis Process 157Mark Wilf3.1 The Reverse Osmosis Process 1573.2 Permeate Recovery Rate (Conversion Ratio) 1593.3 Net Driving Pressure 1593.4 Salt - Water Separation in Reverse

Osmosis Process 160

Contents ix

3.5 Water Transport 161 3.6 Salt Transport 162 3.7 Salt Passage and Salt Rejection 163 3.8 Temperature Effect on Transport Rate 164 3.9 Average Permeate Flux 1653.10 Specifi c Water Permeability of a Membrane 1653.11 Concentration Polarization 1663.12 Commercial RO/NF Membrane Technology 1663.13 Cellulose Acetate Membranes 1673.14 Composite Polyamide Membranes 1693.15 Membrane Module Confi gurations 1713.16 Spiral Wound Elements 1713.17 Spiral Wound Element Categories 1743.18 RO System Confi guration 1773.19 Membrane Assembly Unit 1793.20 Concentrate Staging 1803.21 Permeate Staging (Two Pass Systems) 1823.22 Partial Two Pass Confi guration 1833.23 Calculation of System Performance 185

3.23.1 Manual Method of Membrane System Performance Calculations 185

3.23.2 Calculations of RO Performance Using Computer Programs 188

3.24 Monitoring of Process Parameters and Equipment Performance in RO System 189

3.25 Normalization of RO System Performance 1913.26 Membrane Elements Fouling Process 1953.27 Performance Restoration 198

3.27.1 Chemical Cleaning 198 3.27.2 Direct Osmosis Cleaning 202

References 203

4 Nanofi ltration – Theory and Application 205Christopher Bellona4.1 Introduction 2064.2 Defi ning Nanofi ltration 2064.3 History of Nanofi ltration 2104.4 Theory 212

4.4.1 Mechanisms of Solute Removal 2134.4.2 Modeling NF Separations 2204.4.3 Membrane Fouling 223

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4.5 Application 2254.5.1 Water and Wastewater Treatment Industry 2264.5.2 Food Industry 2334.5.3 Chemical Processing Industry 236

4.6 Conclusions 238References 238

5 Forward Osmosis 255Jeffrey McCutcheon and Nhu-Ngoc Bui5.1 The Limitations of Conventional Desalination 255

5.1.1 Osmotic Pressure 2565.2 Forward Osmosis 258

5.2.1 History of FO 2585.2.2 Benefi ts of Forward Osmosis 260

5.3 The Draw Solution 2625.3.1 Inorganic solutes 2625.3.2 Nanomaterials 2635.3.3 Organic Solutes 264

5.4 The Membrane 2655.4.1 Mass Transfer Limitations in

Forward Osmosis 2665.4.2 Tailored membranes for FO 268

5.5 Process Design and Desalination Applications 2765.6 Future Directions 2765.7 Acknowledgements 277References 277

6 Electrodialysis Desalination 287Hong-Joo Lee, Seung-Hyeon Moon6.1 Principles of Electrodialysis 2876.2 Preparation and Characterization of

Ion Exchange Membranes 2906.2.1 Preparation of Ion Exchange Membranes 2906.2.2 Characterization of Ion Exchange Membranes 2936.2.3 Concentration Polarization and the

Limiting Current Density 2956.3 ED Equipment Design and Desalination Process 303

6.3.1 ED Stack Design 3036.3.2 ED Process Design 3056.3.3 ED Operation and Maintenance 306

Contents xi

6.3.4 Design Parameters in Desalting ED 3076.3.5 Economics of the ED Process 310

6.4 Control of Fouling in an ED Desalination Process 3136.4.1 Fouling Mechanism 3136.4.2 Fouling Potential 3156.4.3 Fouling Mitigation 316

6.5 Prospects for ED Desalination 3186.5.1 Integration with ED for the Desalination 3186.5.2 Process Intensifi cation of the ED

Desalination System 3206.5.3 Perspectives of ED Desalination 322

6.6 Concluding Remarks 323References 324

7 Continuous Electrodeionization 327Jonathan H. Wood, Joseph D. Gifford7.1 Introduction 3277.2 Development History 3297.3 Technology Overview 329

7.3.1 Mechanisms of Ion Removal 3317.4 CEDI Module Construction 332

7.4.1 Device Confi gurations 3327.4.2 Resin Confi gurations 3337.4.3 Flow Spacers 338

7.5 Electroactive Media Used in CEDI Devices 3397.5.1 Ion Exchange Resin Selection 3397.5.2 Ion Exchange Membrane Selection 340

7.6 DC Current and Voltage 3417.6.1 Faraday’s Law 3417.6.2 Current Effi ciency and E-factor 3417.6.3 Ohm’s Law and Module Resistance 3427.6.4 Electrode Reactions and Material Selection 344

7.7 System Design Considerations 3447.7.1 Required Process Control & Instrumentation 3457.7.2 Optional Process Control & Instrumentation 346

7.8 Process Design Considerations 3477.8.1 Feed Water Requirements 3487.8.2 Hardness 3487.8.3 Carbon Dioxide 3507.8.4 Oxidants 3517.8.5 Temperature 352

xii Contents

7.8.6 Water Recovery 3537.8.7 Recycling of CEDI Reject Stream 3547.8.8 Total Organic Carbon 3547.8.9 Electrode Gases 355

7.9 Operation and Maintenance 3577.9.1 Estimation of Operating Current and Voltage 3577.9.2 Power Supply Operation 3587.9.3 Power Consumption 3587.9.4 Flows and Pressures 3597.9.5 Record Keeping 3617.9.6 Cleaning and Sanitization 3617.9.7 Preventive Maintenance 365

7.10 Applications 3657.10.1 Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology 3657.10.2 Steam Generation 3667.10.3 Microelectronics/Semiconductor 3667.10.4 System Sizing 367

7.11 Future Trends 367References 368

8 Membrane Distillation: Now and Future 373Xing Yang, Anthony G. Fane, Rong Wang8.1 Introduction 3738.2 MD Concepts and Historic Development 375

8.2.1 MD Concepts and Confi gurations 3758.2.2 Historic Development 378

8.3 MD Transport Mechanisms 3808.3.1 Mass Transfer in MD 3808.3.2 Heat Transfer in MD 384

8.4 Strategic Development for an Enhanced MD System 3878.4.1 MD Membranes 3878.4.2 MD Module Design 3898.4.3 MD Process Parameters 399

8.5 Energy and Cost Evaluation in MD 4008.5.1 Thermal Effi ciency and Cost Evaluation 4018.5.2 Current Status of MD Cost and Energy

Resources 4038.6 Innovations on MD Application Development 4068.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects 408References 411

Contents xiii

Section IV Non-Traditional Desalination Processes 425

9 Humidifi cation Dehumidifi cation Desalination 427G. Prakash Narayan and John H. Lienhard V9.1 Introduction 427

9.1.1 Humidifi cation Dehumidifi cation (HDH) Desalination 431

9.1.2 Review of Systems in Literature 4339.2 Thermal Design 436

9.2.1 Design Models 4379.2.2 Analysis of Existing Embodiments of the

HDH System 4389.2.3 Systems with Mass Extraction and Injection 4499.2.4 Experimental Realization of HDH with

Extraction 4539.3 Bubble Column Dehumidifi cation 456

9.3.1 Modeling and Experimental Validation 4579.3.2 Prototype 4599.3.3 Comparison to Existing Devices 4629.3.4 Summary of Bubble Column

Dehumidifi cation in HDH Systems 4639.4 Cost of Water Production 463Acknowledgments 465References 468

10 Freezing-Melting Desalination Process 473Mohammad Shafi ur Rahman and Mohamed Al-Khusaibi10.1 Introduction 47310.2 Background or History of Freezing Melting Process 47510.3 Principles of Freezing-Melting Process 47610.4 Major Types of Freezing-Melting Process 47710.5 Direct Contact Freezing 477

10.5.1 Ice Nucleation 477 10.5.2 Ice Separation Unit 483 10.5.3 Wash Columns 483 10.5.4 Melting Unit 485

10.6 Direct Contact Eutectic Freezing 48510.7 Indirect-Contact FM Process 486

10.7.1 Internally Cooled 486 10.7.2 Externally cooled 488

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10.8 Vacuum Process 489 10.8.1 Vapor-Compression System 489 10.8.2 Vapor-Absorption 490 10.8.3 Multiple-Phase Transformation 490

10.9 Block FM Process 49010.10 Applications 49110.11 Future Challenges 493Acknowledgment 495References 495

11 Desalination by Ion Exchange 503Bill Bornak11.1 Introduction 50411.2 Early Ion Exchange Desalination Processes 50511.3 Life after RO 50711.4 Ion Exchange Softening as Pre-Treatment 50811.5 Softening by Ion Exchange 50911.6 Boron-Selective Ion Exchange Resins as

Post-Treatment 51111.7 New Vessel Designs 51511.8 New Resin Bead Design 51711.9 Conclusion 519References 519

12 Electrosorption of Heavy Metals with Capacitive Deionization: Water Reuse, Desalination and Resources Recovery 521Pei Xu, Brian Elson and Jörg E Drewes12.1 Introduction 522

12.1.1 Removal of Heavy Metals from Aqueous Solutions 522

12.1.2 Capacitive Deionization 52412.2 Experimental Methods 527

12.2.1 CDI Treatment System 527 12.2.2 Feed Water Quality and Sample Analysis 528

12.3 Results and Discussions 531 12.3.1 CDI Voltage and Current Profi les 531 12.3.2 Removal of Heavy Metals from Electrolytes 532 12.3.3 Removal of Cyanide 539

12.4 Conclusions 541References 543

Contents xv

Section V Renewable Energy Sources to Power Desalination 549

13 Solar Desalination 551Mohammad Abutayeh, Chennan Li, D. Yogi Goswami and Elias K. Stefanakos13.1 Introduction 55313.2 Direct Solar Desalination 555

13.2.1 Solar Pond 555 13.2.2 Solar Still 556

13.3 Indirect Solar Desalination 557 13.3.1 Conventional Desalination 557 13.3.2 Renewable Energy Driven Desalination 558 13.3.3 Thermal Driven Processes 559 13.3.4 Mechanical and Electrical Power Driven

Processes 56313.4 Non−Conventional Solar Desalination 568

13.4.1 Solar Assisted Passive Vacuum 568 13.4.2 Solar Driven Humidifi cation–

Dehumidifi cation 570 13.4.3 Power−Water Cogeneration 572

13.5 Process Evaluation 572 13.5.1 System Integration 572 13.5.2 Solar System Considerations 573 13.5.3 Solar Collectors 575 13.5.4 Photovoltaics 575 13.5.5 Environmental Impact 576

References 578

Section VI Future Expectations 583

14 Future Expectations 585Patrick V. Brady and Michael M. Hightower14.1 Introduction 58514.2 Historical Trends in Fresh Water

Supply Development 58614.3 Emerging Trends and Directions in

Alternative Water Supply Development 590 14.3.1 Desalination of Impaired Waters 592

xvi Contents

14.3.2 Impaired Water Usage in Energy Production 596

14.3.3 Salinization 59914.4 Desalination for Oil and Gas 600

14.4.1 Water Treatment and the Oil Sands 601 14.4.2 Treatment of HydrofrackingFlowback 604 14.4.3 Chemical Waterfl ooding for Enhanced

Oil Recovery 60914.5 The Future of Desalination Technologies 611

14.5.1 Biomimetic and Nanotech Membranes 61414.6 Summary 614References 615

Index 619

xvii

Preface

The world-wide demand for “fresh” water is growing exponen-tially, while the supply of readily-available fresh water is dwin-dling nearly as quickly. Several diverse techniques have been implemented to try to meet the growing demand for fresh water, with variable degrees of success. One technique that is growing in application is desalination. Desalination encompasses a host of technologies such that clean water may be generated regardless of location, make-up source, and/or energy source.

This book explores numerous desalination technologies. Some of the technologies that are covered here are highly commercialized and are in extensive use today, while others are under development and may be commercially-viable tomorrow. This book also touches on renewable energy sources as drivers for desalination.

World-renounced experts have contributed to this book. The authors’ experience, which ranges from about 10 to over 41 years in their respective fi elds, covers the gamut from academia to real-world application. I thank the authors for contributing their time and sharing their expertise to help us explore the possibilities within the realm of desalination.

xix

Contributing Authors

Chapter 1

Jane Kucera (volume editor)

Jane Kucera is a chemical engineer with over 31 years’ experience in the area of membrane technology. Jane began her work with mem-branes in 1982 while working in the Seawater Laboratory at UCLA, where she received her M.S. Degree in Chemical Engineering in 1984. She then went to work for Bend Research, Inc., as a research engineer, where she spent 7 years developing novel membrane materials and process designs, including serving as lead researcher for several NASA research contracts to develop membrane-based water-recovery and reuse systems for the International Space Station. While with USFilter Corporation, she designed the 2 MGD Honouliuli Water Reclamation Facility for Oahu, Hawaii, which involves treating secondary municipal effl uent with microfi ltra-tion and reverse osmosis desalination for reuse as boiler feed for refi neries and power generation facilities. Jane is currently a Senior Technical Consultant in the Engineering and Project Development Group at Nalco/an Ecolab Company where she is responsible for developing industrial desalination treatment equipment and sys-tem designs. She has authored the book, Reverse Osmosis: Design, Applications and Processes for Engineers, and has contributed chapters to several other volumes covering membranes, reverse osmosis, and desalination. Jane also received a BA in Chemistry, Summa Cum Laude, from Linfi eld College in McMinnville, OR.

Chapter 2

Joachim Gebel

Dr. Joachim Gebel received his Doctorate in Mechanical Engineering, Summa Cum Laude, from RWTH Aachen University

xx Contributing Authors

in 1990. For more than 20 years, Joachim has worked as a consul-tant in different functions; since 2003, he is co-owner and acting partner of S.T.E.P. Consulting GmbH, Aachen, Germany. Joachim has focused on topics such as seawater and brackish water desali-nation, waste water treatment, dual-purpose plants and cogenera-tion throughout his career. With their book “An Engineer’s Guide to Seawater Desalination,” published in 2008, Joachim and his co-author Dr. Süleyman Yüce reported on important topics of main desalination technologies, from the basics up to material prob-lems, as well as the design and the operation of facilities. Joachim is currently a Professor in the Department of Technology and Bionics at the Hochschule Rhein-Waal in Kleve, Germany, where he presents lectures on thermodynamics, process engineering and plant design.

Chapter 4

Mark Wilf

Dr Mark Wilf has been involved in process development, system design, project execution, plant operation and maintenance of large, commercial desalination plants in US, Europe and Middle East since 1977. Mark is a regular contributor to professional journals, wrote chapters on membrane technology processes and applica-tions to a number of books. He edited and wrote with other coau-thors The Guidebook to Membrane Desalination Technology that has been published in 2006. The second book on membrane tech-nology he edited and contributed to: The Guidebook to Membrane Technology for Wastewater Reclamation has been published in 2010. Mark regularly presents and teaches desalination and mem-brane technology subjects to engineers and water professionals. His teaching activity includes teaching course on membrane tech-nology and desalination for the European Desalination Society at the Genoa University, Italy and in San Diego.

Chapter 5

Christopher Bellona

Dr. Christopher Bellona is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Clarkson University.

Contributing Authors xxi

Dr. Bellona’s past research has largely been focused on membrane science and the potable reuse of wastewater effl uent. His research has spanned both fundamental and applied aspects of water reuse including the fate and removal of constituents of concern (e.g., organic contaminants, nutrients), membrane fouling, modeling, and pilot-scale testing of membrane technologies. His current research is focused on membrane systems for anaerobic wastewater treatment, extraction of energy and valuable materials from waste streams, and development of novel and hybrid membrane systems. He received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Environmental Science and Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines, and his B.S. in Environmental Science from Western Washington University.

Chapter 5

Jeff McCutcheon

Nhu-Ngol Bui

Chapter 6

Hong-Joo LeeProf. Hong-Joo Lee has been working on the membrane pro-cess development for the application of bioenergy in the Dept. Bioenergy Sci. & Technol. at Chonnam National University. Major areas of his research are related to membrane applications on the bioethanol separation, the removal of inhibitors, and the recovery of acid catalysts. Also, his interesting research area expands to mem-brane fouling, and development of integrated membrane process. Furthermore, he also concerns climate change, the pretreatment for the use of lignocellulosic biomass, the development of membrane bioreactors, and biorefi nery. He gives lectures on organic chemistry, physical chemistry, analytical chemistry, fermentation engineering, biochemical engineering, and bioprocess engineering.

Seung-Hyeon Moon

Prof. Seung-Hyeon Moon has been working on synthesis, charac-terization, and process application of electromembranes in School of Environmental Science and Engineering at Gwangju Institute of

xxii Contributing Authors

Science and Technology. He gives lectures on transport phenomena, electrochemistry, and water chemistry. In the area of environmental applications, the membranes studies are focused on electrodialysis, electrodeionization, and capacitive deionization. Further his recent interests are expanded to charged membranes for energy conver-sion systems including fuel cells, rechargeable battery and redox fl ow battery based on polymer physics and nanoionics to innovate the electromembrane processes.

Chapter 7

Jonathan Wood

Jonathan Wood is Manager of Process Development for Siemens Water Technologies in Lowell, MA. He has a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Worcester, MA and an M.S. in Environmental Engineering from Northeastern University in Boston, MA. Jon has over 30 years experience in water purifi cation, encom-passing research, product development, product management and technical service. He started his career with Barnstead Company, working with distillation, pure steam generation, and deionization equipment, and then joined Millipore Corporation, where he was part of the team that commercialized electrodeionization. He has continued to work in this fi eld with USFilter, Veolia, and Siemens.

Joseph Gifford

Joseph Gifford is Director of R&D - Industrial for Siemens Water Technologies in Lowell, MA He has a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Worcester, MA and an M.S. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Massachusetts in Lowell, MA where he was awarded the Dean’s Gold Medal and the Outstanding Graduate Student award. He is currently respon-sible for all Research and Development activities for the Industrial Division of Siemens Water Technologies.

Chapter 8

Xing Yang

Dr. Xing Yang is currently a membrane researcher in Singapore Membrane Technology Centre (SMTC). With a background on

Contributing Authors xxiii

chemical engineering, she has been involved in membrane tech-nology, wastewater treatment and desalination industry for close to eight years. Xing received her PhD In 2012 in civil and environ-mental engineering from Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore. Major areas of her research are related to membrane applications on membrane contactors for liquid/gas and liquid/liq-uid separation, membrane distillation (MD) and membrane distilla-tion crystallization (MDC). During her PhD study, she has authored more than 10 publications in Tier-1 journals, specifi cally on mem-brane characterization, membrane surface modifi cation, process design and optimization, membrane module design, fl ow dynamics and mass/heat transfer analyses using computational fl uid dynam-ics (CFD) modeling, and process simulation and energy analysis of membrane separation for water systems using Aspen Plus. Also, her recent work has covered matrix modular design and economic analysis for RO brine processing and interdisciplinary research for non-invasive fl ow studies in hollow fi ber modules with the aid of nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) instruments.

Anthony G. Fane

Tony Fane is a Chemical Engineer from Imperial College, London, who has worked on membranes since 1973. His current interests are in membranes applied to environmental applications and the water cycle, with a focus on sustainability aspects of membrane technol-ogy, including desalination and reuse. He is a former Director of the UNESCO Centre for Membrane Science and Technology at UNSW. Since 2002 he has directed membrane research in Singapore as Temasek Professor (2002-2006) at Nanyang Technological University, then as Foundation Director of the Singapore Membrane Technology Centre (SMTC) at NTU. He is now Director-Mentor at SMTC. The SMTC has a group of over 85 researchers dedicated to fundamental and applied research into membranes for the water cycle. He is on the Advisory Board of the Journal of Membrane Science (former edi-tor from 1992 to 2005) and Editorial Board of Desalination. He is the Patron of the Membrane Society of Australasia.

Rong Wang

Dr. Rong Wang is currently an Associate Professor in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological

xxiv Contributing Authors

University, Singapore. She also holds the position of Director, Singapore Membrane Technology Centre (SMTC).

Dr. Wang has 25 years of experience in Chemical Engineering, Water, Environment and Energy related R&D. She specializes in novel membrane development for water and wastewater treat-ment, liquid purifi cation and gas separation, and in development of novel hybrid membrane systems and process simulation. Her research interests cover (1) novel forward osmosis (FO)/pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) hollow fi ber membranes, low pressure nanofi ltration (NF) hollow fi ber membranes, bio-mimetic mem-branes, hydrophobic hollow membranes and mixed matrix mem-branes for seawater desalination, wastewater treatment, membrane contactor for CO2 capture, etc; (2) simulation and optimization of various membrane processes such as membrane contactor, mem-brane distillation and separation of mixed gases in membrane modules, etc.

Dr. Wang has over 130 SCI-tracked journal publications (cited times: >2600, h-index: 32 @Scopus) and over 100 conference contri-butions. She is the inventor of 20 patents/ technical disclosures for novel membrane fabrication. She has co-authored 6 book chapters. She is the editorial board member for two journals of Journal of Membrane Science, and Desalination. She was a Guest Editor for two special issues of Desalination in 2011 and 2013. As PI and Co-PI of projects, she has been successfully awarded research grants of over S$15 millions by the governmental agencies and industry in the past fi ve years.

Chapter 9

Prakash Narayan Govindan

Dr. Prakash Narayan Govindan is a recent PhD from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and he was also a MIT Legatum fellow for the year 2010-2011. Prakash received the de Florez prize at MIT for graduate design and a best paper award at the IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse. His research experiences include pool boiling heat transfer studies of nanoparticle suspensions, thermodynamic design of combined cycle (gas and steam turbine) power plants, and thermal design of seawater desalination sys-tems. He has co-authored 13 international journal publications and has fi led 14 patent disclosures at the US PTO.

Contributing Authors xxv

John H. Lienhard V

Dr. John Lienhard is the Samuel C. Collins Professor of Mechanical Engineering at MIT. During more than 25 years on the MIT fac-ulty, Lienhard’s research and educational efforts have focused on heat transfer, desalination, thermodynamics, fl uid mechanics, and instrumentation. He has also fi lled a number of administrative roles at MIT. Lienhard received his bachelors and masters degrees in ther-mal engineering at UCLA from the Chemical, Nuclear, and Thermal Engineering Department, where he worked on thermal instabili-ties in solar collectors and evaporating meniscus measurements for desalination systems. He joined MIT immediately after com-pleting his PhD in the Applied Mechanics and Engineering Science Department at UC San Diego, where he did experimental work on thermally stratifi ed turbulent fl ows. Since coming to MIT, Lienhard has worked on liquid jet impingement, buoyant instabilities, high heat fl ux engineering, electronics thermal management, glass fi ber formation, and thermally-driven desalination processes. He is a recipient of the 1988 National Science Foundation Presidential Young Investigator Award, the 1992 SAE Teetor Award, a 1997 R&D 100 Award, and the 2012 ASME Technical Communities Globalization Medal. He has been the Director of the Rohsenow Kendall Heat Transfer Laboratory since 1997, and he is a Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. He serves on the editorial boards of several international journals, including the International Journal of Thermal Sciences, Desalination and Water Treatment, Desalination, Experimental Heat Transfer, and Frontiers in Heat and Mass Transfer. Lienhard is the co-author of textbooks on heat transfer and on measurement and instrumentation. At MIT, Lienhard has served as Associate Head of the ME department, Undergraduate Offi cer, Head of the Fluids, Energy & Transport Division of ME, and as chair or member of innumerable committees. Professor Lienhard is cur-rently the Director of the Center for Clean Water and Clean Energy at MIT and KFUPM, and he visits the Arabian Gulf often.

Chapter 10

M. Shafi ur Rahman

Dr. Mohammad Shafi ur Rahman, Professor at the Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman, is the author or co-author of over

xxvi Contributing Authors

250 technical articles including 100 journal papers and 7 books. He is the author of the internationally acclaimed and award-wining Food Properties Handbook, and editor of the popular Handbook of Food Preservation published by CRC Press, Florida. First edi-tions received the bestseller recognition and the second edition is now released. He is one of the co-authors of the Handbook of Food Process Design, which is recently published by Wiley-Blackwell, UK. He has initiated the International Journal of Food Properties and serving as the founding Editor-in-Chief for more than 10 years, and serving in the editorial boards of 10 international journals and book series. In 1998 he has been invited and continued to serve as a Food Science Adviser for the International Foundation for Science, Sweden. He received the HortResearch Chairman’s Award, BRAP Award, CAMS Outstanding Researcher Award 2003, and SQU Distinction in Research Award 2008. In 2008, Professor Rahman has ranked among the top fi ve Leading Scientists and Engineers of 57 OIC Member Countries in the Agroscience Discipline. He received the B. Sc. Eng. (Chemical) in 1983 and M. Sc. Eng. (Chemical) in 1984 from Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, M. Sc. in food engineering in 1985 from Leeds University, England, and Ph. D. in food engineering in 1992 from the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.

Mohamed Al-Khusaibi

Dr. Mohamed Al-Khusaibi, Assistant Professor at the Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman. He has completed his B. Sc. (Food Science) in 2000 and M. Sc. (Food Science) in 2005 from the Sultan Qaboos University. He has completed his Ph. D. degree in 2011 from the University of Reading, UK.

Chapter 11

William E. Bornak

Bill Bornak has specialized in water treatment for over 40 years, developing particular expertise in resin- and membrane-based demineralization for high pressure boilers and microelectronics applications. In 2001, he formed a new corporation, Recirculation Technologies Inc. (RTI) with former Betz vice president, Bob Finley, to purchase the mobile resin cleaning operation from the company.

Contributing Authors xxvii

Bill is a member of several technical societies and has lectured extensively in North and South America, Europe, Asia and the Middle East. He has published numerous papers on specialized topics in water chemistry and ion exchange. Trained as an analyti-cal chemist, he graduated with a B.A. in chemistry from LaSalle University in Philadelphia and did graduate work in biochemistry at the University of Pennsylvania. He has worked in ion exchange for both (now) Dow/Rohm and Haas and (then) Betz Laboratories, where he was water plant consultant and training director.

Chapter 12

Pei Xu

Dr. Pei Xu is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at New Mexico State University. Her research has focused on water and wastewater treatment engineering; treatment and benefi cial use of produced water; desalination; membrane pro-cesses; potable and non-potable water reuse; water quality; and photocatalysis. She has authored and co-authored over 100 papers, book chapters, technical reports and conference presentations. She received her B.S in Environmental Engineering from Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology, M.S. in Water and Wastewater Engineering from Lanzhou Jiaotong University, China, and Ph.D. in Hydrosciences from Ecole Nationale du Génie Rural, des Eaux et des Forêts (ENGREF), France. Dr. Xu is a proposal reviewer for RPSEA/Department of Energy, Bureau of Reclamation, Civilian Research and Development Foundation (CRDF), Water Research Foundation (Formerly AwwaRF), NASA EPSCoR panel, and Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF). She is also a regular reviewer for scientifi c journals such as Environmental Science and Technology, Water Research, Journal of Membrane Science, Desalination, and Separation and Purifi cation Technology, etc.

Chapter 13

D. Yogi Goswami

Dr. Yogi Goswami is a University Distinguished Professor, the John and Naida Ramil Professor in the Chemical Engineering

xxviii Contributing Authors

Department and Co-Director of the Clean Energy Research Center at the University of South Florida. He conducts fundamental and applied research on solar thermal energy, thermodynamics, heat transfer, HVAC, photovoltaics, hydrogen, and fuel cells. Professor Goswami is the Editor-in-Chief of the Solar Energy journal. Within the fi eld of RE he has published as author/editor 16 books, 16 book chapters, 6 conference proceedings and more than 300 ref-ereed technical papers. He has delivered 51 keynote and plenary lectures at major international conferences. He holds 18 patents. A recognized leader in professional scientifi c and technical societies, Prof. Goswami has served as a Governor of ASME-International (2003-2006), President of the International Solar Energy Society (2004-2005), Senior Vice President of ASME (2000-2003), Vice President of ISES and President of the International Association for Solar Energy Education (IASEE, 2000-2002).

Elias (Lee) Stefankos

Dr. Lee Stefanakos is presently Professor of Electrical Engineering and Director of the Clean Energy Research Center (CERC) at the University of South Florida (USF) located in Tampa, Florida, USA. Up to August 2003 and for 13 years he was Chairman of the Department of Electrical Engineering at USF. He is an Associate Editor of the Journal of Solar Energy; Co-Editor-USA of the Journal of Asian Electric Vehicles; and Vice President for Academic Affairs of the American Foundation for Greek Language and Culture. He has published more than 140 research papers in refereed journals and international conferences in the areas of materials, renewable energy sources and systems, hydrogen and fuel cells, and electric and hybrid vehicles. He has received more than $14 million in contracts and grants from agencies such as the National Science Foundation (NSF), US Department of Energy (USDOE), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and others. He has been a con-sultant to a number of companies and international organizations. CERC is an interdisciplinary center whose mission is the develop-ment of clean energy sources and systems with emphasis on tech-nology development and technology transfer.