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APPENDIX

Description of cities and plans selected for the in-depth analysis –

Assessment of Plans and Programmes reported under 1996/62/EC

Service contract to the European Commission

- DG Environment Contract No. 070402/2005/421167/MAR/C1

REPORT REP-0080

Vienna, December 2006

Imprint

Editor: Umweltbundesamt GmbH Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090 Vienna/Austria

Available only electronically on website of the European Commission at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/ambient.htm

© European Commission, 2007 - Brussels All rights reserved ISBN 3-85457-877-6

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/ambient.htm

Appendix – Description of cities and plans selected for the in-depth analysis

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1 DESCRIPTION OF CITIES AND PLANS SELECTED FOR THE IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS

In this appendix, an overview is given of the 18 cities and regions that were chosen for the in-depth analysis in chapter 5 of the main report. This overview includes a short description of the cities themselves, meteorological and climatic situation, and air quality (with emphasis on the pollutants and years for which a plan had to be drawn up). A summary of the cities’ plans and programmes as well as transport plans (where available) is given as well.

The 18 cities and regions described are:

l Austria Graz l Austria Vienna l Belgium Brussels l Denmark Copenhagen l France Paris l France Marseille l Germany Munich l Germany Berlin l Germany Stuttgart l Italy Bozen l Italy Milan l Netherlands National plan l Sweden Stockholm l Slovakia Bratislava l Slovakia Košice l Spain Madrid l Spain Barcelona l UK London

1.1 Austria – Graz

1.1.1 Introduction

The city of Graz is the capital of the federal province of Styria. It has about 240,000 inhabitants within the city borders and about 300,000 including the suburbs. Graz is surrounded by hills on three sides.


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Figure 1: View of Graz (source: Wikipedia).

1.1.2 Meteorology and climate

Graz is situated at the south-eastern rim of the Alps and has a transitional climate between oceanic, continental and Mediterranean.

The city is affected by adverse dispersion conditions, which are due to both the overall and the local topographic situation:

l The location of Graz in the south-east of the Alps shades the region from the northern and western synoptic flow and therefore from oceanic air masses, which are associated with fa-vourable dispersion conditions – high wind speed, vertical turbulence, unstable temperature gradient and high precipitation. Therefore, with frequent north-westerly synoptic flows, the region in the south-east of the Alps remains in an air mass with unfavourable dispersion conditions and long-term accumulation of high pollutant levels;

l Graz is located in a shallow basin at the rim of the Alps along the Mur valley. Although the relative elevation of the surrounding hills is less than 200 m, pollutant accumulation in stag-nant air masses causes high regional concentrations in the basin.

1.1.3 Air quality

The city of Graz is affected by the highest levels of PM10 in Austria. Between 2001 and 2005, the number of daily means above 50 µg/m³ was between 117 and 158 for the site with the high-est pollution, “Graz Don Bosco” (Figure 2).


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Figure 2: PM10 annual means and number of daily means above 50 µg/m³ at various monitoring sites in Graz, 2001 to 2005.

At Graz Don Bosco the sum of margin of tolerance and limit value was exceeded for the annual mean of PM10 as well as for the number of daily means in the years 2001 to 2005. At Graz Mitte and Graz Ost the number of daily means above the sum of margin of tolerance and limit value was exceeded in 2002-2005. In addition, in 2003 the sum of margin of tolerance and limit value for the annual mean of NO2 was exceeded at Graz Don Bosco.

The causes of theses exceedances are described in a report (STMK LANDESREGIERUNG 2006, available at: http://www.umwelt.steiermark.at/cms/beitrag/10047572/2054533/, in German only)

http://www.umwelt.steiermark.at/cms/beitrag/10047572/2054533/


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Figure 3: Monitoring site Graz Don Bosco (source: STMK LANDESREGIERUNG 2003).

About 50,000 people are estimated to be affected by annual mean PM10 levels about the limit value, about 150,000 people are exposed to elevated daily PM10 levels.

1.1.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Graz

As the province of Styria is responsible for developing plans and programmes, the province’s government agency developed a so-called “Programme for particulate matter reduction in the province of Styria”, in close collaboration with the city of Graz.

This programme was developed in 2004 and approved by the provincial government on 11th October 2004. An evaluation of the programme was conducted in 2006 (STMK LANDESREGIERUNG 2006a). In addition to this programme, a new ordinance is coming into force in December 2006, which focuses on speed limits and traffic restrictions during high pollu-tion periods.

Following a description of the main emission sources and current air quality, the programme lists a total of 62 measures covering five main areas:

l Traffic (special focus on improvement of public transport) l Industry (focus on emission standards and measures at construction sites) l Diffuse emissions (winter sanding, street cleaning) l Agriculture (various measures to reduce ammonia emissions) l Heating (emission limits, information campaigns concerning efficient energy use)


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Contact person:

Dr. Thomas Pongratz

Fachabteilung 17C Landhausgasse 7 A-8010 Graz Tel.: +43 316 877-2978 E-Mail: [email protected]

The P&P for the province of Styria can be downloaded from: http://www.umwelt.steiermark.at/cms/dokumente/10037780/45aaf805/PGFeinstaub_Endbericht.pdf

1.2 Austria – Vienna

1.2.1 Introduction

Vienna is the capital of Austria; it has about 1.8 million inhabitants within its city borders and about 2.2 million within the agglomeration. The area within the city borders covers roughly 400 km². Vienna is located in the eastern foothills of the Alps on the Danube River.


Vienna is located at the north-eastern fringe of the Alps at the rim of the Pannonian basin. The climate is transitional between oceanic and continental.

The synoptic flow is dominated by two wind directions with fairly equal distribution:

l The north-westerly flow is associated with oceanic air masses, characterised by fairly fa-vourable dispersion conditions:

l The south-easterly flow is associated mainly with continental air masses, which lead to ad-verse dispersion conditions especially in winter, and are often associated with long-range transport from eastern central Europe.

1.2.3 Air quality

Exceedances of limit values mostly occur for PM10 and NO2, with the limit value for the former concerning the daily mean, for the latter the annual mean. The monitoring site that shows the highest PM10 levels is Rinnböckstraße, which is located at a distance of 100 m from the mo-torway with the heaviest traffic in Austria (about 170,000 vehicles per day), see Figure 4.

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.umwelt.steiermark.at/cms/dokumente/10037780/45aaf805/PGFeinstaub_Endb


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Figure 4: Monitoring site Vienna Rinnböckstraße, situated in an administrative building. The elevated motorway A23 can be seen in the background of the image (left image: the air inlet is marked by a circle; right: the monitoring site is marked by a dot in the centre of the image).

About the same PM10 levels can be expected in urban street canyons close to the city centre.


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Figure 5: PM10 annual means and number of daily means above 50 µg/m³ at various monitoring sites in Vienna, 2002 to 2005.

The PM10 levels in Vienna vary between about 40 µg/m³ (Rinnböckstraße monitoring site) and about 20-35 µg/m³ for the urban background sites. In 2003, which saw the highest levels so far and for which a PP had to be prepared, the annual mean of PM10 at Rinnböckstraße was 43 µg/m³. The sum of limit value and margin of tolerance for the daily mean (60 µg/m³ in 2003) was exceeded 73 times; the limit value was exceeded 95 times.

The highest NO2 levels are observed at the monitoring site Hietzinger Kai (Figure 7). About 30,000 vehicles per day are passing by. In 2002 the annual mean of NO2 was 57 µg/m³, in 2003 it was 64 µg/m³ (Figure 6). Hence, P&P had to be prepared for NO2 for the years 2002 and 2003.


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Figure 6: NO2 annual means of various monitoring sites in Vienna, 2001-2005. For the mean urban background values, the mean of 13 sites was taken.

Figure 7: Monitoring site “Hietzinger Kai” (left image: the air inlet is marked by a circle; right: the monitoring site is marked by a dot in the centre of the image).

The reasons for the PM10 and NO2 exceedances can be found in two detailed reports and two summary reports (UMWELTBUNDESAMT 2004, 2004a in German only). It was shown that a con-siderable contribution to PM10 levels originates from sources outside Vienna and also outside Austria. Nevertheless, the local contribution to PM10 levels can be 50 % or more at hot spot sites.


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origin of PM10-concentrations in Viennadaily means > 45µg/m³, June 1999 - March 2004

long range transport Austria Vienna local

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Figure 8: Sketch of contributions to PM10 levels in Vienna on days with PM10 concentrations above 45 µg/m³ (UMWELTBUNDESAMT 2004).

The studies can be downloaded from: http://www.magwien.gv.at/umweltschutz/pool/luft.html.

According to a form submitted to the EC for PM10, the whole population of Vienna is likely to be exposed to levels above the limit value; in the case of NO2 about 500,000 residents and 450-500 km of roads are affected.

1.2.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Vienna

The P&P in Vienna are split into two parts (SIMA & SCHICKER. 2005a, SIMA & SCHICKER 2005b). The first part describes measures for street cleaning and winter maintenance, heating and traffic that have been, or will be applied regardless of the necessity resulting from air qual-ity limit value exceedances (SIMA & SCHICKER 2005a). For street cleaning and winter mainte-nance the most important measures are:

l Ordinance on winter maintenance to reduce the amount of gritting material; l Obligatory use of material with less abrasion (basalt); l Quick removal of gritting material and obligation of house owners to remove gritting material

from the pavement as soon as it is no longer needed.

In the field of stationary sources, the measures are:

l Continued extensions to district heating systems; l Subsidies for thermal insulation (called THEWOSAN); l Promotion of solar energy; l Intensified inspection of private heating systems.

http://www.magwien.gv.at/umweltschutz/pool/luft.html


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For traffic, measures include inter alia:

l Further extension of subway and tramway lines; l Alignment of the transport plan (“Masterplan Verkehr”) with the climate change programme

(“KLIP”); l Extensions to P+R facilities.

The second part of the PPs describes additional measures to deal with AQ limit value ex-ceedances for stationary sources, traffic and urban planning (SIMA & SCHICKER 2005b).

For stationary sources, the measures suggested are:

l Introduction of diesel particle filters for construction machinery (for engines with more than 37 kW starting in September 2006, for engines between 18 kW and 37 kW from January 2008);

l Ban on light fuel oil; l Best practice guidance for the handling of dust emitting materials; l Restrictions on the use of power generators during events l Enforce the use of low emission engines within public authorities

The most important measures for traffic are:

l Speed restriction to 50 km/h on main roads with previously higher speed limits (except mo-torways). This measure was partly withdrawn due to massive campaigning of automobile lob-byists.

l Ban of trucks licensed before 1992 (Euro 0), starting in January 2008; l Shifting freight traffic from road to rail wherever possible (see project RUMBA for some ex-

amples, http://www.rumba-info.at/); l Intensification of remote sensing to identify high emission vehicles.

Concerning urban planning, AQ will be considered in future urban development areas.

In addition, a task force was established to create the legal and technical framework for further measures (“ULI Wien” – “Urbane Luft-Initiative”). The aim of this task force is to establish a clean air strategy for Vienna.

However, the measures will not suffice to comply with the limit values of both PM10 and NO2 by the attainment date, as it has been stated in the forms submitted to the EC. In the case of PM10 the high amount of long range transboundary transport of PM will prevent achievement of compliance at traffic sites.

http://www.rumba-info.at/


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Contact Person:

DI Thomas Mosor Amt der Wiener Landesregierung, MA 22 Ebendorferstraße 4 A-1082 Wien email: [email protected]

The PPs can be downloaded from http://www.wien.gv.at/umweltschutz/luft/feinstaub.html.

1.2.5 Vienna transport plan

The so-called “Vienna Transport Master Plan 2003” was approved by the Viennese municipal council1 in 2003. The plan has the status of a position paper and is based on the transport plan of 1994. The new plan was necessary as the basic conditions had changed since 1994, for in-stance Austria became a member of the EU (1995), and there were new EU member states in Central and Eastern Europe, an increase in mobility and traffic volume, climate change etc.

The main theme of the transport plan is “intelligent mobility”. Within this statement 5 objectives are formulated:

l Sustainability (including avoidance of traffic, sustainable economic development, sustainable social development, and sustainable environmental development)

l Efficiency (resource conservation, including external costs) l Acceptance (communication and motivation as precondition for public awareness) l Cooperation (partnership e.g. with the surrounding regions) l Innovation (of method, operation, organisation, infrastructure and technology) Based on these objectives, the emphasis is placed on 10 action fields. The main action fields refer to safe mobility, various improvements of public transport, cycling, mobility and logistic management and an adequate infrastructure for good living conditions in residential areas.

Progress is evaluated at intervals of 5 years. For the evaluation, a catalogue with different cri-teria (traffic security, noise, air pollutant emissions, GHG emissions) has been produced. The effectiveness of the 1994 transport plan was evaluated in 1996 and in 2002 as a basis for the new transport plan.

From the former transport plan (1994) a series of measures were realised, namely a scheme for charging car-parking fees on public streets and extensions to the underground and bicycle route network.

1.3 Belgium – Brussels

1.3.1 Introduction

The region of the Brussels capital covers an area of 161 km2 and has around 1 million inhabi-tants. It includes 19 communes, which are all part of the urban area of Brussels.

1 http://www.wien.gv.at/stadtentwicklung/verkehrsmasterplan/


http://www.wien.gv.at/umweltschutz/luft/feinstaub.html

http://www.wien.gv.at/stadtentwicklung/verkehrsmasterplan/


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Brussels is located in flat terrain and has an oceanic climate.

Dispersion conditions are, in general, more favourable than in central Europe. Nevertheless, easterly flow in Brussels is often associated with the advection of continental air masses, lead-ing to adverse dispersion conditions and (long range) transport of pollutants.

1.3.3 Air quality

The locations of the air quality monitoring sites in Brussels are shown in Figure 9. Table 1 shows that limit values plus margins of tolerance for NO2 were exceeded at one station in 2003 – 2005 (in 2001, data availability was less than 75 %). Figure 10 shows the trend of NO2 annual averages since 1981.

Figure 9: Location of monitoring sites in the Brussels region (source: IBGE 2006).


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Table 1: NO2 annual mean values for various stations in the Brussels region (source: IBGE 2006).

Figure 10: NO2 annual means at various monitoring sites in Brussels between 1981 and 2005, in µg/m³ (source: IBGE 2006).

As shown in Table 2, Figure 11 and Figure 12, PM10 exceedances mainly concerned the num-ber of days with concentrations above 50 µg/m³. These exceedances occurred in several years at a total of 5 stations. Exceedances of the annual limit value occurred at two stations.


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Table 2: PM10 annual means at various monitoring sites in Brussels (green: correction factor 1.47, yellow: no correction factor because a different method was used, blue: both monitoring methods used. Source: IBGE 2006).

Figure 11: PM10 annual means at various monitoring sites in Brussels between 2000 and 2005, in µg/m³ (source: IBGE 2006).


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Figure 12: Number of daily means of PM10 above 50 µg/m³ at various monitoring sites in Brussels, 2000 to 2005 (source: IBGE 2006).

Figure 13 shows that according to the emission inventory, the transport sector is the main source of NOx, among other pollutants.

Figure 13: Emission inventory for the year 2000, Region of Brussels-Capital.


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1.3.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Brussels

The relevant plan is the so-called “Plan of structural improvement of air quality and campaign against climate change” of 2002. The plan was developed by “Institut Bruxellois pour la Gestion de l’Environnement” (IBGE – BIM).

In the plan, a series of basic principles is laid out, among others: integration of the components of sustainable development, principle of precaution, principle of subsidiarity. For the major pol-lutants, emission target values for the year 2010 are defined. In order to reach these target val-ues, the following measures are laid out:

l Measures in the transport sector (public transport, technical measures, awareness of the public and others)

l Measures in the energy sector (residential, service sector and industry) l Tailored measures for various industry sectors l Measures on the household level l Measures related to individual exposure, with focus on indoor pollution The measures, including rules on organisation, responsibilities and financing, result in a total of 81 rules.

The last part of the plan contains an analysis of the impacts of the plan. For four different sce-narios, corresponding reductions of emissions were estimated.

Contact Person:

Annick MEURRENS Directeur Scientifique Responsable Recherches, Données et Prospectives Institut Bruxellois pour la Gestion de l'Environnement Gulledelle 100 1200 Bruxelles tel: +32 (0)2 7757756 fax: +32 (0)2 7757770 mail: [email protected]

The P&P can be downloaded from: http://www.IBGE.be/FRANCAIS/pdf/Air/PLANAC_complet.pdf

1.4 Denmark – Copenhagen

1.4.1 Introduction

The city of Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, covers an area of 88 km2 and has a popula-tion of 580,000. The metropolitan area covers 460 km2, with another 600,000 inhabitants.


Copenhagen is located in completely flat terrain and has an oceanic climate.


http://www.IBGE.be/FRANCAIS/pdf/Air/PLANAC_complet.pdf


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High wind speeds and air masses of maritime origin during westerly flows lead to relatively fa-vourable dispersion conditions, whereas easterly flow is associated with more adverse disper-sion conditions and also (long-range) transport from central and eastern Europe.

1.4.3 Air quality

The Copenhagen municipality has measured elevated air quality levels for NO2 at H.C. Ander-sens Boulevard, a street with heavy traffic in Copenhagen. Road traffic is the main cause of the NO2 problem, and observed levels have been relatively constant in recent years. Measurement data from 2002 and 2003 show that the mean annual concentrations are above the limit value plus margin of tolerance.

1.4.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Copenhagen

As a consequence of NO2 exceedances, the Danish Environmental Protection Agency prepared an action plan to meet NO2 limit values in 2010, in close co-operation with local authorities. The Environmental Protection Agency of the Municipality of Copenhagen requested an as-sessment of abatement measures to ensure that NO2 limit values are met in 2010, accompa-nied by an assessment of associated public costs.

The abatement measures planned for Copenhagen focus on heavy-duty traffic on main traffic roads in the municipality. Against this background, four scenarios were defined. They take into account traffic policy measures that are currently under discussion in the traffic management of Copenhagen:

l The first scenario focuses on what the municipality can do with measures within municipal management.

l The second scenario considers how much traffic could be reduced if a toll ring or road pric-ing were introduced.

l The third scenario illustrates how many emissions can be reduced by cleaner vehicle emis-sion technologies.

l The fourth scenario comprises all types of measures and illustrates the maximum achievable effect.


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Table 3: The four scenarios suggested for Copenhagen: Measures and their impact on traffic.

Scenario Measure Impact on traffic – experience from larger cities

1. Municipal traffic management

Harbour tunnel Redistributes traffic with reductions of car traffic of 10-30 % on central streets in the city centre of Copenhagen.

Metro city ring Reduces bus traffic by 30-50 % in inner parts of Copenha-gen. Limited effects on passenger cars and no effects on vans and trucks.

Commuter plans Reduce passenger car commuting by 5-10% and therefore reduce traffic during rush hours.

Traffic calming Prevents through traffic in the central parts of Copenhagen. This measure is linked to that of the harbour tunnel.

2. Reduction of car traffic by pricing

A. Toll ring Reduces in particular passenger car traffic crossing the toll ring by about 5-15 % at a toll between 1.3 and 4.0 Euro. No effect on internal trips within the ring. Smaller effect on vans and trucks. The effects are highly depending on the level of the toll.

B. Road pricing Reduces in particular passenger car traffic in the entire area covered by road pricing. Smaller effect on vans and trucks. The effects are highly dependent on the structure of pricing.

3. Cleaner emis-sion technologies

Cleaner buses in Copen-hagen

No impact on traffic levels. All buses meet German proposal for heavy-duty vehicles

All heavy-duty vehicles in environmental zone meet German proposal

No impacts on traffic levels. 100 % heavy-duty vehicles in environmental zone and 33 % outside of zone meet German proposal.

Diesel passenger cars and vans meet German pro-posal

No impact on traffic levels. 16 % of cars and vans meet Ger-man proposal.

4. Maximum effect Harbour tunnel Redistributes traffic with reduction of car traffic by 10-30 % on central streets in the city centre of Copenhagen.

Metro city ring Reduces bus traffic by 30-50 % in inner parts of Copenha-gen. Limited effects on passenger cars and no effect on vans and trucks.

Commuter plans Reduce commuting with passenger cars by 5-10 % and therefore reduce traffic during rush hours.

Traffic calming Prevents through traffic in the central parts of Copenhagen.

Road pricing Reduces in particular passenger car traffic in the entire area covered by road pricing. Smaller effect on vans and trucks. The effects are highly depending on the structure of pricing.

City goods delivery man-agement

Reduces traffic by vans and trucks by 5-10 % in most of the municipality.

Cleaner emission tech-nologies

All of measures listed for scenario 3.

Figure 14 shows the estimated average effect of the different scenarios on NO2 levels for 138 selected streets. The cleaner technology scenario and, hence, the maximum scenario are the only scenarios that achieve a considerable effect as compared to the baseline in 2010. This is true for street concentrations as well as urban background concentrations. Municipal measures have almost no effect on average while the toll ring and road pricing scenarios have a modest effect.


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Figure 14: Average effects on NO2 levels for 138 selected streets for the different scenarios. “Rp” stands for road pricing, “Tech” for cleaner technology, “Mu” for municipal management, “Toll” for toll ring and “Max” for the maximum scenario. “NO2_street” for street concentrations and NO2_background” for the urban background contribution

Besides measures related to the City of Copenhagen, the Danish plans for achieving compli-ance with NO2 limit values in 2010 include a variety of measures defined in national legislation:

l Statutory Order no 21 of 8 January 2006 on emission ceilings for SO2, NOx, VOC and NH3, Directive 2001/81/EC

l Implementation of the IPPC Directive: Statutory Order nr. 943 of 16 September 2004 l Implementation of the LCP Directive: Statutory Order nr. 808 of 23 June 2005 l Statutory Order no. 621 of 23 June 2005, limitation of emissions of NOx from stationary gas

fuelled engines and turbines l Implementation of Waste Incineration Directive, 2000/76/EC: Statutory Order no. 162 of 11

March 2003 l Statutory Order no 885 of 18 December 1991 on quotas for emissions of SO2 and NOx from

combustion plants above 25 MWeff. l National guidelines for approvals with NOx emission limit values for plants above 120 kWth. l Implementation of Directive 70/220/EC for cars and other light vehicles l Implementation of Directive 88/77/EC for trucks and busses l Implementation of Directive 97/24/EC for motor cycles and mopeds l Implementation of Directive 97/68/EC for non-road vehicles l Implementation of Directive 2000/25/EC for tractors etc. l Implementation of Directive 2004/44/EC on recreational craft


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Contact Person

Ulrik Torp Miljøstyrelsen Strandgade 29, DK-1401 København K. Tel. 4532660100 [email protected]

The report on NO2 abatement measures in the city of Copenhagen can be downloaded from http://www.miljoe.kk.dk/privat/publikationer

1.5 France – Marseille

1.5.1 Introduction

The department of “Bouches-du-Rhône” is the most populated department within the region “Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur”. It has around 1,900,000 inhabitants, on an area of 5,110 km². The areas of Etang-de-Berre, Aix-en-Provence and Marseille are characterised by industry, with large petrochemical and aluminium industries.


Marseille is located on the French Mediterranean coast and clearly has a Mediterranean cli-mate. It is characterised by a distinct annual cycle of precipitation, which is mainly restricted to the winter season. Dispersion conditions are unfavourable compared to the oceanic climate.

The location on the coast near the Rhône valley is associated with frequent regular thermo-topographic circulation systems – wind from the south (i.e. from the sea) during daytime and northerly wind during the night. This sea-breeze system can induce a re-circulation of pollutants emitted on the coast and of ozone formed in the urban plume.

1.5.3 Air quality

Exceedances of limit value plus margin of tolerance for the annual mean of NO2 were recorded in the city of Marseille from 2001 to 2005 (Figure 15).


http://www.miljoe.kk.dk/privat/publikationer


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Figure 15: Annual mean NO2 concentrations at urban and traffic sites in Marseille (source: http://www.airmaraix.com/site_pro/).

In addition, in 2001 und 2002, exceedances related to the daily average of SO2 were recorded in the communes of Châteauneuf-les-Martigues and Martigues (see also Figure 16).

Figure 16: Number of exceedances of the limit value for the daily average SO2 concentration.

At least in the year 2005 the limit value for the daily mean of PM10 was exceeded at one traf-fic-related station (Figure 17).

http://www.airmaraix.com/site_pro/


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Figure 17: Number of daily means of PM10 above 50 µg/m³ at various monitoring sites in Marseille (source: http://www.airmaraix.com/site_pro/).

The department of Bouches-du-Rhône is characterised by point sources. A list of large point sources was compiled, which in total account for over 40 % of all NOx emissions, over 60 % of all CO and CO2 emissions and over 90 % of all SO2 emissions in the department. As Figure 18 shows, the industry and energy sector account for a large part of all emissions.

Figure 18: Emissions in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, 1999, by sectors.

http://www.airmaraix.com/site_pro/


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1.5.4 Summary of plans and programmes for the Marseille area

For the department of “Bouches-du-Rhône”, a regional air quality plan (“Plan Régional pour la Qualité de l’Air”) was drawn up by a commission, presided by the préfet (governor) of the re-gion. The first plan was approved by the préfet on May 2nd 2000.

The plan has the function of an ordinance which defines the measures laid out for a certain re-gion. Planning was carried out by a commission, which consisted of almost 40 participants from the following areas:

l Various government levels l Trade organisations l Environmental and consumer organisations l Experts from the areas of health and environment l Administrative agencies The plan contains a list of 43 measures which cover the following sectors: l Mobile sources (also including boats in the harbour area) l Point sources (technical measures, change of combustible, stricter emission limits) l Short-term measures during NO2 and SO2 pollution episodes In addition, short-term measures are listed which become effective during ozone episodes. Contact Person:

François Martial DRIRE Provence Alpes Côte d'Azur 67-69 avenue du Prado F-13286 MARSEILLE CEDEX 6 Tel. 33+ 4 91 83 63 80 [email protected]

The P&P can be downloaded from: http://www.drire.gouv.fr/paca/environnement/air/Ppa13/version%20finale/ppa13total.pdf

1.6 France – Paris

1.6.1 Introduction

Ile-de-France is one of the 26 regions of France. It comprises Paris and seven surrounding de-partments. The region has about 11 million inhabitants and covers an area of 12,000 km².


Paris is located in fairly flat terrain and has an oceanic climate.

Dispersion conditions are, in general, more favourable than in central Europe; nevertheless, easterly flow in Paris is often associated with the advection of continental air masses, which leads to adverse dispersion conditions.


http://www.drire.gouv.fr/paca/environnement/air/Ppa13/version%20finale/ppa13total.pdf


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1.6.3 Air quality

In the agglomeration of Paris, exceedances of the limit value plus margin of tolerance occurred in the years 2001 to 2003 for both NO2 and PM10 (annual average as well as number of ex-ceedances of the daily limit value). Figure 19 and Figure 20 show long-term trends of NO2 and PM10 (Note: only averages of several stations are shown).

Figure 19: Annual average NO2 concentrations, averaged over several monitoring stations in the agglomeration of Paris.


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Figure 20: Annual average PM10 concentrations, averaged over several monitoring stations in the agglomeration of Paris.

According to the emission inventory, traffic contributes 52 % of NOx emissions and 36 % of PM10 emissions in the region of Ile-de-France (Figure 21).

Figure 21: Sources contributing to the emissions in the region of Ile-de-France, according to the 2000 emission inventory.


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1.6.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Paris

In the region of Ile-de-France, an air quality plan (Plan de protection de l’atmosphère) was in-troduced in the year 2000. During 2005/2006, a new version of the plan was developed. Here, the plan of 2000 is summarised.

After an introduction to the legal context of the plan and the air quality situation concerning the major pollutants, eight main measures are specified:

l Compulsory inclusion of large traffic generators (industry, retail etc.) in traffic planning l Emission reduction at waste incineration plants l Emission reduction at power plants, restrictions on heavy fuels and wood burning l Emission standards for new heating equipment l Emission reductions at petrol stations l Restrictions on truck traffic during pollution peaks l Additional measures related to truck traffic l Traffic restrictions on motorbikes. The plan also lists emission reduction measures to which three large emitters from the trans-port sector (national railway company, public transport authority and airport authority) are committed. In addition, four accompanying measures are included: l Quality improvement of public transport l Improvement of access to airports by public transport l Extensions to park and ride facilities. l Measures concerning awareness of the public Contact Person:

Anne Pillon

DRIRE Ile de France 10 rue Crillon 75100 PARIS CEDEX 4 Tel.: +33 1 44 59 48 51 [email protected] The P&P can be downloaded from: http://www.ile-de-france.drire.gouv.fr/

1.6.5 Transport plan of the region of Ile-de-France

In France, transport plans are required by law in all agglomerations with more than 100,000 in-habitants. The development of the transport plan for the region of the Ile-de-France followed a procedure which placed an emphasis on public consultation:

l Assessment of the current state l Definition of the main orientation of the plan l First information of the public l Survey of attitudes towards the plan


http://www.ile-de-france.drire.gouv.fr/


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l First opinion of the regional council, the council of the city of Paris and the transport depart-ment

l Opinion of general councils and communes l Public consultation l Report of the consultation commission, adaptation of the plan l Approval of the plan with an ordinance adopted by the préfet (governor) Concerning the measures listed in the plan, the role of Paris as a metropolis is considered. Measures are planned in such a way as to support the overall functioning of a large city, e.g. making public transport more attractive by increasing safety, congestion information on main roads, measures towards more centralization in the suburbs. The following main areas of measures are described:

l Measures in the centre: make public transport more attractive, increase transport safety, traf-fic management, use of waterways, transport of goods by rail and waterways, urban devel-opment, alternative energy vehicles.

l Measures in the suburbs: urban planning, logistics. l Measures outside of densely populated areas: public transport, centralized services around

railway stations, information about costs associated with trips to the outskirts. l “The road for everybody”: space for pedestrians, bicycles.

1.7 Germany – Berlin

1.7.1 Introduction

Berlin is the capital of Germany; it has about 3,400,000 inhabitants (3,900,000 within the urban area) and covers an area of about 890 km². The city is located along the Spree River on a rather flat plateau, which is about 40 m above sea level.


The climate of Berlin is transitional between oceanic and continental.

Dispersion conditions associated with winds from west and north are in general more favour-able than easterly and southerly winds, which are often associated with the advection of conti-nental air masses, adverse dispersion conditions and (long range) transport of pollutants from central Eastern Europe.

1.7.3 Air quality

Exceedances of AQ limit values occur for PM10 (mostly for the daily mean limit value, the an-nual mean limit value was exceeded only at one site) and NO2 (annual mean) (SENATSVERWALTUNG FÜR STADTENTWICKLUNG 2005 and 2005a).

Figure 22 shows the number of daily means above 50 µg/m³ for various types of monitoring sites in Berlin. From the differences between 2003 and 2004, the variability due to different me-teorological situations can be deduced. Like in many other regions in Europe, 2003 saw rather


30

high values, whereas in 2004 pollution levels were below average. The highest levels of PM10 are observed at traffic sites.

Figure 22: Number of days with daily mean PM10 values exceeding 50 μg/m³ in 2003 and 2004 (source: SENATSVERWALTUNG FÜR STADTENTWICKLUNG 2005a).

It is estimated that more than 35 exceedances of the daily mean occur on about 450 km of roads (Figure 23). About 190,000 residents are affected by elevated PM levels.

Figure 23: PM10 pollution calculated for the network of major roads in the base year 2002 (source: SENATSVERWALTUNG FÜR STADTENTWICKLUNG 2005a).


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About a quarter of the elevated PM levels at traffic sites is attributed to local traffic, another quarter to urban background concentrations and about half to regional background concentra-tions.

NO2 levels of the annual mean are above the limit value at all traffic related sites (Figure 24). The road length affected by NO2 levels above the limit value is 200 km and and the number of residents 90,000 , which means that about half of the population is affected by elevated PM levels.

Figure 24: Multi-year trends in nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen monoxide values in Berlin (source: SENATSVERWALTUNG FÜR STADTENTWICKLUNG 2005a).

To support the development of P&P, a detailed analysis of AQ with the help of modelling was carried out (IVU 2005, KERSCHBAUMER ET AL. 2005).

1.7.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Berlin

The P&P was submitted to the federal government in 2004, a more detailed P&P was published in 2005 in order to inform the public (SENATSVERWALTUNG FÜR STADTENTWICKLUNG 2005 in German, SENATSVERWALTUNG FÜR STADTENTWICKLUNG 2005a in English). Several back-ground documents were prepared to quantify the contributions of different source sectors to the exceedances and the effectiveness of various measures (IVU 2005, KERSCHBAUMER ET AL. 2005, INGENIEURBÜRO LOHMEYER 2004a).

A trend scenario for 2010 showed that for both PM10 and NO2, measures beyond business as usual (BAU) are necessary to comply with the limit values despite a substantial decrease due to already implemented ones in Berlin and outside the city. The BAU scenario showed a reduction in the number of residents affected by PM10 levels above the daily mean limit value by about 50 %. Additional measures are proposed mostly for traffic as this sector contributes most to the exceedances of both PM10 and NO2. The measures are divided into measures already imple-


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mented, measures with short-term effects and measures with medium-term effect, measures under the urban development plan and measures to be taken at national or EU level.

Measures that are currently implemented include inter alia:

l Further introduction of diesel particle filters and natural gas vehicles in the public transport fleet, the government vehicle fleet and the public waste collection fleet, with the aim of all buses being supplied with particle filters or natural gas by 2008 and the rest of the municipal fleet by 2012

l Promotion of natural gas vehicles for taxis and driving schools as well as for HDVs.

Some measures with short-term effect were identified; most of them were implemented by the end of 2005:

l Further speed restrictions; l Information campaign as well as restrictions for construction sites to reduce emissions; l Local traffic control to reduce pollution levels at hot spots. For one road with heavy traffic a ban for lorries > 3.5 tonnes was introduced because it was possible to provide a parallel motorway link as an appropriate alternative. With roughly half the HDV traffic, total PM10 levels fell by about 10 %, reducing the number of exceedance days for the daily PM10 limit value by 17 (personal communication M. Lutz).

More local traffic restrictions were not implemented because there are hardly any bypasses and alternative routes where few or no residents would be affected by diverted traffic (personal communication M. Lutz).

Therefore a low emission zone (LEZ) will be implemented in Berlin’s inner city area as a meas-ure with medium term effect. From 2008 on, diesel vehicles must fulfil at least Euro 2 emis-sion standards, and from 2010 Euro 3 and particle filters are required. The 2008 stage of the LEZ will correspond to level 1 (red sticker) of a recently adopted nationwide labelling regulation in Germany, which excludes all gasoline cars without catalytic converter. In 2010, the LEZ will require level 3 (green sticker) for all Diesel vehicles, which will need to meet the particle emis-sion standards of Euro 4. A detailed analysis of the effects of various LEZ scenarios was car-ried out by IVU Umwelt GmbH (IVU 2005).

The measures under the urban development plan – transport (StEP) include:

l Diversion of through traffic to bypass roads; l Extension of paid parking areas; l Consistent promotion of public transport as well as maintaining and increasing the appeal of

public transport.

Several measures to be taken by the federal government and the EU are proposed, as they are considered to be essential for the implementation of local measures which are meant to lower the significant regional PM10 background concentrations. These measures include a la-belling scheme for vehicles dependent on emission standards (already implemented by the fed-eral government), tighter emission standards for vehicles on the European level, encourage-ment of Eastern European countries to further reduce emissions from industry and power plants and a harmonisation of EU directives for emission reduction by air quality directives.


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The effects of the LEZ and the StEP on exposure levels have been quantified for the year 2010 (Figure 25). While exposure reduction with the LEZ is a result of the decrease in exhaust pipe emissions of PM10, the improvement with StEP is largely due to an expected reduction of ve-hicle mileage by about 10 % compared to BAU, which also results in lower non-exhaust PM emissions. Both measures achieve a considerable reduction compared to a BAU scenario. Still, all the measures together do not suffice to comply with limit values throughout the city.

Figure 25: Sections of road in the inner city exceeding the 24-hour PM10 limit value (left) and the mean annual value for nitrogen dioxide (right), plus the number of residents affected in different reduction scenarios (source: SENATSVERWALTUNG FÜR STADTENTWICKLUNG 2005a).

Contact Person

Senatsverwaltung für Gesundheit, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz Martin Lutz Brückenstraße 6 D-10179 Berlin [email protected] Phone: +49 30 9025-2338

The P&P and some of the background documents can be downloaded from http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/luftqualitaet/de/luftreinhalteplan/dokumentation.shtml .

N.B.: The German Umweltbundesamt hosts a website with links to all German P&P: http://www.env-it.de/luftdaten/download/public/html/Luftreinhalteplaene/uballl.htm

1.7.5 Berlin urban development plan – transport

The transport plan (“StEP Verkehr”) is part of the urban development plan of Berlin. The plan was adopted in the year 2003 by the Senate and presented to the ”Berlin House of Representa-tives“. The transport plan is considered to be a recommendation and is the basis for further transportation planning in Berlin. In addition to that, the transport plan defines objectives for fur-ther urban development.

The project of developing a transport plan goes back to the year 1994. At the time, the ”Berlin House of Representatives“ agreed to the land use plan for the whole city of Berlin. An urban


http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/luftqualitaet/de/luftreinhalteplan/dokumen

http://www.env-it.de/luftdaten/download/public/html/Luftreinhalteplaene/uballl.htm


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transportation plan was intended to complete the land use plan. In 2000, the ”House of Repre-sentatives“ requested the Senate to develop the transport plan.

The overall scheme contains twelve quality objectives, with four different dimensions: eco-nomic, social, ecological and institutional. With a view to the objectives, the operational scheme was developed. In total, a catalogue with 60 different measures was compiled. The measures were allocated to individual sub-strategies, which in total made up the strategy of the transport plan.

Concerning environmental issues, the following objectives were defined within the ecological dimension:

l Reduction of land use by transport l Sustainable management of changing mobility needs l Limit the increase in motor vehicle-km of local and regional traffic to a maximum of 5 %; l Change of modal split in passenger transport l 66 % environmentally friendly means of transport (“Umweltverbund”) in the whole city l 80 % in the historical centre and western centre l Stabilisation of the modal split for non-motorised traffic at 33 %; l Increase the share of bicycle transport by 5 % by 2015

l Improvement of the accessibility of infrastructure for daily use with environmentally friendly means of transport

l Freight transport: shifting transport from road to rail l Relief of the urban and global environment from transport-related pollution loads l Decrease of air pollutants caused by traffic (benzene, NOx, PM10, CO, PAH5) with the aim

to decrease levels below the threshold (25 %) of the EU daughter directive. l Decrease of greenhouse gas emissions caused by traffic by 25 % until 2015, by 50 % until

2025.

1.8 Germany – Munich

1.8.1 Introduction

Munich is Germany’s third largest city. It has a population of about 1.3 million and the Munich metropolitan area is home to around 2.7 million people. The city is located on the River Isar in the north of the Bavarian Alps.


Munich is located in the hilly pre-alpine lowlands of southern Germany. The climate is transi-tional between oceanic and continental.

Dispersion conditions associated with winds from western and northern directions are, in gen-eral, more favourable than easterly winds, which are often associated with the advection of continental air masses, adverse dispersion conditions and long range transport of pollutants from central and eastern Europe.


35

1.8.3 Air quality

In the year 2002 the sum of limit value and margin of tolerance for the annual mean of NO2 was exceeded at the traffic related monitoring sites Luise-Kiesselbach Platz and Stachus (Figure 26, Figure 27). At the latter site also the sum of limit value and margin of tolerance for the daily mean of PM10 was exceeded. In the year 2003 Luise-Kiesselbach Platz showed also exceedances of the daily mean of PM10; at Stachus the sum of limit value and margin of toler-ance of the annual mean of PM10 was exceeded. At Stachus about 52,000 vehicles per day are observed on working days, the share of HDVs is 3.8 %. The traffic volume at Luise-Kiesselbach Platz is about 120,000 vehicles per day and a considerable higher share of HDVs of 6.5 %.

Figure 26: Position of monitoring site Munich Stachus (source: REGIERUNG VON OBERBAYERN 2004).

Figure 27: Position of monitoring site Munich Luise-Kiesselbach Platz (source: REGIERUNG VON

OBERBAYERN 2004).


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Around the monitoring sites about 5,900 residents and 7 km of roads are affected by elevated PM and NO2 levels (status 2002). However, it has been estimated that on a further 28 roads the sum of limit value and margin of tolerance of PM10 (43.2 µg/m³) might be exceeded, and as for NO2, the sum of limit value and margin of tolerance (54 µg/m³) might be exceeded on 19 roads (Figure 28).

Figure 28: Road sections in Munich where there might be exceedances of the sum of limit value and margin of tolerance of PM10 of the daily mean for the year 2003.

In a recent report a more detailed analysis of traffic-induced PM10 and NO2 levels was carried out (IVU 2006a). For the year 2006, 238 out of 2419 road sections show NO2 levels above 40 µg/m³, 16 road sections show a PM10 annual mean level above 40 µg/m³ and 385 road sec-tions a PM10 annual mean level above 30 µg/m³, which roughly corresponds to 35 ex-ceedances of a daily mean limit value of 50 µg/m³ (see Figure 29 and Figure 30). However, the number of residents and city area affected is not given.


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Figure 29: NO2 annual means at main roads in Munich and urban background concentrations of NOx for the year 2006 (source: IVU 2006a).

Figure 30: PM10 annual means at main roads in Munich and urban background concentrations for the year 2006 (source: IVU 2006a).


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Figure 31 shows the annual means of PM10 and NO2 for the monitoring sites Munich Stachus and Luise-Kiesselbach Platz. Whereas for PM10 the data seems to show a decline in recent years, Stachus monitoring site especially shows a strong increase for NO2 since the year 2001.

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Figure 31: Annual means of PM10 and NO2 of the monitoring sites Munich Stachus and Luise-Kiesselbach Platz. Between 1993 and 1999 the PM10 levels were determined from TSP measurements by applying a factor of 0.83 (source: 1993-2003 REGIERUNG VON OBERBAYERN

2004, 2004 and 2005 data: www.umweltbundesamt.de).

An emission inventory for the city of Munich shows that for both NOx and PM10, traffic is the main source. For PM10, traffic causes 60 % of the emissions, residential heating 26 % and in-dustry about 5 %. The traffic share of NOx emissions is 66 %, residential heating causes 26 % and industry 8 %.

The contribution of various sources to the concentrations at the two monitoring sites Stachus and Luise-Kiesselbach Platz was analysed as well (Table 4). For PM10, the contribution from regional background concentrations was 52 % for Stachus (62 % for Luise-Kiesselbach Platz) in the year 2003: Urban background concentrations contributed 35 % (15 %) and local traffic 13 % (23 %),. Contributions to NO2 levels are rather different as the influence from the regional background (22 % for Stachus and 20 % for Luise-Kiesselbach Platz) is much smaller com-pared to PM10; on the other hand the contribution from the urban background (54 % for Stachus and 44 % for Luise-Kiesselbach Platz) and local traffic is higher (24 % and 36 %, re-spectively).

http://www.umweltbundesamt.de


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Table 4: Contribution of different sources to PM10 and NO2 levels at Munich Stachus and Luise-Kiesselbach Platz for the year 2003 (source: REGIERUNG VON OBERBAYERN 2004).

Stachus Luise-Kiesselbach Platz

PM10 NO2 PM10 NO2

regional background 52 % 22 % 62 % 20 %

urban background 35 % 54 % 15 % 44 %

other influences2 28 % 32 % 9 % 24 %

large installations 4 % 4 % 3 % 4 %

small installations 2 % 9 % 3 % 8 %

traffic background 1 % 9 % 1 % 8 %

local traffic 13 % 24 % 23 % 36 %

1.8.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Munich

The P&P lists measures implemented already, measures that are at the stage of implementa-tion or concrete planning, measures that were discussed but not included in the P&P, long term measures and measures that should be applied on a national and international level.

The focus of the measures is on traffic because it is the major source that can be locally influ-enced.

Measures that have already been implemented are inter alia:

l Modernization of district heating systems and power plants; l Promotion of public transport (extension of lines, fleet modernisation, acceleration of busses

and tramways); l Support of bicycle traffic; l Provision of park and ride facilities

Some measures are at the stage of implementation; these are:

l Thorough survey of installations concerning their potential for further emission reductions; l Restrictions of use of solid fuel for residential heating; l Information campaign to reduce PM emissions from construction sites; l Modernisation of district heating system; l Energy and CO2 saving project; l Traffic: l An LEZ in the inner city area; l City logistics and cargo traffic centres; l Construction of roads and tunnels to concentrate traffic on main roads;

2 Emissions of sources not accounted for in the emission inventory such as wind erosion, biogenic emissions, and secondary

aerosol. The contribution was estimated from the difference between measured concentrations and the estimation of the

concentration with the help of the emission inventory.


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l Implementation of the traffic development scheme; traffic scheme for the eastern part of Munich;

l Mobility management; l Dynamic traffic control; l Extensions to controlled parking zones (zones with parking charges); l Modernisation of the bus system, extension of subway and tramway lines, acceleration of

bus lines, modernisation and extension of regional train lines; l Green procurement of public fleet and public transport fleet;

Some measures were discussed during the preparation of the P&P, but not included the P&P:

l Congestion charge as there is no legal basis for this measure. Instead, parking management will be enforced;

l Goods supplies within the Old Town only permitted for HDVs with low emissions; l Prohibition of through traffic for all HDVs whose destination or starting point is not in Munich.

This measure is currently further investigated; l Reduction of barriers to public transport by optimised and personalised information, simplifi-

cation of fare system etc.

As long-term measures, improvements of public transport have been discussed such as re-gional train lines to establish links between the different suburban centres and between the suburban centre and the city centre, as well as further extensions of bus and regional train lines.

Like in many other cities in Europe, urban sprawl is an important issue in Munich. Hence re-gional planning has been updated with a focus on sustainable development. Furthermore an annual urban planning conference on traffic projects at regional level will be held.

On a national and international level the city of Munich promotes the tightening of emission standards for vehicles, provides subsidies to accelerate the implementation of EURO 5 and creates incentives for the automobile industry to bring about the market launch of cleaner vehi-cles.

However, the measures will not suffice to comply with the limit values of both PM10 and NO2 by the attainment date as local measures can influence only a small part of the overall concen-trations.

Contact Person

Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Umwelt, Gesundheit und Verbraucherschutz Regierung von Oberbayern Peter Bernhard Maximilianstraße 39 80538 München Tel.: +49.89.2176-2747 mail: [email protected]

The P&P can be downloaded from: http://www.stmugv.bayern.de/de/luft/lrp/index.htm.


http://www.stmugv.bayern.de/de/luft/lrp/index.htm


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1.8.5 Munich transport plan

The transport plan is part of the urban development plan of Munich. The plan is a draft and not finalized yet. It was published in the year 2004 for further discussion. Along with the transport plan of Munich, sectoral plans (for short distance traffic) and plans for part of the community were worked out.

The main strategy is based on the results of three “test scenarios”: motorised transport-oriented; public transport-oriented; environmentally friendly mobility. Based on these results, the following main fields of action were defined:

l land use development Munich – region l assurance of the functionality of the transport systems l improvement of public transport offers between Munich and the region l reorganisation and configuration potential of existing streets l enforcement of local mobility, programme of “soft measures” These fields of action were the basis for the action plan. There is a series of measures with different effects. Regarding air quality, the following meas-ures are listed: expansion of the public transport facilities, mainly for city and regional transpor-tation; concentrate future settlement activities along urban and regional (rail) axis; area-wide restriction of speed limit to 30 km/h (50 km/h on main roads); measures to make non-motorised traffic more attractive, traffic management and information to reduce congestion and the nega-tive effects, directing lorries along the main axis; city logistics, expansion of measures concern-ing mobility management.

1.9 Germany – Stuttgart

1.9.1 Introduction

Stuttgart is the capital of Baden-Württemberg, one of the German “Länder”. It has a population of approximately 590,000 within the city and about 3 million in the metropolitan area. The city area covers about 200 km², the metropolitan area has a size of about 3,700 km².

Air quality planning is carried out for the whole governmental district of Stuttgart which includes several other cities such as Ludwigsburg, Heilbronn, Böblingen, Esslingen etc. as well as the capital Stuttgart itself. For each of the cities within the governmental district where ex-ceedances of AQ limit values have been recorded, a separate P&P has been developed. In this study the focus is on the capital Stuttgart.


Stuttgart is located in hilly terrain between the upper Rhine valley and the Alb ridge. The cli-mate is transitional between oceanic and continental.

Dispersion conditions associated with winds from the west and north are, in general, more fa-vourable than easterly and southerly winds, which are often associated with the advection of


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continental air masses, adverse dispersion conditions and (long range) transport of pollutants from central and eastern Europe.

1.9.3 Air quality

In the years 2002 and 2003 exceedances of the sum of the AQ limit value and the margin of tolerance occurred for the annual mean of NO2 at five traffic related monitoring sites (Arnulf-Klett-Platz, Paulinenstraße, Siemensstraße, Hohenheimer Straße, Am Neckartor, see Figure 32). In 2004, besides NO2, both limit values for the annual mean and the daily mean of PM10 were exceeded. The limit value for the daily mean of PM10 was exceeded at four sites, the an-nual mean limit value at one site (Am Neckartor, see Figure 33). At Neckartor, which is the site showing the highest levels for both NO2 and PM10, the sum of limit value and margin of toler-ance for NO2 for the one hour mean was also exceeded in 2004.

Figure 32: Position of NO2 and PM10 monitoring sites in Stuttgart (source: REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM

STUTTGART 2005d).


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Figure 33: Monitoring site Stuttgart “Am Neckartor” (source: REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM STUTTGART 2005b).

At Neckartor the annual means of NO2 and PM10 were 106 µg/m³ and 51 µg/m³ in 2004; the number of daily means of PM10 above the limit value was 134. The observed levels for the annual mean at an urban background site (Stuttgart Bad Cannstatt) are about 30-35 µg/m³ for both NO2 and PM10.

Figure 34 shows the trend of the annual mean for NO2 at an urban background site and a traffic related site; Figure 35 shows the PM10 levels for these two sites. While urban background con-centrations of NO2 seem to decline, the traffic site shows an increase from the year 2000 on-wards. For PM10 the trends observed at both sites are more or less the same.

Figure 34: Trend of the NO2 annual mean for an urban background site (Stuttgart Bad Cannstatt, grey bar) and a traffic site (Arnulf-Klett-Platz, orange bar), 1992-2004 in µg/m³ (source : REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM STUTTGART 2005d).


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Figure 35: Trend of the PM10 annual mean for an urban background site (Stuttgart Bad Cannstatt, grey bar) and a traffic site (Arnulf-Klett-Platz, orange bar), 1992-2004 in µg/m³ (source : REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM

STUTTGART 2005d). For 1992 to 1998, PM concentrations were calculated from total suspended particle concentrations.

For all monitoring sites, a source apportionment was carried out. Figure 36 shows the contribu-tion to the observed PM10 levels at the traffic site with the lowest level (Arnulf-Klett-Platz) and the site with the highest levels (Neckartor). At Arnulf-Klett-Platz about three quarters of the PM10 levels are caused by the background concentration, 44 % by the regional background. The local contribution is more or less completely attributable to road traffic. At Neckartor, the local contribution is about half of the observed levels, the regional background 29 %. Again, the local contribution originates almost completely from road traffic. Non-exhaust emissions from road traffic are estimated to be about twice as high as exhaust emissions.

Figure 36: Contribution to the PM10 concentration at Stuttgart Arnulf-Klett-Platz (left) and Neckartor (right) (source: REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM STUTTGART 2005d).


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Due to the shorter atmospheric lifetime of NO2 the background contribution is lower compared to PM10 (Figure 37). The local contribution, which comes from road traffic and to a minor ex-tent from small combustion installations, is 40 % at Arnulf-Klett-Platz and 65 % at Neckartor.

Figure 37: Contribution to NO2 concentrations at Stuttgart Arnulf-Klett-Platz (left) and Neckartor (right) (source: REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM STUTTGART 2005d).

It is estimated that about 2000 people are affected by elevated levels of PM10 and NO2.

PM10 levels were above the limit value for the daily mean and the annual mean in the year 2005. It is expected that NO2 annual mean levels will be between 60 and 78 µg/m³ in 2010, hence well above the limit value (Figure 38).


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Figure 38: NO2 levels in 2010. Streets where levels are above 40 µg/m³ are marked in red (source: STUTTGART 2006).

In addition, the amount of the necessary reduction of traffic-induced PM10 and NO2 levels was simulated for the years 2005 and 2010 (INGENIEURBÜRO LOHMEYER 2006). For some road sections, traffic-induced PM10 and NO2 levels have to be reduced by more than 70 % in order to comply with the limit value for the daily mean (Figure 39).


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Figure 39: Necessary reduction of traffic induced PM10 (left) and NO2 levels (right) in order to comply with the limit values in 2005 and 2010 (source: INGENIEURBÜRO LOHMEYER 2006).

1.9.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Stuttgart

In addition to the P&P, several background documents were prepared (REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM STUTTGART 2005). On the one hand, these documents describe the pollution levels and the sources contributing to the elevated levels (REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM STUTTGART 2005b, 2005c, 2005d), and on the other hand the effect of various measures are evaluated (REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM STUTTGART 2004, 2005e, INGENIEURBÜRO LOHMEYER 2004, 2005a, 2006). A traffic model for commercial traffic is described in a further report (REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM STUTTGART 2005f).

Overall, 36 measures are planned mostly for traffic, a few also for industry, residential heating and construction sites. The traffic measures can be divided into:

l Traffic restrictions and tolls l Public transport l Public fleet, mobile machinery l Infrastructure and road construction l Other measures for transport


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Concerning traffic restrictions, the most import measures are:

l Ban on transit of HDVs above 3.5 t through Stuttgart (save two major roads) starting in Janu-ary 2006. This measure applies to about 9 % of HDV trips (measure M1). The costs of traffic signs are about 110.000 €.

l From January 2007, all EURO 1 and older vehicles3 will be banned during the whole year (measure M2), from January 2012 all EURO 2 and older vehicles4 will be banned in Stuttgart (measure M3). About 2 % of private cars and 12-14 % of HDV will be affected by this meas-ure.

The effects of these three measures on emissions and air quality at the monitoring sites have been modelled in detail. NO2 concentrations are reduced by measure M1 by about 1-4 %, by M2 and M3 by an additional 2 %. PM10 levels are reduced by 1 to 9 % by M1 and up to 3 % by M2 and M3 (REGIERUNGSPRÄSIDIUM STUTTGART 2005e).

Measures for public transport and the public fleet are inter alia:

l Extension of several tramway, subway and regional train lines (“S-Bahn”); l Shorter intervals on some regional train lines; l A scheme for mobility management will be prepared by the city council; l Retrofitting of public transport buses, vehicles and machinery with diesel particle filters. In

addition, several research projects are under way aiming at reducing emissions by technical means.

Several roads and tunnels are planned that should result in a reduction of traffic in the inner city area (these measures will be undertaken in any case).

Other measures for traffic include – amongst others:

l Optimization of traffic flow and an integrated traffic management system; l Feasibility study for dust removal of tunnel ventilations; l Transport of waste by rail; l Studies on the influence of street cleaning; l Intensification of the planting of trees; l Traffic development concept with special consideration of air quality issues; l Increase of the share of bicycle traffic.

For industry, residential heating and construction sites there are plans to:

l Ban the use of solid fuel for heating purposes; l Ban the burning of horticultural waste; l Introduce PM reduction plans for construction sites.

3 „Schadstoffgruppe 1“ of the draft “Order enacting and amending provisions on the marking of low-emission motor vehicles”. 4 „Schadstoffgruppe 2“ of the draft “Order enacting and amending provisions on the marking of low-emission motor vehicles”.


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In a previous version of the plan, traffic restrictions on days with high PM levels for even or odd registration numbers as well as a charge similar to the congestion charge in London were dis-cussed. The reasons why the former measure was not followed up were as follows: there is no distinction between emission levels of cars, it is not possible for individuals to plan their trips, prognosis of high PM levels is still prone to errors, the costs changing of traffic signs are very high and the legal basis is insufficient. The latter is also true for a congestion charge.

Contact Person

Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart Michael Braunmiller Referat 54.1 Industrie - Schwerpunkt Luftreinhaltung Ruppmannstraße 21 D-70565 Stuttgart Phone: 0711-904-15410 email: [email protected]

The P&P and the background documents can be downloaded from: http://www.rp.baden-wuerttemberg.de/servlet/PB/menu/1155476/index.html.

1.10 Italy – Bozen

1.10.1 Introduction

The city of Bozen (Bolzano) is the capital of the Italian province “Autonome Provinz Bozen – Südtirol”. The city has about 100,000 inhabitants, the province a total of 480,000 inhabitants. The air quality plan covers the whole province (area: 7,400 km2), which is characterized by mountains and valleys ranging in altitude from 200 m to 3850 m. One of the major transit routes through the Alps, the Brenner route, passes through the main valley of the province (Figure 40).


http://www.rp.baden


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Figure 40: Map of the province „Bozen – Südtirol“, inculding air quality monitoring stations. The red line shows the Brenner transit route. BZ: Bozen, BR: Bruneck, BX: Brixen, LA: Latsch, LS: Leifers, ME: Meran, RE: Ritten, SA: Salurn, ST: Sterzing, A-1 and A-2: highway monitoring stations.


Bozen is located in a basin at the bifurcation of the Etsch/Adige and Eisack/Isarco valleys south of the central Alpine ridge. The width of the Etsch/Adige valley is some 2 to 4 km; the topogra-phy therefore inhibits local pollutant dispersion, but in relation to other alpine valleys, the basin around Bozen is quite wide.

The climate is transitional between Mediterranean and alpine.

The topographic situation induces a regular thermotopographic valley wind system with up-valley wind (i.e. southerly wind) during daytime and northerly wind (down-valley wind) during night time including mornings. This leads to a quite regular (re)circulation of pollutants.

Compared to valleys situated parallel to the central alpine ridge (e.g. the Inn valley in northern Tyrol, Austria), the situation of the Etsch/Adige Valley, rectangular to the alpine ridge and di-rectly connected to the extra-alpine lowlands, leads to slightly more favourable dispersion con-ditions and a better exchange and dilution of polluted air masses. On the other hand, this situa-tion also favours pollutant transport phenomena from the extra-alpine lowlands (Po Valley), particularly with regard to ozone, and sometimes PM.

1.10.3 Air quality

Exceedances of limit values plus margin of tolerance occurred for PM10 in the city of Bozen and in the major towns of Meran, Bruneck and Brixen (Figure 41).


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0102030405060708090

100110120

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

PM

10 n

o. o

f dai

ly m

ean

>50µ

g/m

3

Bozen Claudia-Augusta-Str.Bozen HadrianplatzBruneckBrixenMeranSterzing

Figure 41: Number of daily means above 50 µg/m³ at various monitoring sites in the province of Bozen - Südtirol, 2001 to 2005.

Annual mean values of NO2 were below the limit value plus margin of tolerance at all stations, with the highest values in the city of Bozen.

According to the emission inventory, traffic is the most important source of most of the major pollutants, with the Brenner transit highway contributing to around one third of all traffic emis-sions (Figure 41).

Figure 42: Emission sources of various pollutants, according to the emission inventory of the province of Bozen – Südtirol, 2000.


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1.10.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Bozen

The so-called “Air Quality Plan” was developed by the environment agency of the province and implemented through a resolution of the provincial government on June 6th, 2005. The plan consists of a general plan and a catalogue of measures. The general plan covers the following topics:

l Assessment of air quality in the province l Definition of air quality zones l Monitoring strategy for these zones l Air quality objectives l Deadlines for fulfilling these objectives in the respective zones l Definition of measures and responsible agencies l Evaluation of results and information of the public The catalogue of measures consists of the following main parts:

l Programmes and action plans: These comprise a programme to reduce air pollution, a pre-ventive programme to reduce air pollution and action plans for urban areas, the transit routes and an ozone action plan.

l Measures to reduce traffic emissions (inner-city measures, interurban measures, and promo-tion of new technologies)

l Measures to reduce other emissions (construction sites, heating, industry etc.) l Preventive measures (infrastructure, promotion of public transport etc.) l Measures concerning awareness of the public (information campaigns) Concerning the action plan for urban areas, traffic restrictions were implemented several times in the winter of 2005/2006 during high pollution events. Taking into account the experiences with PM10 measures in the winter of 2005/2006, additional measures were developed and im-plemented through a resolution of the province government on June 3rd, 2006.

The most important new or improved measures are:

l Three types of environmental zones: zones where exceedances of limit values occur (be-tween the cities, without traffic restrictions) – zones with traffic restrictions – zones for low-pollutant vehicles only.

l Multi-year programme for step-wise introduction of restrictions in the environmental zones. l Action plan (two steps): traffic restrictions following exceedance of PM limit value for five

consecutive days (first step) and for eight days (second step).

Contact person:

Dr. Luigi Minach Landesagentur für Umwelt Amba-Alagi-Str. 5 I-39100 Bozen E-mail: [email protected] Tel.: +39 0 471417100 The P&P can be downloaded from http://www.provinz.bz.it/guteluft/massnahmen/index.asp.


http://www.provinz.bz.it/guteluft/massnahmen/index.asp


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1.10.5 Transport plan of the province of Bozen – Südtirol

The transport plan was created in three phases. Phase 1 in January 2001 dealt with the recon-struction of the basic scenario, phase 2 in March 2001 with the main objectives of the transport plan, the analyses of the effectiveness of the transport policies and a simulation of the impacts on the environment. In September 2001 the final report was presented.

The main objectives of the transport plan are:

l Reduction of the use of fossil fuels l Reduction of GHGs (CO2, CH4, N2O) and air pollutant emissions (CO, NOx, PM, VOC, etc.) l Reduction of noise l Improvement of transport safety, reduction of fatal accidents. l Improvement of the economic efficiency of different means of transport, consideration of ex-

ternal costs l Propagation of innovative schemes such as car sharing and car pooling l Creation of a “mobility platform” l Introduction of a pricing system especially in tourist regions l Restoration of the road network Measures concerning the road network are limited by the respective decisions of the regional government. The measures have to be chosen so that the lowest impact on the community can be expected. Most importantly, cargo transport is to be shifted from road to rail.

1.11 Italy – Milan

1.11.1 Introduction

The region of Lombardy in northern Italy covers an area of 24,000 km² and has about 9.5 million inhabitants. Milan (Milano) is the region’s capital and largest city.


Milan is located in the Po valley, a large plain surrounded by the Alps and the Appenines, and therefore effectively shaded from oceanic air masses from the north, west and south. The cli-mate is Mediterranean, but with continental features due to the long distance from the sea and the high mountains surrounding the Po valley in the north, west and south.

The regional climate is characterised by high precipitation during winter compared to summer, but also by frequent events with very adverse dispersion conditions during winter, when stag-nant air masses in the Po valley are shaded from the westerly synoptic flow, inducing the ac-cumulation of high pollutant levels.


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1.11.3 Air quality

In the region of Lombardy, limit values plus margins of tolerance were exceeded for NO2 (an-nual averages) and PM10 (annual and daily averages). In 2001, annual averages for NO2 up to 74 µg/m³ were recorded. For PM10, annual averages were up to 62 µg/m³ and the maximum number of days with PM10 daily averages above 50 µg/m³ was 106.

1.11.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Milan

The relevant air quality plan, which is also available in English, is entitled “Structural Measures for Air Quality in the Region of Lombardy”. The measures described in this plan have the fol-lowing objectives:

l to act in an integrated manner on the various sources of atmospheric pollution; l to identify reduction objectives and actions to be undertaken, which are to be divided accord-

ing to their effectiveness in short, medium and long term as well as “acute episodes”; l set priorities of actions to be undertaken, based on their cost/effectiveness ratio. The measures proposed for the short and medium term relate to:

l emissions from vehicular traffic; l emissions from stationary and “off road” sources; l energy savings and rational use of energy (residential and industrial buildings, manufactur-

ing); l the agricultural sector. Long-term measures are concerned with:

l research and development of hydrogen as an energy vector and providing the infrastructure for its production, transportation and storage;

l development and widespread use of fuel cells.

The short- and medium-term measures will be adopted between 2005 and 2010. For the long-term actions, this will constitute the initial phase of activities which are designed to go on for a long time thereafter, producing first results by 2010.

For each measure, an objective (reduction target) and a cost estimate are given. Each meas-ure is also “assessed” according to its effectiveness index (cost/difficulty/benefits) on a scale from 1 (low) to 5 (maximum).


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Contact person:

Dr. Franco Picco Direttore Generale Qualità dell'Ambiente Regione Lombardia Via Taramelli 12 Lotto ROSSO - 1° piano 20124 Milano Tel. +39 0 2 6765 7330 [email protected]

More information on air quality planning in the region of Lombardy can be found at: http://www.arpalombardia.it/new/live/index.asp

1.12 Netherlands – National Plan

1.12.1 Introduction

The Netherlands cover an area of 41,000 km² and have a population of 16.3 million. The larg-est city is Amsterdam, with a population of 740,000.


The Netherlands cover very flat terrain and are situated in an oceanic climate zone.

Dispersion conditions are, in general, more favourable than in central Europe; nevertheless, easterly flow in the Netherlands is often associated with the advection of continental air masses, which lead to adverse dispersion conditions.

1.12.3 Air quality

In the Netherlands, exceedances of the limit values plus margins of tolerance were recorded at several stations across the country for NO2 and PM10. Road transport is the main source for both pollutants, and cross-boundary pollution plays an important role (Figure 43).

Figure 43: Sources of NO2 pollution in the Netherlands (left) and PM10 pollution (right) at a street in Eindhoven.


http://www.arpalombardia.it/new/live/index.asp


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1.12.4 Summary of plans and programmes in the Netherlands

For the Netherlands, a National Air Quality Plan was published in 2005. The basic responsibility lies within the municipalities, which report air quality problems and draw up plans. These plans are then coordinated by the provinces, and additional measures are included. Finally, these plans are combined into the National Plan. The development of measures is an ongoing evolv-ing process. In 2006, the Netherlands submitted a progress report on P&P that also included an update of the air quality assessment and future projections. A total of € 900 million has been made available for the period 2005-2015 to improve air quality. Table 5 describes the meas-ures taken by the Dutch government.

Table 5: Summary of national measures.

Measure Implemen-tation date

Description

Measures to encourage clean vehicles and fuels

Particulate traps for new passen-ger cars

1 June 2005 Reduction in purchase tax (car and motorcycle tax) on the pur-chase of a new car with a particulate trap (€6 00).

Plan to make particulate traps compulsory in new cars from 1 January 2007.

Particulate traps for new vans and taxis

1 April 2006 Grant (€ 400) for new diesel-driven vans and taxis used for com-mercial purposes that are fitted ex-factory with a particulate trap.

Retrofit particu-late traps (exist-ing vehicles)

1 July 2006 Grant (€ 500) for retrofitting particulate traps in passenger cars, light vans and taxis (Euro I to Euro IV vehicles).

1 October 2006

Grant (€ 2000-€ 10.000) for retrofitting particulate traps in heavy vans, goods vehicles and coaches with Euro 2 and Euro 3 en-gines.

1 January 2007

Grant for carrying out pilot schemes for the use of particulate traps in inland waterway vessels and diesel locomotives.

Grant for particulate traps in mobile machinery.

1 October 2006

Contribution to the additional costs for particulate traps in refuse lorries and road sweeping lorries.

Grant for particu-late traps in buses (public transport)

1 April 2006 Contribution to the additional cost of retrofitting particulate traps (or technology with similar environmental benefits) in buses.

Incentives for Euro 5 (and Euro 6) for passenger cars and vans

1 July 2008 Incentives for the early introduction of Euro 5 vehicles.

Incentives for Euro 4/5 for goods vehicles and buses

1 January 2005

Environmental investment tax credit to encourage the early intro-duction of Euro 4 and 5 goods vehicles and buses (existing scheme which is being evaluated). Depending on the outcome of the evaluation, it may be converted into a grant scheme.

Revised tax treatment of vans

1 July 2005 Limits on the tax benefits (relating to car and motorcycle tax and motor vehicle tax) provided by grey commercial registration num-ber plates.


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Description

Revision envi-ronmental criteria annual vehicle control

Mid-2007 Tighten emission standards applicable in the annual vehicle in-spection for personal cars to keep improperly tuned cars off the road

CO2 differentia-tion for car and motorcycle tax

1 July 2006 Differentiation between car and motorcycle tax (tax on purchase of new passenger cars) according to fuel economy.

Incentives for natural gas vehi-cles

already im-plemented

Accelerated depreciation of environmental investments for entre-preneurs and environmental investment tax credit.

Stable excise duty regime for natural gas

Tax plan for 2007

The favourable level of the excise duty for natural gas is main-tained.

Tax credit (car and motorcycle tax) for hybrid cars

1 July 2006 € 6,000 tax credit

Revision envi-ronmental criteria annual vehicle inspection

Mid-2007 Tighten emission standards applicable in the annual vehicle in-spection for personal cars to keep improperly tuned cars off the road

‘The New Driving Style’

already un-der way

Campaign to encourage people to drive more economically. Tar-get groups include learner drivers, car fleet managers, compa-nies and government bodies.

Introduction of road pricing (kilometre levy)

2012 Presumably not feasible before 2012. Considering the lengthy preparations, the government has taken a basic decision to in-troduce a kilometre levy.

Grant scheme for reducing NOx emissions from inland waterway vessels

1 January 2006

Use of SCR in new and existing vessels.

Local measures supported by central government incentives

Funding for local projects from the national air qual-ity cooperation programme

The government has set aside € 90 million from its Economic Structure Enhancing Fund (FES) for local measures relating to housing, roads and industrial zones that fall under the national air quality cooperation programme.

Environmental zones

1 April 2007 Central government, ten municipal authorities and the business community have concluded a covenant for encouraging clean goods vehicles and environmental zoning. Under the covenant, from the start of 2007, the municipal authorities involved will des-ignate environmental zones (often town centres) which only “clean” goods vehicles will be permitted to enter. This will include only the newest goods vehicles and those fitted with particulate traps.

Differentiated parking tariffs

1 January 2007

The government will be amending the Municipalities Act as of 1 January 2007, to enable municipal authorities to link parking tar-iffs and licences to a car’s environmental performance.

Pilot projects Cooperation between all the authorities concerned to identify air quality and spatial planning problems and find effective solu-tions. These efforts include 12 pilot projects designed to assess the practical impact of compensatory measures in areas where air quality is deteriorating.


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Description

Local measures affecting state infrastructure

Lowering of the speed limit

1 November 2005

Lowering of the speed limit from 100 km/h to 80 km/h on four additional stretches of road from November 2005 (in addition to the 80 km/h section at Rotterdam Overschie). Lowering of the speed limit from 120 km/h to 100 km/h on the A13 between Berkel en Rodenrijs and Delft Noord.

Air quality inno-vation pro-gramme

The air quality innovation programme is being carried out on be-half of the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Man-agement and the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment to devise innovative solutions that help improve air quality on and around motorways.

Agriculture and industry

Oil-to-gas refiner-ies

Relates to reduction potential at the refineries in the Rijnmond area (Shell already plans a changeover in 2007)

NOx emissions trading

June 2005 Trade in emission permits.

Action plan on fine particulates produced by in-dustry

Mid-2007 Further developed in consultation with industry (potential indus-trial sectors involved are chemicals, basic metals and food, next to activities related to material handling in open air)

Introduction of combined ‘air cleaning’ systems for intensive live-stock breeding

A programme is started for innovation, pilot studies and monitor-ing to support the introduction of air cleaning technology in in-tensive livestock breeding, which will simultaneously reduce emissions of particulate matter, ammonia and odour. Funds for a subsidy regulation are being sought.

Contact person: Ministerie van VROM Postbus 30945, NL-2500 GX Den Haag dr. K.R. Krijgsheld 00-31-70-3394391 00-31-70-3391313 [email protected]

1.13 Slovakia – Bratislava

1.13.1 Introduction

Bratislava, the capital and largest city of the Slovak Republic, covers an area of 370 km² and has about 450,000 inhabitants.


Bratislava is located at the northern fringe of the Pannonian Basin near the western end of the Carpathian Mountains on the Danube River.

The climate is transitional between oceanic and continental.



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The synoptic flow is dominated by wind either from the west, associated with oceanic air masses and characterised by fairly favourable dispersion conditions, or from the east or south-east associated mainly with continental air masses, which lead to adverse dispersion conditions especially in winter, and are often associated with long-range transport from eastern central Europe.

1.13.3 Air quality

In Bratislava, exceedances of limit values plus margin of tolerance have been registered for PM10 and NO2. Several industries were identified as important sources. In addition, traffic and long range transport both play an important role.

1.13.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Bratislava

The air quality programme for the city of Bratislava was published in 2004. The plan contains a description of the development of air quality and major emission sources in the past year and a description of measures: The measures cover the following areas:

l Urban and transport planning (pedestrian zones, bicycle routes, street cleaning) l Traffic (gas-fuelled buses, traffic management, road construction) l Industry (measures at the adjacent refinery, waste transport and processing)

Contact person:

Jana Jagnešakova Ministry of the Environment Air Protection Department Nám. L. Štúra 1 81235 Bratislava Tel. +421 2 5956 2371 [email protected]

The PP of Bratislava can be downloaded from: http://www.enviro.gov.sk/servlets/page/317?type_id=1&cat_id=2753&cid=179&cid=180&cid=371&cid=372&cid=404

1.14 Slovakia – Košice

1.14.1 Introduction

Košice is Slovakia’s second largest city and is situated in the eastern part of the country. The city has 230,000 inhabitants and covers an area of 240 km².


Košice is located in hilly terrain at the northern border of the Pannonian Basin, south of the Carpathian mountains.


http://www.enviro.gov.sk/servlets/page/317?type_id=1&cat_id=2753&cid=179&cid=180&c


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The climate is transitional/continental with an oceanic influence.

Especially in winter, high pressure systems with advection of cold continental air masses are responsible for very unfavourable dispersion conditions, and are often associated with long-range transport from eastern central Europe.

1.14.3 Air quality

In Košice, exceedances of limit valuse plus margin of tolerance have been registered for PM10. Besides traffic and long-range transport, a steel plant as well as other industries were identified as important sources.

1.14.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Košice

The air quality programme for the city of Košice was published in 2004. The plan contains a description of the development of air quality and major emission sources in the past year and a description of measures: The measures cover the following areas:

l Urban planning (bicycle routes, careful selection of locations for new emission sources) l Traffic (traffic management, road construction) l Industry (measures at the adjacent steel plant and power plant).

Contact person:

Jana Jagnešakova Ministry of the Environment Air Protection Department Nám. L. Štúra 1 81235 Bratislava Tel. +421 2 5956 2371 [email protected]

The P&P of Košice can be downloaded from: http://www.enviro.gov.sk/servlets/page/317?type_id=1&cat_id=2753&cid=179&cid=180&cid=371&cid=372&cid=404

1.15 Spain – Barcelona

For the Autonomous Community of Catalonia, exceedances of limit values plus margin of tol-erance have been reported for PM10 and NO2. Measures in the areas of traffic and industry have also been developed. Because some measures are still under development, there is no complete document describing plans or programmes available at present.


http://www.enviro.gov.sk/servlets/page/317?type_id=1&cat_id=2753&cid=179&cid=180&c


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1.16 Spain – Madrid

1.16.1 Introduction

The city of Madrid covers an area of approximately 600 km². 3.2 million inhabitants live in the city, roughly another 2 million in the surrounding suburbs.


Madrid is located on the central plain (Meseta) of the Iberian Peninsula.

The Mediterranean climate is modified by altitude, distance from the coast and by mountains shading the central plain from maritime air masses, and has some continental characteristics. Nevertheless, high precipitation and advection of oceanic air masses mainly occur during win-ter, whereas summers are warm and dry.

Dispersion conditions are fairly unfavourable due to the “continental” characteristics of the Spanish Meseta.

1.16.3 Air quality

In Madrid, NO2 annual and hourly limit values were exceeded at a number of stations in the past years (Figure 44). In most cases, limit values plus margins of tolerance were exceeded as well.

Figure 44: Number of stations in Madrid where NO2 limit values (LV) and limit values plus margins of tolerance (LV + MOT) were exceeded, 1999 to 2004.

The situation for PM10 is similar, with exceedances mainly for the daily values (Figure 45).


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Figure 45: Number of stations in Madrid where PM10 limit values (LV) and limit values plus margins of tolerance (LV + MOT) were exceeded, 1999 to 2004.

According to the emission inventory, road transport is the main source of both NOx and PM10 emissions (Table 6).

Table 6: Emission inventory for NOx and PM10, city of Madrid.

Sector NOx emissions PM10 emissions

Non-industrial combustion 6.5 % 13.2 %

Industrial combustion 5.6 % 0.6 %

Other industrial processes 0.3 % 7.2 %

Road transport 77.0 % 72.8 %

Other modes of transport and mobile machinery 7.1 % 5.5 %

Waste treatment and deposition 3.2 % 0.7 %

Agriculture 0 % Not included

Other sources and sinks (natural) 0.2 % Not included

1.16.4 Summary of plans and programmes in Madrid

The air quality plan (“Estrategia Local de Calidad del Aire de la Ciudad de Madrid”) has been developed in a cooperation of the municipal departments of economy, mobility, land use plan-ning, budgeting and environment. It focuses on the period 2006 to 2010.

Based on reduction objectives for NOx, PM10, greenhouse gases and other air pollutants, an action programme was established. Within the action programme, the measures were grouped into the following areas:

l Road transport (traffic reduction, improvement of public transport, promotion of cleaner ve-hicles, promotion of pedestrian and bike traffic)

l Point sources l Fiscal measures


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l Awareness of the public l Studies and increase of knowledge l Monitoring l Housing l Waste treatment and disposal l Climate change l Other measures Contact person:

Ángel Sánchez Sanz Director General de Sostenibilidad y Agenda 21 C/Bustameante 16, 5.a planta 28045 Madrid Tel. 914 804 131 / 914 804 132 Fax 915 880 682 [email protected]

The air quality programme of the city of Madrid can be obtained on CD on request.

1.17 Sweden – Stockholm

1.17.1 Introduction

The county of Stockholm (Stockholms län) covers an area of approximately 6,500 km². It in-cludes the city of Stockholm (770,000 inhabitants) and surrounding communes. The total num-ber of inhabitants of the county of Stockholm is approximately 1,900,000.

Meteorology and climate

Stockholm is located in hilly terrain near the west coast of the Baltic Sea.

The climate is transitional between oceanic/atlantic and continental. Dispersion conditions vary, depending on the large-scale wind direction, especially in winter, when easterly flow is associ-ated with cold continental air masses, exaggerated by temporary freezing of the Baltic Sea, whereas westerly flow is associated with atlantic air masses with favourable dispersion condi-tions.

1.17.2 Air quality

From 2001 to 2003, the limit value plus margin of tolerance for PM10 was exceeded in the city of Stockholm. The main reasons were found to be abrasion of road surface, tyres, gritting, brakes and resuspension of accumulated dust on the roadway. Direct emissions of PM from vehicles and long-range transport also contributed to some degree. The concentration peak oc-cured in spring during days with dry weather conditions.



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Figure 46: Calculated road sections where roadside PM10 concentrations (daily averages) exceed the limit vale more than 35 times per year. The numbers in the figure denote the concentrations of the 90.4 percentile.

Limit values plus margins of tolerance for NO2 were met in Stockholm. However, as it is likely that the Swedish limit value of 60 µg/m³ for the average daily concentration (98 percentile) will not be complied with in 2006(Table 7), NO2 reduction also plays an important role in air quality planning.

Table 7: Estimated nitrogen dioxide concentrations (98 percentile of the daily concentration) for normal years 2003 and 2006, with the effect of the action plan in 2006.


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Figure 47: Distribution of NOx emissions in the county of Stockholm in 2001. Right: All sources. Left: road traffic.

1.17.3 Summary of plans and programmes in Stockholm

On 9th December 2004, the Swedish Government made a decision to launch an action pro-gramme for particulates in the Stockholm region to meet the EC limit values in 2005. In 2005, the government decided on about another five plans for environmental quality standards for ambient air according to the Swedish environmental code. The Plans comprised particles (limit values to be reached in 2005), and the Swedish environmental standards for NO2 (according to Swedish legislation, these have to be reached in 2006).

The governmental decision of 9th December 2004 was based on a survey of PM10 concentra-tions that showed that EC limit values were exceeded and that this was to be expected also af-ter 2004. The measures, which are part of the action programme for Stockholm, were devel-oped by the Stockholm County Administrative Board. The following main measures were de-veloped:

l Information of the public about studded tyres and health effects of particulates. l Traffic reduction measures, including parking management l Measures during periods of high PM concentrations (speed limits, dust binding, traffic man-

agement) l Improved road surfaces, improved street cleaning l Measures concerning other PM sources (ships, domestic heating etc.) l Congestion charge trial scheme (see below) The action plan for NO2, which was developed in addition to the PM action plan, covers the fol-lowing main points:

l More stringent emission requirements for passenger cars and heavy traffic l More stringent requirements in the environmental zone l Parking policy l Various improvements concerning public transport l Congestion charge trial scheme On January 3rd, 2006, a congestion charge trial scheme started in the city of Stockholm, which lasted until July 31st, 2006. Cars entering and leaving the inner city of Stockholm were charged time-dependent fees of up to 20 SEK (around 2 €). The congestion charge was applicable dur-


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ing the day on weekdays only. Before the congestion charge trial was introduced, public trans-port had been extended and supplemented by additional bus lines.

The congestion charge trial scheme was accompanied by regular evaluations of traffic volume, average travel time, public opinion and other parameters. Preliminary results showed reduc-tions in traffic volume in the order of 20 % compared to the previous year.

Contact person:

Jesper Johansson

County Administrative Board in Stockholm Environmental and Planning Department 10422 Stockholm Tel +46 (0)8 785 51 50 [email protected]

An English summary of the Stockholm air quality plan is available at: http://www.ab.lst.se/friskareluft

1.17.4 Stockholm transport plan

The transport plan is part of the “Regional Development Plan 2001 for the Stockholm Region”. The plan entered into force as a law in November 2002 to remain in force for six years from that date, until November 2008. The plan is the basis for municipal planning by national bodies and other stakeholders.

The previous regional plan, Regional Plan 1991, was adopted by the County Council represen-tatives in October 1992. Since 1995 a comprehensive working process has been underway aimed at drafting a new plan. The process has been directed by the Office of Regional Plan-ning and Urban Transportation (RTK) as an assignment from the Committee for Regional Plan-ning and Urban Transportation (RTN), with the aim of creating a common vision of the region’s future development and of the need for changes.

Planning was carried out through an ongoing dialogue with the different stakeholders in the re-gion. Reference groups on economy, social questions, environment and issues concerning re-gional planning and urban transport ensured that development issues were described from dif-ferent perspectives and that specialised knowledge from various fields was integrated into the process. During the progress of the work two consultations were carried out, where the docu-ments “The Stockholm Region’s future – outline of a long-term strategy” (1997–98) and “RUFS 2000 – a basis for consultation” (2000) were dealt with, for instance in the municipalities’ politi-cal bodies. The result of this consultation served as the basis for selecting the issues treated here, as well as for the common emphasis decided upon for the various specific fields.

During the consultative period from May to November of 2000, extensive information and com-munication work was in progress. Some hundred meetings were held with municipalities and organisations in the region. The consultation material was widely disseminated, and during the consultative period it was also accessible on the Internet. From October 2001 to January 2002, the plan was formally presented in all the county municipalities. This public presentation was followed by the final political process in the County Council.

The plan is based on five main strategies (as the plan is not a transport plan in its own right, the strategies are not focused on transport issues alone):


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The five strategies are aimed at developing the region in the following areas:

l Increase the region’s capacity l Strengthen the region’s innovative environment l Expand and maintain the unity of the region l Develop the region’s systems and structures l Internationalise the region The strategies should be realised through measures in nine specific fields, one of them being the transport system. There are different objectives for the different sectors. For transportation, the following objectives have been defined:

l expand and provide links within the region; l improve accessibility to the core areas of the region and important nodes; l maintain good transportation structure in the core of the region; l strengthen contacts with regions inside and outside the country; l improve the efficiency and safety of the transportation network as well as reduce the nega-

tive impact of traffic on the environment; l develop transportation in the archipelago and non-urban areas.

1.18 United Kingdom – London

1.18.1 Introduction

London is the capital city of England and of the United Kingdom, and is the most populous city in the European Union. It has an estimated population of 7.5 million (as of 2005) and a metro-politan area population of between 12 and 14 million. Greater London covers an area of 1,579 km². Its primary geographical feature is the Thames, a navigable river which crosses the city from the southwest to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills such as Parliament Hill and Primrose Hill (source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London).


In the European context, London is located in the oceanic climate zone, with frequent advec-tion of air masses of maritime origin. These are characterised by favourable dispersion condi-tions – neutral to unstable vertical temperature gradient, high wind speed, strong turbulence – and frequent rain. More unfavourable dispersion conditions and medium- to long-range trans-port of polluted air masses coincide with advection of air masses from the European continent.

1.18.3 Air quality

The London air quality network (LAQN) consists of about 100 monitoring sites maintained by local and national authorities (www.londonair.org.uk). In addition to monitoring also modelling is performed in order to estimate the spatial distribution of air pollutants. In the year 2002 ex-ceedances of air quality limit value plus margin of tolerance (LV+MOT) occurred in London for the annual mean and hourly mean of NO2, the daily mean of PM10 and the annual mean of

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PM10. In the case of PM10 only traffic related monitoring sites were concerned, whereas for NO2 both traffic related and urban background sites exceeded the LV+MOT. At traffic related sites the NO2 levels were between 65 and 107 µg/m³ for the annual mean (the modelled values are between 57 and 87 µg/m³), the urban background sites in Central London showed between 57 and 61 µg/m³. The PM10 levels at traffic related sites are between 46 and 51 µg/m³; the limit values of the daily mean was exceeded between 116 and 153 times at these sites.

NO2 levels above the LV+MOT of the annual mean occurred at 1,338 km of roads as deduced from traffic sites. With the help of the urban background sites and modelling the number of people affected by elevated NO2 levels was estimated to be about 1,170,000, living in an area of about 150 km². The annual mean of PM10 was exceeded at 24 km of roads, the daily mean LV+MOT at 231 km.

In the year 2003 the observed values were considerably higher than 2002 due to unfavourable meteorological conditions as it has been the case in many other parts in Europe (see also Figure 48 and Figure 49). Hence for NO2 in the urban background about 1,870,000 people in an area of 327 km² were affected. PM levels above the daily mean occurred at 747 km of roads.

Figure 48 shows the trend of annual mean levels of NO2 for roadside sites in Inner and Outer London as well as background sites in Outer London. Until about the year 2000 the NO2 levels seemed to decline, during the last few years no substantial changes occurred. However, there are indications that primary emissions of NO2 are increasing which might increase NO2 levels at traffic sites (see e.g. CARSLAW & BEEVERS 2004 and 2005, AQEG 2004).

Figure 48: NO2 annual mean of various types of monitoring sites in London (source: LONDON 2006).

The number of daily means of PM10 above the LV varies considerable from year to year (Figure 49). Safe for the year 2003 the number of exceedances seems to decline.


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Figure 49: Number of daily means of PM10 above 50 µg/m³ (source: LONDON 2006).

In addition to monitoring, modelling is also performed for the Greater London area. The con-centrations of NO2, NOx and PM10 have been modelled for the years 1999, 2004 (PM10), 2005 (NO2, NOx) and 2010 (CERC 2003). Figure 50 shows maps of the years 2005 and 2010 for NO2; for both years the limit value is breached along the major roads, in Central London and at Heathrow airport despite a substantial decline between these two years.


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Figure 50: Modelled NO2 concentrations in Greater London for the years 2005 and 2010 (source CERC 2003).

Compared to NO2 the situation is more favourable for PM10 with respect to exceedance of limit values. Figure 51 shows the 90.4 percentile5 of PM10 for the years 2004 and 2010 (CERC 2003). No exceedances should occur in both years; a further decline of the 90.4 percentile is predicted until 2010.

5 The 90.4 percentile of all daily means of a year is the 36th highest value. Hence a 90.4 percentile value above 50 µg/m³ cor-

responds to 36 daily means above 50 µg/m³.


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Figure 51: 90.4 percentile of PM10 concentrations in Greater London in the years 2004 and 2010 (source: CERC 2003).

Source apportionment for PM10 was done for two monitoring sites (Bloomsbury, an urban background site, and Marylebone Road, a traffic site, which is one of the highest polluted sites in London) for the years 1999 and 2010. At Bloomsbury about half of the concentration is caused by secondary aerosol coming from UK and Europe. About one third is attributed to what is called “Other background”, which is wind blown dust and resuspended material. The remain-ing 17 % are ascribed to traffic mostly. In 2010 the annual mean should be down to 21 µg/m³. The share of secondary aerosol and local sources should decrease whereas the “other back-ground” increases. At Marylebone Road secondary aerosol and “other background” account for about half of the PM10 concentration in 1999, local sources are dominated by traffic, where all categories show similar contributions. In 2010 the share of local sources should be reduced to about a quarter, most of which is coming from cars, taxis, LGVs and HGVs. PM10 levels should decline from 49 µg/m³ in 1999 to 28 µg/m³ in 2010.


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Figure 52: Source apportionment for PM10 for the years 1999 and 2010 for the urban background station Bloomsbury (left) and the traffic site Marylebone street (right) (source: CERC 2004).

1.18.4 Summary of plans and programmes in London

The P&P for London is part of UK’s P&P, which have been prepared for the years 2002 and 2003. The P&P comprises national measures and measures under the “Local Air Quality Man-agement” (LAQM) regime. The national policies are set out in the Air Quality Strategy for Eng-land, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, which is currently under review (DEFRA 2000, 2003b, 2005).

In the UK plan further strategies and national measures are addressed, which should reduce emissions of pollutants (DEFRA 2005). These are inter alia:


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l Measures to reduce emissions from vehicles via set of grant schemes to incentivise the adoption of cleaner fuels and vehicles.

l The Air Transport White Paper sets out a strategic framework for the development of air ca-pacity in the UK over the next 10 years, against the wider context of the air transport sector (DFT 2003).

l The Transport 10-Year Plan and the Future of Transport White Paper, which reviewed and built on progress and experience of delivering the Plan, and set out a strategy to achieve fur-ther improvements in air quality (DFT 2004).

l The Energy White Paper, which sets out a package of measures to reduce emissions from energy production in the UK, and to increase the role of renewable energy (DTI 2003).

l The UK climate change programme, intended to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, will also impact on levels of NO2, SO2 and PM10 in ambient air (DEFRA 2000b).

l The UK sustainable development strategy (DEFRA 2005).

Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) also supports delivery of the national air quality objec-tives (DEFRA 2005). Under UK’s LAQM, local authorities are required periodically to review and assess the current and future air quality. Where air quality objectives are unlikely to be met by the due dates, that authority must declare an air quality management area (AQMA), cover-ing the area where the problems have been identified. It must then draw up an action plan set-ting out the measures it intends to take in pursuit of the air quality objectives in that area.

Each action plan should contain:

l Quantification of the source contributions to the predicted exceedances of the objectives; l Evidence that all available options have been considered on the grounds of cost-

effectiveness and feasibility; l How the local authority will use its powers and also work in conjunction with other organisa-

tions in pursuit of the air quality objectives; l Clear timescales in which the authority and other organisations and agencies propose to im-

plement the measures within its plan; l Quantification of the expected impacts of the proposed measures and, where possible, an

indication as to whether the measures will be sufficient to meet the air quality objectives; and l How the local authority intends to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of the plan.

In the UK, 177 authorities have declared AQMAs and subsequently produced or are in the proc-ess of producing action plans indicating how they will meet the objectives. The vast majority of AQMAs are designated in respect of nitrogen dioxide and/or particles.

Best practice examples of LAQM plans and guidance documents for preparing those plans are given (see http://www.bv-actionplan.co.uk/).

The approach in London was slightly different as London faces a bigger challenge than other cities in the UK in meeting the AQ objectives. The Mayor of London has published an Air Qual-ity Strategy for London listing measures which are either being put in place or considered in pursuit of the limit values (GREATER LONDON AUTHORITY 2002). This strategy may be consid-ered as an integrated plan and programme for the London agglomeration as a whole. It com-plements and guides London local authority air quality plans required under the LAQM system. The Strategy describes about 30 policies and 50 proposals mostly for road traffic:

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l Reducing traffic, improving public transport; The most well known policy of the Strategy to reduce traffic and improve public transport is the London Congestion Charge (http://www.cclondon.com/), even though the main reason for implementing was to reduce congestion. A recent evaluation study has shown that NOx emis-sions went down by 13 % and PM emissions went down by 15% within the zone (TFL 2006). In February 2007 the Congestion Charge area will be extended. Additionally, public transport, cy-cling and walking is promoted. Within in the Spatial Development Strategy, high trip generating development is only supported where high levels of public transport are available.

l Cleaner road vehicles; With the help of this set of measures a more rapid adoption of new technologies and fuels is encouraged and promoted, e.g. by a congestion charge discount for cleaner vehicles. Further-more it is ensured that any vehicle used by the Greater London Authority will be as clean as practicable. Grants for retrofitting vehicles, purchasing alternatively fuelled vehicles and con-version to cleaner vehicles are available via the energy saving trust (http://www.est.org.uk/fleet/).

l Low emission zones ; The proposed Low Emission Zone (LEZ) aims at encouraging operators to reduce their emis-sions by either replacing or modifying their older diesel-engined vehicles that do not meet the proposed emission standards (see also http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tfl/low-emission-zone/default.asp for background documents and additional information). Operators not com-plying with the proposed standards pay a substantial daily charge to drive within the zone. In order to maximise improvements in air quality and health benefits, it is proposed that the LEZ will cover all of Greater London and operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.

The LEZ would define emission standards that certain categories of vehicle have to comply with in order to travel in London without charge. The standards would be based on Euro stan-dards. These are emission standards that vehicles must be manufactured to by a certain date. TfL proposes the following emission standards for the proposed LEZ:

l For 2008, a standard of Euro 3 for small particles (PM10) for HGVs, coaches and buses l For 2010, a standard of Euro 4 for small particles (PM10). In the event that NOx certifica-

tion capability is available, a standard of Euro IV for PM10 and NOx. This would apply to HGVs, coaches and buses, with an option of extending the scheme to LGVs

For the status of this proposed measure, see also chapter 5.6.1 of the main report.

l Buses and coaches, taxis, road freight; Essential parts of London’s public transport system are buses and taxis, which however con-tribute considerably to road traffic emissions. Hence various measures are planned to reduce their emissions. E.g., as of 2005 all new buses should be equipped with diesel particle filters, and possibilities of implementing cleaner fuels are reviewed. Together with the taxi trade a three phase approach will be applied to ensure that all taxis comply with a certain Euro limit at a set date.

Various options to reduce emissions from road freight will be reviewed and negotiated. For new waste and recycling contracts emission criteria for vehicles used will be specified. Together with the London Sustainable Distribution Partnership an effective distribution of goods will be developed and the accelerated take-up of cleaner vehicles will be encouraged.

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l Traffic management; This measure aims at ensuring traffic flow. The Mayor and Transport for London will work with the different authorities, which are responsible for different types of roads, to adopt a co-ordinated approach. The implementation of Clear Zones will be encouraged.

l Air travel and airports; Emissions result from both air traffic and ground based traffic. As the possibilities for the local government to reduce emissions from air traffic are limited, the UK government, and the EU are urged to act. Furthermore public transport access to and around Heathrow Airport will be improved.

l Rail, shipping and the underground; Options for reducing emissions from rail and shipping – even though their contribution is of mi-nor importance – will be identified. Together with the Strategic Rail Authority, policies such as ensuring the availability of ultra low sulphur diesel and incentives for emission reduction tech-nologies will be worked out.

l Industrial and transboundary sources of pollution; Inspection of regulated processes, modification and update of permit conditions when required, and timely acting in case of complaints and breaches of permit conditions are proposed for in-dustrial sources.

l Construction, construction vehicles and fires; As a first step, information on emissions from construction related activities will be improved. A construction best practice guidance will be developed

l Energy and heating. Combined measures to reduce air pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions will be encouraged, e.g. by promoting combined heat and power community heating schemes, or by increasing the provision of renewable electricity and by encouraging large boilers to shift from heavy fuel oil to lighter fuel oils or gas.

The progress of the Strategy will be monitored through changes in activities and emission fac-tors. For each of the proposals timescales, responsible organisations, links with other strategies and impacts on equalities, health and sustainable development is given.

The London Air Quality Strategy is available at: http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/strategies/air_quality/air_quality_strategy.jsp

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Contact:

Dr Janet Dixon, Senior Science Policy Advisor Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) National Air Quality Assessment Branch Air and Environment Quality Division 7/F15, Ashdown House 123 Victoria Street, London, SW1E 6DE Tel: +44 (0) 20 7082 8372 Mob: +44 (0) 7920 27 5858 Fax: +44 (0) 20 7082 8379 Email: [email protected]

1.18.5 Summary of the London transport strategy

The London Transport Strategy provides the framework to help build a consensus between all stakeholders around improving the transport system for the Capital. It was finalised following consultation with stakeholders and the public early in 2001, which gave broad support for the approach set out in the public consultation draft. Where appropriate, the views of respondents were incorporated into the final strategy. The strategy was revised in August 2004.

The plan’s objective is “to support the vision of London as an exemplary sustainable world city”. The transport strategy is aimed at increasing the capacity, reliability, efficiency, quality and in-tegration of the transport system. The key transport priorities, which are derived from this, are:

l reducing traffic congestion; l overcoming the backlog of investment on the Underground so as to safely increase capacity,

reduce overcrowding, and increase both reliability and frequency of services; l making radical improvements to bus services across London, including increasing the bus

system’s capacity, improving reliability and increasing the frequency of services; l better integration of the National Rail system with London’s other transport systems to facili-

tate commuting, reduce overcrowding, increase safety and move towards a London-wide, high frequency ‘turn up and go’ Metro service;

l increasing the overall capacity of London’s transport system by promoting: major new cross-London rail links including improving access to international transport facilities; improved or-bital rail links in inner London; and new Thames river crossings in east London;

l improving journey time reliability for car users, which will particularly benefit outer London where car use dominates, whilst reducing car dependency by increasing travel choice;

l supporting local transport initiatives, including improved access to town centres and regen-eration areas, walking and cycling schemes, Safer Routes to School, road safety improve-ments, better maintenance of roads and bridges, and improved co-ordination of street works;

l making the distribution of goods and services in London more reliable, sustainable and effi-cient, whilst minimising negative environmental impacts;

l improving the accessibility of London’s transport system so that everyone, regardless of dis-ability, can enjoy the benefits of living in, working in and visiting the Capital, thus improving social inclusion;

l bringing forward new integration initiatives to: provide integrated, simple and affordable pub-lic transport fares; improve key interchanges; enhance safety and security across all means



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of travel; ensure that taxis and private hire vehicles are improved and fully incorporated into London’s transport system; and provide better information and waiting environment.

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