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Descriptive Geometry 2By Pál Ledneczki Ph.D.
Table of contents
1. Cylinder and cone in perspective
2. Intersection of cone and plane
3. Perspective image of circle
4. Tangent planes and surface normals
5. Intersection of surfaces
6. Ellipsoid of revolution
7. Paraboloid of revolution
8. Torus
9. Ruled surfaces
10. Hyperboloid of one sheet
11. Hyperbolic paraboloid
12. Conoid
13. Helix and helicoid
14. Developable surfaces
15. Topographic representation
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Descriptive Geometry 22
Cylinder and Cone in Perspective
C
h
a
r
C
h
r
a
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Descriptive Geometry 23
Intersection of Cone and Plane: Ellipse
http://www.clowder.net/hop/Dandelin/Dandelin.html
The intersection of a cone of revolution and a plane is
an ellipse if the plane (not passing through the vertex
of the cone) intersects all generators.
Dandelin spheres: spheres in a cone, tangent to the
cone (along a circle) and also tangent to the plane of
intersection.
Foci of ellipse: F1 and F2, points of contact of plane of
intersection and the Dadelin spheres.
P: piercing point of a generator, point of the curve of
intersection.
T1 and T2, points of contact of the generator and the
Dandelin sphere.
PF1 = PT1, PF2 = PT2 (tangents to sphere from an
external point).
PF1 + PF2 = PT1 + PT2 = T1T2 = constant
F1
T2
P
F2
T1
Intersection of cone and plane
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Descriptive Geometry 24
Construction of Minor Axis
D’
L”=C”=D”
α ”
β ”
A”
B”
C’
A’ B’
K”
K’ L’
Let the plane of intersection α” be a second
projecting plane that intersects all generators.
The endpoints of the major axis are A and B, the
piercing points of the leftmost and rightmost
generators respectively.
The midpoint L of AB is the centre of ellipse.
Horizontal auxiliary plane β” passing through L
intersects the cone in a circle with the centre of
K. (K is a point of the axis of the cone).
The endpoints of the minor axis C and D can be
found as the points of intersection of the circle in
β and the reference line passing through L”.
Intersection of cone and plane
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Descriptive Geometry 25
Intersection of Cone and Plane: Parabola
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DandelinSpheres.html
T2
P
F
T1
TE
d
The intersection of a cone of revolution and a plane is
a parabola if the plane (not passing through the vertex
of the cone) is parallel to one generator.
Focus of parabola is F, the point of contact of the plane
of intersection and the Dadelin sphere.
Directrix of parabola is d, the line of intersection of the
plane of intersection and the plane of the circle
on the Dandelin sphere.
P: piercing point of a generator, point of the curve of
intersection.
T: point of contact of the generator and the
Dandeli sphere.
PF = PT (tangents to sphere from an external
point).
PT =T1T2 = PE, dist(P,F) = dist(P,d).
Intersection of cone and plane
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Descriptive Geometry 26
Construction of Point and Tangent
P’
t’
P”
α ”
β ”
n11 n12
N1
Let the plane of intersection α” second projecting
plane be parallel to the rightmost generator.
The vertex of the parabola is V.
Horizontal auxiliary plane β” can be used to find P”,
the second image of a point of the parabola.
The tangent t at a point P is the line of intersection
of the plane of intersection and the tangent plane of
the surface at P.
The first tracing point of the tangent N1 is the point
of intersection of the first tracing line of the plane of
intersection and the firs tracing line of the tangent
plane at P, n11 and n12 respectively.
t = | N1P|
V’
V”
Intersection of cone and plane
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Descriptive Geometry 27
Intersection of Cone and Plane: Hyperbola
http://thesaurus.maths.org/mmkb/view.html
F1
T2
P
F2
T1
The intersection of a cone of revolution and a
plane is a hyperbola if the plane (not passing
through the vertex of the cone) is parallel to two
generators.
Foci of hyperbola: F1 and F2, points of contact of
plane of intersection and the Dadelin spheres.
P: piercing point of a generator, point of the
curve of intersection.
T1 and T2, points of contact of the generator and
the Dandelin spheres.
PF1 = PT1, PF2 = PT2 (tangents to sphere from
an external point).
PF2 – PF1 = PT2 - PT1 = T1T2 = constant.
Intersection of cone and plane
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Descriptive Geometry 28
Construction of Asymptotes
Let the plane of intersection α” second projecting plane
parallel to two generators, that means, parallel to the
second projecting plane β through the vertex of the
cone, which intersects the cone in two generators g1
and g2.
The endpoints of the traverse (real) axis are A and B,
the piercing points of the two extreme generators.
The midpoint L of AB is the centre of hyperbola.
The asymptotic lines a1 and a2 are the lines of
intersections of the tangent planes along the generators
g1 and g2 and the plane of intersection α.
α ”β ”
A”
B”
B’
K”
L’
g1” = g2”
g1’
g2’
a1’
a2’
L”
Intersection of cone and plane
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Descriptive Geometry 29
Perspective Image of Circle
The image of a round carpet is a conic section
Hyperbola
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Descriptive Geometry 210
Perspective Image of Circle
axis
vanishing line of
the ground plane
C
F
horizon
Perspective image of circle
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Descriptive Geometry 211
Construction of Perspective Image of Circle
horizon
axis
vanishing line
of the ground plane
(C)
F
The type of the perspective image of a
circles depends on the number of
common points with the vanishing line
of the ground plane:
•no point in common; ellipse
•one point in common; parabola
•two points in common; hyperbola
The asymptotes of the hyperbola are the
projections of the tangents at the vanishing
points.
The distance of the horizon and the
(C) is equal to the distance of the
axis and the vanishing line of the
ground plane.
(K)
K
Perspective image of circle
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Descriptive Geometry 212
Tangent Planes, Surface Normals
A
P
P
A
P
A
P
PA
A
n
n
n
n
n
Tangent planes and surface normals
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Descriptive Geometry 213
Intersection of Cone and Cylinder 1
Intersection of surfaces
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Descriptive Geometry 214
Intersection of Cone and Cylinder 2
Intersection of surfaces
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Descriptive Geometry 215
Intersection of Cone and Cylinder 3
Intersection of surfaces
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Descriptive Geometry 216
Methods for Construction of Points 1
Auxiliary plane:
plane passing through the vertex of the cone and parallel to the axis of cylinder
Intersection of surfaces
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Descriptive Geometry 217
Methods for Construction of Point 2
Auxiliary plane:
first principal plane
Intersection of surfaces
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Descriptive Geometry 218
Principal Points
D’S1’
S2’
K1’
K2’
D”
S1”
S2”K1,2’
Double point: D
Points in the plane of symmetry: S1, S2
Points On the outline of cylinder: K1, K2, K3, K4
Points On the outline of cone: K5, K6, K7, K8
S1
S2
K1K5
K2
K3
K4
K7
K8
K6
Intersection of surfaces
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Descriptive Geometry 219
Surfaces of Revolution: Ellipsoid
Affinity
Prolate ellipsoid
Oblate ellipsoid
Capitol
Axis plane
of affinity
Ellipsoid of revolution
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Descriptive Geometry 220
Ellipsoid of Revolution in Orthogonal Axonometry
F2
F1
OOiV
YX
Z
XIV =YIV
ZIV
anti-circle
E
Construction of the highest point H of the ax. image. (Horizontal tangent of ellipse in the side view.)
Construct the contour pointK of the self-shadow outline.
H
K
Ellipsoid of revolution
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Descriptive Geometry 221
Intersection of Ellipsoid and Plane
http://www.burgstaller-arch.at/
Ellipsoid of revolution
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Descriptive Geometry 222
Surfaces of Revolution: Paraboloid
Paraboloid of revolution
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Descriptive Geometry 223
Paraboloid; Shadows
Find
- the focus of parabola
- tangent parallel to f”
- self-shadow
- cast shadow
- projected shadow inside
Paraboloid of revolution
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Descriptive Geometry 224
Torus
y
x
z
equatorial circle
throat circle
meridiancircle
(axis of rotation)
Torus
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Descriptive Geometry 225
Classification of Toruses
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Torus.html
Torus
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Descriptive Geometry 226
Torus as Envelope of Spheres
Torus
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Descriptive Geometry 227
Outline of Torus as Envelope of Circles
Torus
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Descriptive Geometry 228
Outline of Torus
Torus
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Descriptive Geometry 229
Classification of Points of Surface
hyperbolical(yellow)
elliptical(blue)
parabolical(two circles)
Torus
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Descriptive Geometry 230
Tangent plane at Hyperbolic Point
Torus
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Descriptive Geometry 231
Villarceau Circles
Antoine Joseph François Yvon Villarceau (1813-1889)
Torus
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Descriptive Geometry 232
Construction of Contour and Shadow
Torus
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Descriptive Geometry 233
Ruled Surface
htt
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http://www.amsta.leeds.ac.uk/~khouston/ruled.htm
Ruled surface
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Descriptive Geometry 234
Hyperboloid of One Sheet
http://www.jug.net/wt/slscp/slscpa.htm
http://www.archinform.net/medien/00004570.htm?ID=25c5e478c9a5037003d984a4e4803ded
http://www.earth-auroville.com/index.php?nav=menu&pg=vault&id1=18
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 235
Hyperboloid of One Sheet
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 236
Hyperboloid of One Sheet, Surface of Revolution
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 237
Shadows on Hyperboloid of one Sheet
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 238
Hyperboloid of One Sheet, Shadow 1
The self-shadow outline is the hyperbola h in the plane of the self-shadow generators of asymptotic cone.
The cast-shadow on the hyperboloid itself is an arc of ellipse einside of the surface.
f”
f’
h’
e’
e”
h”
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 239
Hyperboloid of One Sheet, Shadow 2
The self-shadow outline is the ellipse e1 inside of the surface.
The cast-shadow on the hyperboloid itself is an arc of ellipse e2 on the outher side of the surface.
f”
f’
e1”
e2”
e1’
e2’
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 240
Hyperboloid of One Sheet, Shadow 3
f”
f’
O2”
O2**
O2*
The outline of the self_shadow is a pair of parallel generators g1 and g2.
g1’
g2’
g1”= g2”
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 241
Hyperboloid of One Sheet in Perspective
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 242
Hyperboloid in Military Axonometry
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 243
f
f’
V *
V
t
d
B1
B2
A1
A2
T2
T1
T1 *
T2 *
Construction of Self-shadow an Cast Shadow
V * : shadow of the center V that is the vetrex of the asymptotic cone
t: tangent to the throat circle, chord of the base circle
d: parallel and equal to t through the center of the base circle, diameter of the asymptotic cone
Tangents to the base circle of the asymptotic cone from V*with the points of contact A1 and A2 : asymptotes of the cast-shadow outline hyperbola
Line A1A2 : first tracing line of the plane of self-shadow hyperbola; V A1 and VA2 : asymptotes of the self-shadow outline hyperbola
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 244
The cast-shadow of H on the ground plane: H*
Draw a generator g1 passing through H
Find B1, the pedal point of the generator g1
Find n1 = B1H* first tracing line of the auxiliaryplane HB1H*
The point of intersection of the base circle and n1 is B2
The second generator g2 lying in the plane HB1H* intersects the ray of light l at H, the lowest point of the ellipse, i.e. the outline of the projected shadow inside.
H
H
Construction of Projected Shadow
H*
g1 g2
B1 B2
n1
f
f’
l
l’
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 245
Hyperboloid of One Sheet with Horizontal Axis
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 246
Hyperboloid of One Sheet, Intersection with Sphere
Hyperboloid of one sheet
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Descriptive Geometry 247
Hyperbolic Paraboloid
http://www.ketchum.org/shellpix.html#airformhttp://www.recentpast.org/types/hyperpara/index.html
Hyperbolic paraboloid
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Descriptive Geometry 248
Hyperbolic Paraboloid: Construction
http://www.anangpur.com/struc7.html
Hyperbolic paraboloid
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Descriptive Geometry 249
Saddle Surface
http://emsh.calarts.edu/~mathart/Annotated_HyperPara.html
Hyperbolic paraboloid
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Descriptive Geometry 250
Axonometry and Perspective
Hyperbolic paraboloid
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Descriptive Geometry 251
Saddle Point an Contour
AA”
B
D
B”
CC”
S”S
K1
K2
D”
Hyperbolic paraboloid
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Descriptive Geometry 252
C
Shadow at Parallel Lighting
A
B
D
C*
A*
Hyperbolic paraboloid
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Descriptive Geometry 253
Intersection with Cylinder
Hyperbolic paraboloid
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Descriptive Geometry 254
Composite Surface
Hyperbolic paraboloid
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Descriptive Geometry 255
Intersection with Plane
Hyperbolic paraboloid
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Descriptive Geometry 256
Conoid
http://www.areaguidebook.com/2005archives/Nakashima.htm
Conoid Studio, Interior.Photo by Ezra Stoller (c)ESTOCourtesy of John Nakashima
Sagrada Familia Parish School.
Despite it was merely a provisional building destined to be a school for the sons of the bricklayers working in the temple, it is regarded as one of the chief Gaudinianarchitectural works.
http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_VIDA/escoles.asp
Conoid
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Descriptive Geometry 257
Conoid
Eric W. Weisstein. "Right Conoid." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/RightConoid.htmlhttp://mathworld.wolfram.com/PlueckersConoid.htmlhttp://mathworld.wolfram.com/RuledSurface.html
Parabola-conoid (axonometricsketch)
Right circular conoid (perspective)
Definition: ruled surface, set of lines (rulings), which are transversals ofa straight line (directrix) and a curve (base curve), parallel to a plane (director plane).
Conoid
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Descriptive Geometry 258
Tangent Plane of the Right Circular Conoid at a Point
r
P
P’
e
e’Tn1
t
The intersections with a plane parallel to the base plane is ellipse (except the directrix).
The tangent plane is determined by the ruling and the tangent of ellipse passing through the point.
The tangent of ellipse is constructible in the projection, by means of affinity {a, P’ (P)}
Q
Q’
ls
r’
Conoid
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Descriptive Geometry 259
Find contour point of a ruling
Method: at a contour point, the tangent plane of the surface is a projecting plane, i. e. the ruling r, the tangent of ellipse e and the tracing line n1 coincide: r = e = n1
1. Chose a ruling r
2. Construct the tangent t of the base circle at the pedal point T of the ruling r
3. Through the point of intersection of s and t, Q’draw e’ parallel to e
4. The point of intersection of r’ and e’, K’ is the projection of the contour point K
5. Elevate the point K’ to get K
r = e = n1
Q’
Contour of Conoid in Axonometry
K
K’
e’
T
ts
r’
Conoid
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Descriptive Geometry 260
Q’
K’T(T)
r = e = n1
Contour of Conoid in Perspective
Find contour point of a ruling
Method: at a contour point, the tangent plane of the surface is a projecting plane, i. e. the ruling r, the
tangent of ellipse e and the tracing line n1 coincide:
r = e = n1
1. Chose a ruling r
2. Construct the tangent t of the base circle at the pedal point Tof the ruling r
3. Through the point of intersection of s and t, Q’ draw e’ parallel to e ( e e’ = V h)
4. The point of intersection of r’and e’, K’ is the projection of the contour point K
5. Elevate the point K’ to get K
F h
a
C
K
e’
V
r’
t
(t)
s
Conoid
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Descriptive Geometry 261
Shadow of Conoid
r* = e* = n1
r
Q’
K
Tt
s
r’
f
f
K’
Find shadow-contour point of a ruling
Method: at a shadow-contour point, the tangent plane of the surface is a shadow-projecting plane, i. e. the shadow of ruling r*, the shadow of tangent of ellipse e*and the tracing line n1 coincide: r* = e* = n1
1. Chose a ruling r
2. Construct the tangent t of the base circle at the pedal point T of the ruling r
3. Through the point of intersection of s and t, Q’ draw e’ parallel to e*
4. The point of intersection of r’ and e’, K’ is the projection of the contour point K, a point of the self-shadow outline
5. Elevate the point K’ to get K
6. Project K to get K*
e’
K*
Conoid
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Descriptive Geometry 262
Intersection of Conoid and Plane
P”
P’
P
Conoid
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Descriptive Geometry 263
Intersection of Conoid and Tangent Plane
Conoid
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Descriptive Geometry 264
Helix
Fold a right triangle around a cylinder
Helical motion: rotation + translation
Helix and helicoid
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Descriptive Geometry 265
Left-handed, Right-handed Staircases
While elevating, the rotation about the axis is clockwise: left-handed
While elevating, the rotation about the axis is counterclockwise: right-handed
x(t) = a sin(t)
y(t) = a cos(t)
z(t) = c t
c > 0: right-handed
c < 0: left-hande
Helix and helicoid
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Descriptive Geometry 266
Classification of Images of Helix
Sine curve, circle Curve with cusp
Curve with loop
Stretched curve
Helix and helicoid
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Descriptive Geometry 267
Helix, Tangent, Director Cone
πaP=
2a
πcp=
2c
MP”
P’
M”
M’
g”
g’
t’
t”
P’
P
t
g
P: half of the perimeter
p: pitch
a: radius of the cylinder
c: height of director cone = parameter of helical motion
M: vertex of director cone
g: generator of director cone
t: tangent of helix
Helix and helicoid
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Descriptive Geometry 268
Helix with Cuspidal Point in Perspective
The tangent of the helix at cuspidal point is perspective projecting line: T = t = N1 = Vt
Since t lies in a tangent plane of the cylinder of the helix, it lies on a contour generator of the cylinder (leftmost or rightmost)
T = t = N1 =Vt
T: point of contactt: tangent at TN1: tracing pointVt: vanishing point
Helix and helicoid
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Descriptive Geometry 269
Construction Helix with Cusp in Perspective 1
a
h
( C )
( C’)
Let the perspective system {a, h, ( C )} and the base circle of the helix be given. A right-handed helix starts from the rightmost point of the base circle. Find the parameter c (height of the director cone) such that the perspective image of the helix should have cusp in the first turning.
1) T’ is the pedal point of the contour generator on the left.
(T’) Po
2) The rotated (N1 ) can be found on the tangent of the circle at (T’):dist((N1), (T’)) = arc((Po), (T’)).
(Po)
(N1)
F
T’
(O)(t’)t’
N1=T
O
3) T can be found by projecting (N1) through (C), because, T = N1.
Helix and helicoid
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Descriptive Geometry 270
Construction Helix with Cusp in Perspective 2
a
h
Po
F
T’
(O)(t’)
t’
N1=Vt=T
O
(Po)
M
g’g
Vt’
G
g’ t’ , g’ = |Vt’O|
G: pedal point of the generator g, the point of intersection of g’ and the circle (ellipse in perspective)
g t , g = |VtO|
M: vertex of director cone
c = dist(M,O)
axis
Helix and helicoid
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Descriptive Geometry 271
Helicoid
Eric W. Weisstein. "Helicoid." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Helicoid.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicoidhttp://vmm.math.uci.edu/3D-XplorMath/Surface/helicoid-catenoid/helicoid-catenoid_lg1.html
Definition:
A ruled surface, which may be
generated by a straight line
moving such that every point of
the line shall have a uniform
motion in the direction of another
fixed straight line (axis), and at
the same time a uniform angular
motion about it.
Helix and helicoid
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Descriptive Geometry 272
Tangent Plane of Helicoid
The tangent plane is determined by the ruling and the tangent of helix passing through the point.
Helix and helicoid
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Descriptive Geometry 273
K’r’
Find contour point of a ruling
Method: at a contour point, the tangent plane of the surface is a projecting plane, i. e. the ruling r and the tangent of helix e coincide: r = e
1. Chose a ruling r
2. Construct the tangent t of the helix at the endpoint T of the ruling segment r
3. Connect the tracing point N1 of t and the origin Owith the line s
4. Through the point of intersection of s and r = e’, Q draw e’ parallel to t’
5. The point of intersection of r’ and e’, K’ is the projection of the contour point K
Contour of Helicoid
T
T’
K
r = e
t
t’
e’
N1
s
Q
O
Helix and helicoid
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Descriptive Geometry 274
Developable Surfaces
http://www.geometrie.tuwien.ac.at/geom/bibtexing/devel.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developable_surfacehttp://www.rhino3.de/design/modeling/developable/
Developable surfaces can be unfolded onto the plane without stretching or tearing. This property makes them important for several applications in manufacturing.
mARTa Herford - Frank Gehry ©
Developable surfaces
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Descriptive Geometry 275
Developable Surface
Find the proper plug that fits into the three plug-holes. The conoid is non-developable, the cylinder and the cone are developable.
Developable surfaces
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Descriptive Geometry 276
Developable Surface
1
1
9
9
10
10
O1
(O2)
2 (2)
2
M2
(10)
z
O
O2
x
y
Ty
(Ty)
1. Divide one of the circles into equal parts
2. Find the corresponding points of the other circle such that the tangent plane should be the same along the generator
3. Use triangulation method for the approximate polyhedron
4. Develop the triangles one by one
Developable surfaces
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Descriptive Geometry 277
Topographic Representation
Topographic representation
Projection with elevation
www.pacificislandtravel.com
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Descriptive Geometry 278
Topographic Map
One of the most widely used of all maps is the topographic map. The feature that most distinguishes topographic maps from maps of other types is the use of contour lines to portray the shape and elevation of the land. Topographic maps render the three-dimensional ups and downs of the terrain on a two-dimensional surface.
Topographic maps usually portray both natural and manmade features. They show and name works of nature including mountains, valleys,plains, lakes, rivers, and vegetation. They also identify the principal works of man, such as roads, boundaries, transmission lines, and major buildings.
The wide range of information provided by topographic maps make them extremely useful to professional and recreational map users alike. Topographic maps are used for engineering, energy exploration, natural resource conservation, environmental management, public works design, commercial and residential planning, and outdoor activities like hiking, camping, and fishing.
http://mac.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/topo/topo.html#Map
Topographic representation
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Descriptive Geometry 279
Topographic Representation (Vocabulary)
Contour line level path, connect points of equal elevation, closely spaced contour linesrepresent a steep slope, widely spaced lines indicate a gentle slopeconcentric circles of contour lines indicate a hilltop or mountain peak concentric circles of hachured contour lines indicate a closed depression
Hachure a short line used for shading and denoting surfaces in relief (as in map drawing)and drawn in the direction of slope
Dent a depression or hollow made by a blow or by pressure
Hollow a depressed or low part of a surface; esp: a small valley or basin
Scale an indication of the relationship between the distances on a map and the corresponding actual distances
Ravine a small narrow steep-sided valley (water course)
Ridges a top or upper part especially when long and narrow (topped the mountain ridge)
Profile vertical section of the earth’s surface taken along a given line on the surface
Section vertical section taken at right angles to the profile lines
Slope given as a ratio: first number is the horizontal distance and the second number is the verticaldistance (cotα)
Interval distance of cut/fill contours
Topographic representation
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Descriptive Geometry 280
Topographic Map
HilltopRavine
Ridge
Steep slope
Gentle slope
Depressionwww.tomharrisonmaps.com
Topographic representation
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Descriptive Geometry 281
Topographic Representation (3D elements)
Calculation of interval
Scales:Map: M 1:100.000, M 1:25.000Road, railway, model: M 1:200, M 1:50Details: M 1:20, M 1:1Magnification: M 1:0,1, M 1:0,01
Interval:
e.g. scale: M 1:200, ratio of fill: 6:4, than theinterval = 7,5 mm
scale: 1:100, slope of road: 20%,interval = 50 mm
scaleratio
interval1000
s
i
si ρρ=
14
1415
1413
Point
Line
Plane
Topographic representation
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Descriptive Geometry 282
Surfaces
567
89
876 5
1
15
141312
1110
1
151413121110
1312
1110
32
5432
234
5
234
5678910
11
1213
121110987654
Cone
PlanePlane
Helical surface
Cylinder
CircleHelix
Horizontal lineOblique line
Sphere Cone and plane
Topographic representation
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Descriptive Geometry 283
Basic Metrical Constructions
1415
13
2( g)
g =
A60
B57
3
1
AB
P6
Q8
R9
(P )
(Q )
(R )
89
76
True length of a segment Perpendicular line and plane Rotation of a plane parallel
to the picture plane
1
Topographic representation