Design TheoryLecture 03: Design as Learning / Methods & Tools

Communication &Multimedia Design

Bas Leurs (b.l.f.leurs@hr.nl)March, 2014

what we discussed two weeks ago...

Today’s programme

Design as learning

Methods & Tools

design as learning

Learning is interpreting and understanding reality in a different way.

Learning is making sense or abstracting meaning.

Learning is the acquisition of knowledge (or skills) through experience, practice or study.

We will discuss three types of learning:• Experiential Learning Cycle (Kolb)• Reflection-in-action / Reflection-on-Action (Schön)• Single-Loop Learning / Double-Loop Learning (Argyris & Schön)

and...• Sensemaking (Weick)

Doing

Understanding the phenomena, drawing conclusionsWhat does it mean?

Doing an intervention What do I feelsee, hear, taste,

smell etc.?

Experiencing a phenomena

Thinking

Reviewing

Feeling

Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory

Kolb (1984)

For Schön designing is not primarily a form of problem solving, information processing or search, but a ‘reflective dialogue’ between the designer and the materials of the situation he/she is in.

Herbert Simon (1995)

Donald Schön

Reflection-in-action

After the experience a practitioner analyses their reaction to the situation and explores the reasons around, and the consequences of, their actions.

Reflection-in-action can be described as to ‘think on their feet’, otherwise known as ‘felt-knowing’. It revolves around the idea that within any given moment, when faced with a professional issue, a practitioner usually connects with their feelings, emotions and prior experiences to attend to the situation directly.

Reflection in Action Reflection on Action

During the project (while designing) After the project (after designing)

Reflection-in-action vs Reflection-on-action

the belief systems and values which the individual or organisation is trying to maintain

The moves and plans used by people to keep their governing values within the acceptable range

In 'single loop' learning an individual (or organisation) becomes increasingly more knowledgable

Single loop learning is useful when you want to make a process more efficient and external elements remain fairly constant and predictable.

'Double loop' learning occurs where there is a paradigm shift in understanding.

The people involved start to think on a different level i.e. they start to question the questions that are being asked or the assumptions behind them. This can start to open up new questions for exploration.

Argyris & Schön (1974)

Single and Double Loop Learning

design is sensemaking

paper over interviews

hoe doe je een interview:vragen stellen

Do you need to complete the puzzle to know what it is about?

paper over interviews

hoe doe je een interview:vragen stellen

Bounded rationality

See Simon (1991) and Selten (1999)

You always design with the knowledge that is available

Design projects are always

restricted by time. Therefore

you will never find all the

answers that you need.

However you don’t always

need to finish the whole jigsaw

puzzle to form a mental picture

about its theme or final state.

SensemakingSensemaking is about people understanding what happens around them (Kolko, 2010)

“structuring the unknown”(Waterman, 1987)

“attributing meaning to surprises”(Louis, 1980)

“Sensemaking is the process of fitting data into a frame, and fitting a frame around the data.”(Sieck et al, 2007)

Sensemaking is about attributing meaning to

discontinuities or discrepancies in between mental

representations and the real world.

forming predictions

assumptions and anticipations

experiencing a discrepancy between predictions and actual

experience

a need to explain the discrepancy

Consciously or Unconsciously

attributing meaning to the

surprise

revising assumptions

Based on Louis (1980)

“Sensemaking is attributing meaning to surprise”

SURPRISE

Discontinuity in activity

how to become an

avalanche expert (the

quickest way)

Expert stories

18 minutes90% chance of survival

35 minutes30% chance of survival, death is due to suffocation

90 minutes20% chance of survival, people die because of hypothermia

130 minutes3% chance of survival

25 minutesPrins Friso

Expert stories

Basic backcountry safety gear

Avalanche transceiver(Beeper)

ProbeShovel

Airbag

Get as much ‘real

life’ experience as

possible!!!

Using products

Interviewing people

Watching product demos

Observing product use

Expert stories

geholpen!worden.!De!meeste!van!de

zijn.!

!

Professionele$hulp$komt$voor$de$meeste$lawinesl

achtoffers$te$laat.$Foto$Menno$Boermans,$Gasenried

$$

Listening to stories

Interviewing experts

Observing the audience

Our moment of surprise:

Snow in an avalanche may

contain rocks and ice.

You’re exhausted after two

minutes of intense shoveling

Model of what ‘is’

What ‘is’

Model of what

‘could be’

What ‘could be’

Design is making sense out of nonsense

learning – and thus designing – is questioning

How many designers does it take to change a

lightbulb?Warren Berger (2009)

Why does it have to be a lightbulb?

Warren Berger (2009)

It takes one designer to change the lightbulb

... and a second designer to tell the other how to do it better.

Charlie Mulholland

another feasible answer...

why?

why, w

hy, why...

Check out his Ted Talk... it’s an excellent summary of his book.www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMLSrqYk0UE

Simon Sinek (2011)

the golden circle

Why do designers ask so often... “Why?”Because the why question reveals the structure of a system, it helps designers to identify cause and effect relations.

“Question asking is a fundamental cognitive

mechanism in design thinking” (Eris, 2003)

design methods & tools

Can you put the word ‘design thinker’ on LinkedIn profile if you’re

not able to make a drawing?

design thinking is not enough, you also need to do design acting... make things (sketches, prototypes)

See Jon Kolko on: www.youtube.com/watch?v=GKTYQAFDwhA

Methodology The system of methods followed in a particular discipline. 

MethodA procedure or routine for accomplishing something

TechniqueA way of carrying out a particular task.

ToolsAn instrument used in the performance of an operation

French cuisine

A recipe

Chopping

Knife

Participatorydesign

Context mapping

Generativetechniques

Videocamera

DiscoverResearchSpecifyInspire

IdeateDefine

DirectionConcept

EmbodimentCreateDesignEnvision

DevelopDeliver

PrototypeArticulate

research methods

context mapping

ideationtechniquebrainstorming

visualisation technique

sketches

prototyping toolsarduino

evaluation methodsusability testing

What is the role of methods in design?

To relieve a designer from time-consuming and difficult tasks with a systematic and structured approach. This is especially the case when the purpose is straightforward production of already designed functions or systems.

Design work is always carried out in a social context. The method can serve as a common ground for more successful communication between the stakeholders in a design process.

Lonas Löwgren & Erik Stolterman (1999) Canale (2007)

“Methods as learning tools”

prototyping

We define a prototype as any representation of a design idea — regardless of medium

Houde & Hill (1997)

Cognitive

Prototype

Yet, we know that failure is often a powerful way to learn. Within our work culture at IDEO we have found that prototypes help to create a “safe space” for failure and therefore free people up to make discoveries and to learn more quickly.

Coughlan, Suri, Canales (2007)

“Prototypes are learning tools”

knowing through making

Maarit Mäkelä (2007)

High Fidelity

Low FidelityCrude sketchesFew visual details, mimicked behaviour

Working Beta versionVery detailed visuals. Fully functional product.

Wireframes, paperprototyping,Wizard of Oz 1 hour to a few days

a few seconds to 10 minutes

a few days to a few weeks(or even months)

Not many skills required (sketching)

Good skills of programming required

High Fidelity

Low FidelityCrude sketchesFew visual details, mimicked behaviour

Working Beta versionVery detailed visuals. Fully functional product.

1 hour to a few days

a few seconds to 10 minutes

a few days to a few weeks(or even months)

Not many skills required (sketching)

Good skills of programming required

Flash Catalyst

Sketches

Flash

Arduino

Max / MSP

Role playing Enactment

Dreamweaver

Powerpoint

Wireframes Wizard of Oz

Stop motion

Axure

JavaC#

VVVV

Our moment of surprise:

Snow in an avalanche may

contain rocks and ice.

You’re exhausted after two

minutes of intense shoveling

Making prototypes(visualize the future)

Discussing

Using prototypes

Critiquing

knowing through making

Some rough clay model sketches.

8

#CADModel

Apart from the functional prototype of the Orto-vox Lynx, we decided to make a digital 3D-model to be able to quickly simulate and visualize the decisions we make. Also for measurements the 3D-models can be very useful (Figure A).

The handle and the lower grip-rings have some more organic shapes (Figure B), which are dif-Û\nem�mh�lbfneZm^�]b`bmZeer%�p^�]^\b]^]�mh�m^lm�ma^bk�accuracy by milling foam. The milling was done by computer fully based on the CAD-model (see Figure C). This way we could test whether the CAD-model was accurate.

For example we tested the handle on its ergo-nomics and aesthetics (Figure D). This way some adjustments were made in the CAD-model. In the ÛgZe�_ng\mbhgZe�ikhmhmri^%�ma^�aZg]e^�Zg]�kbg`l�are milled the same way, but out of PVC see #Low-ergripFinishing and #HandleFinishing.

With the CAD-model renders could be made, with approximations of the colours and materials (see Figure E). As close as the CAD-model is to ma^�ehhdl�h_�ma^�Ergq%�ma^�ÛgZe�ikhmhmri^�bl�hg�Z�functional level.

The technical drawings were also made based on the CAD-model.

C

Figure A

Figure B

Figure C

Figure D

Figure E

47

#TechnicalDrawings01T

47,12

13,1

2°

6

5

4

172,33

24,7

1

212,6

0

1

3

2

792,7

4

229,96

278,7

0

104,7

1143,0

8

179,55

Lynx

LYNX

03feb12Tayrona

WEIGHT:

A4

SHEET 1 OF 7SCALE:1:2

DWG NO.

TITLE:

REVISIONDO NOT SCALE DRAWING

MATERIAL:

DATESIGNATURE

DEBUR AND

BREAK SHARP

EDGES

FINISH:UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED:

DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS

SURFACE FINISH:

TOLERANCES:

LINEAR:

ANGULAR:

Q.A

MFG

APPV'D

CHK'D

DRAWN

NAME

Num Description Quant

1 Handle subassembly

2

3

Locking mechanism

4

Blade

5

Ring

6

Lower Shaft

Upper Shaft

1

1

1

2

1

1

Material

Rubber - Lexan

Al 6061 T6

Lexan

Al 6061 T6

Stainless Steel

Al 6061 T6

Some renderings of the final product, foam models and technical drawings.

Drawings

Prototypes

Final prototype

Prototypes

* Beast Saw is missing in this overview

sketching (drawing)

26 August 1977, Volume 197, Number 4306 SCIENCE:

The Nature of Design

The Mind's Eye: Nonverbal-Thought in Technology

"Thinking with pictures" is an essential strand in theintellectual history of technological development.

Eugene S. Ferguson

This scientific age too readily assumesthat whatever knowledge may be incor-porated in the artifacts of technologymust be derived from science. This as-sumption is a bit of modem folklore thatignores the many nonscientific decisions,both large and small, made by tech-nologists as they design the world we in-habit. Many objects of daily use haveclearly been influenced by science, buttheir form and function, their dimensionsand appearance, were determined bytechnologists-craftsmen, designers, in-ventors, and engineers-using non-scientific modes of thought. Carvingknives, comfortable chairs, lighting fix-tures, and motorcycles are as they arebecause over the years their designersand makers have established shape,style, and texture.Many features and qualities of the ob-

jects that a technologist thinks aboutcannot be reduced to unambiguous ver-bal descriptions; they are dealt with inhis mind by a visual, nonverbal process.His mind's eye is a well-developed organthat not only reviews the contents of hisvisual memory but also forms such newor modified images as his thoughts re-quire. As he thinks about a machine, rea-soning his way through successive stepsin a dynamic process, he can turn it overin his mind. The designer and the in-

ventor, who bring elements together innew combinations, are each able to as-semble and manipulate in their minds de-vices that as yet do not exist.

If we are to understand the devel-opment of Western technology, we mustappreciate this important, if unnoticed,mode of thought. It has been nonverbalthinking, by and large, that has fixed theoutlines and filled in the details of ourmaterial surroundings for, in their innu-merable choices and decisions, tech-nologists have determined the kind ofworld we live in, in a physical sense.Pyramids, cathedrals, and rockets existnot because of geometry, theory of struc-tures, or thermodynamics, but becausethey were first a picture-literally a vi-sion-in the minds of those who builtthem (1).

This article attempts to clarify the na-ture and significance of nonverbalthought. It traces the development ofnonverbal thought as practiced by tech-nologists since the Renaissance, pointsto the many drawings and pictures thathave both recorded and stimulated tech-nological developments, and reviews thegraphic inventions, such as pictorial per-spective, that have lent system and clari-ty to nonverbal thinking. A concludingsection considers changing attitudes to-ward the nonverbal component of tech-nology as they have been reflected in en-gineering curricula and suggests some ef-fects of such changes upon the nature ofour technology.

There may well be only one acceptablearrangement or configuration of a com-plex technological device, such as a mo-torcycle, but that arrangement is neitherself-evident nor scientifically predict-able. The early designers of motorcyclescould not ask science to tell them whereto put engine, battery, fuel tank, andspark coil; they had to make their choiceson other grounds (see cover). In time,wrong choices would be revealed,but not by scientific analysis. Makingwrong choices is the same kind of gameas making right choices; there is often noa priori reason to do one thing ratherthan another, particularly if neither hadbeen done before. No bell rings when theoptimum design comes to mind. Nor hasthe plight of designers changed funda-mentally in the 20th century. They muststill weigh the imponderable and soundthe unfathomable. All of our technologyhas a significant intellectual componentthat is both nonscientific and nonliterary.The creative shaping process of a tech-

nologist's mind can be seen in nearlyevery man-made object that exists. Thesweep of a suspension bridge, for ex-ample, is much more than an exercise ingeometry. The distinctive features ofthree great suspension bridges in NewYork-the Brooklyn, George Washing-ton, and Verazzano Narrows-reflectmore strongly the conceptualization oftheir designers and the times of theirconstruction than they do the physicalrequirements of their respective sites.Different builders of large power boilersuse many common elements in theirdesigns, but certain characteristics ofinternal "style" distinguish the boilersof one maker from those of another. Theopportunities for a designer to impresshis particular way of nonverbal thinkingupon a machine or a structure are literal-ly innumerable. This open-ended pro-cess can be seen in the design of a famil-iar, compact machine such as a diesel en-gine.The designer of a diesel engine is a

technologist who must continually usehis intuitive sense of rightness and fit-ness. What will be the shape of the com-bustion chamber? Can I use square cor-

827

The author is professor of history at the Uni-versity of Delaware and curtor of technology of theHagley Museum, Greenville, Delaware 19807.

26 AUGUST 1977

26 August 1977, Volume 197, Number 4306 SCIENCE:

The Nature of Design

The Mind's Eye: Nonverbal-Thought in Technology

"Thinking with pictures" is an essential strand in theintellectual history of technological development.

Eugene S. Ferguson

This scientific age too readily assumesthat whatever knowledge may be incor-porated in the artifacts of technologymust be derived from science. This as-sumption is a bit of modem folklore thatignores the many nonscientific decisions,both large and small, made by tech-nologists as they design the world we in-habit. Many objects of daily use haveclearly been influenced by science, buttheir form and function, their dimensionsand appearance, were determined bytechnologists-craftsmen, designers, in-ventors, and engineers-using non-scientific modes of thought. Carvingknives, comfortable chairs, lighting fix-tures, and motorcycles are as they arebecause over the years their designersand makers have established shape,style, and texture.Many features and qualities of the ob-

jects that a technologist thinks aboutcannot be reduced to unambiguous ver-bal descriptions; they are dealt with inhis mind by a visual, nonverbal process.His mind's eye is a well-developed organthat not only reviews the contents of hisvisual memory but also forms such newor modified images as his thoughts re-quire. As he thinks about a machine, rea-soning his way through successive stepsin a dynamic process, he can turn it overin his mind. The designer and the in-

ventor, who bring elements together innew combinations, are each able to as-semble and manipulate in their minds de-vices that as yet do not exist.

If we are to understand the devel-opment of Western technology, we mustappreciate this important, if unnoticed,mode of thought. It has been nonverbalthinking, by and large, that has fixed theoutlines and filled in the details of ourmaterial surroundings for, in their innu-merable choices and decisions, tech-nologists have determined the kind ofworld we live in, in a physical sense.Pyramids, cathedrals, and rockets existnot because of geometry, theory of struc-tures, or thermodynamics, but becausethey were first a picture-literally a vi-sion-in the minds of those who builtthem (1).

This article attempts to clarify the na-ture and significance of nonverbalthought. It traces the development ofnonverbal thought as practiced by tech-nologists since the Renaissance, pointsto the many drawings and pictures thathave both recorded and stimulated tech-nological developments, and reviews thegraphic inventions, such as pictorial per-spective, that have lent system and clari-ty to nonverbal thinking. A concludingsection considers changing attitudes to-ward the nonverbal component of tech-nology as they have been reflected in en-gineering curricula and suggests some ef-fects of such changes upon the nature ofour technology.

There may well be only one acceptablearrangement or configuration of a com-plex technological device, such as a mo-torcycle, but that arrangement is neitherself-evident nor scientifically predict-able. The early designers of motorcyclescould not ask science to tell them whereto put engine, battery, fuel tank, andspark coil; they had to make their choiceson other grounds (see cover). In time,wrong choices would be revealed,but not by scientific analysis. Makingwrong choices is the same kind of gameas making right choices; there is often noa priori reason to do one thing ratherthan another, particularly if neither hadbeen done before. No bell rings when theoptimum design comes to mind. Nor hasthe plight of designers changed funda-mentally in the 20th century. They muststill weigh the imponderable and soundthe unfathomable. All of our technologyhas a significant intellectual componentthat is both nonscientific and nonliterary.The creative shaping process of a tech-

nologist's mind can be seen in nearlyevery man-made object that exists. Thesweep of a suspension bridge, for ex-ample, is much more than an exercise ingeometry. The distinctive features ofthree great suspension bridges in NewYork-the Brooklyn, George Washing-ton, and Verazzano Narrows-reflectmore strongly the conceptualization oftheir designers and the times of theirconstruction than they do the physicalrequirements of their respective sites.Different builders of large power boilersuse many common elements in theirdesigns, but certain characteristics ofinternal "style" distinguish the boilersof one maker from those of another. Theopportunities for a designer to impresshis particular way of nonverbal thinkingupon a machine or a structure are literal-ly innumerable. This open-ended pro-cess can be seen in the design of a famil-iar, compact machine such as a diesel en-gine.The designer of a diesel engine is a

technologist who must continually usehis intuitive sense of rightness and fit-ness. What will be the shape of the com-bustion chamber? Can I use square cor-

827

The author is professor of history at the Uni-versity of Delaware and curtor of technology of theHagley Museum, Greenville, Delaware 19807.

26 AUGUST 1977

Ferguson (1977)

The mind’s eye

Zafer Bilda, John S. Gero and Terry Purcell (2006)

Sketching is a dialogueSketching helps for ‘seeing it (the design) as parts and seeing it as a whole’Sketching captures the moment and stores itSketching is for externalizing a mental imageSketching is like a language, learn to use it

Purpose of Sketching

Designing without drawings

Ferguson (1992)

Idea Thingby craftsman

Idea ThingDrawingby engineer / designer by worker

Also referred to as ‘indirect design’ (Doblin, 1987/2002)Designing with drawings

F.C.A. UX Designer “Coder”

The prescriptive/storing sketchRefers to the designers communicating design decisions to persons that are outside of the design process

Eugene Ferguson (1992)

Three kinds of sketches

The thinking sketchThinking sketches refer to the designers making use of the drawing surface in support of their individual thinking processes. It is to focus and to guide nonverbal thinking.

The talking sketchRefers to designers making use of the (shared) drawing surface in support of the group discussion

Thinking Talking

Storing

Manufacturer /Programmer

Designer Design team

Rough / Crude Refined / Detailed

storytelling

Stories are vehicles of experiences and values.

Scenario

Mieke van der Bijl-Brouwer, Stella Boess anf Christelle Harkema (2011)

the studio environmentas a tool...

Who likes to work in this studio?

UNITiD

what do you usually do with your research

data?

Computers and servers are excellent devices to store knowledge on. However, retreiving the

knowledge might take some (or too much) effort.For example... in order to share your insights with

your teammates during a meeting you have to switch on your computer, open the document or a

webbrowser, navigate to the specific page.

The problem with storing knowledge on a computer

Capture Cards

Parts of this image are intentionally blurred or obscured

“War room style”(See Kolko 2010)

Designers surround themselves with inspiration.

Walls are used to store idea’s, sketches, inspiration etc and are used during brainstorming or discussions.

The situation

"We have become the owners of this space, it feels it is ours, this is where I

feel comfortable."

"It was nice to have your own place, that is always the same. You would find your stuff in the same

position as you left it the day before.";

“You stay immersed in the project”

"It helps us to look back to all the ideas we came up with. Some of these ideas turned out to be more

valuable than expected."

“You can see the whole process”

Make space

Facilitating students with space, supplies,

tools

Facilities

Make place

Fostering a sense of belonging and

ownership

Ownership

Make sense

Overseeing the whole process, identifying

patterns, forge connections

Shared understanding

Salut!

Please return the cards!

Next lecture:Design ExpertiseDesign Thinking