ix

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface xxv

Acknowledgements xxix

Notice and Frequently Cited Legislation and Guidelines xxxiv

Chapter 1:FAMILY STRUCTURES AND CANADIAN FAMILY LAW 1

A. Definitions of “Family” 1

B. Sources of Family Law 2

C. Evolution of Family Law 2

D. Fragmentation of Legislative Powers 10

E. Fragmentation of Judicial Jurisdiction 11

Chapter 2:MARRIAGE 14

A. Engagements 14

B. Property Disputes on Termination of Engagement 14

C. Change of Name 16

D. Marriage: Status or Contract? 16

E. Definition of Marriage; Monogamous and Polygamous Marriages 17

F. Formal and Essential Validity 18

1) Validity of Marriage; Applicable Laws 18

Canadian family lawx

2) Formal Validity 19

3) Essential Validity 20

G. Jurisdiction 20

H. Void and Voidable Marriages 21

I. Absence of Consent 22

1) Unsoundness of Mind; Alcohol and Drug Intoxication 22

2) Duress 23

3) Fraud 24

4) Mistake 24

5) Intention and Motive; Marriages of Convenience 25

J. Legal Capacity 27

1) Same-Sex Marriages 27

2) Age 27

3) Prior Marriage 28

4) Prohibited Degrees 28

K. Non-consummation of Marriage 29

L. Bars to Annulment 31

1) Collusion 31

2) Estoppel 31

3) Insincerity 32

M. Religious Annulments and Divorce 34

Chapter 3:COHABITATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS 35

A. Introduction 35

B. Legal Consequences of Unmarried Cohabitation as Compared to Marriage 35

C. Cohabitation Agreements 37

D. Support Rights and Obligations Between Unmarried Cohabitants 40

E. Property Rights 46

F. Parenting Disputes 54

Chapter 4:DOMESTIC CONTRACTS 55

A. Types of Domestic Contracts 55

Detailed Table of Contents xi

B. Domestic Contracts Under the Ontario Family Law Act 66

1) General Observations 66

2) Marriage Contracts 68

3) Cohabitation Agreements 69

4) Separation Agreements 69

5) Formal Requirements of Domestic Contracts 71

6) Capacity to Enter into Domestic Contracts 72

7) Contracts Subject to Best Interests of the Child 72

8) Dum Casta Clauses 73

9) Setting Aside Domestic Contracts 74

10) Rights of Donors of Gifts 80

11) Contracts Made Outside Ontario 80

12) Paternity Agreements 81

13) Application of Act to Pre-existing Contracts 82

14) Setting Aside Provisions of Domestic Contracts Respecting Spousal and Child Support 83

15) Incorporation of Provisions of Domestic Contracts in Orders Under the Family Law Act 84

16) Incorporation of Provisions of Domestic Contracts in Divorce Judgments 84

17) Filing, Enforcement, and Variation of Support Provisions of Domestic Contracts 85

18) Remedies for Breach of Domestic Contracts 87

19) Termination of Domestic Contracts 87

Chapter 5:FAMILY VIOLENCE 89

A. Introduction 89

B. Abuse of the Elderly 90

C. Nature of Spousal Abuse 91

D. Social and Legal Responses to Spousal Abuse 92

1) Shelters and Transition Houses 93

2) Counselling Services 93

3) Legal Responses to Spousal Abuse 94

4) Criminal Law 95

a) Criminal Code Offences 95

b) Specialized Criminal Courts 100

c) Provincial Statutory Developments 101

5) Matrimonial Proceedings 102

Canadian family lawxii

a) Divorce Act 102

b) Spousal and Child Support 103

c) Parenting Disputes: Custody and Access 104

d) Orders for Exclusive Possession of Matrimonial Home 105

e) Restraining Orders 106

6) Actions for Damages 111

E. The Victim’s Response to Spousal Abuse 113

F. Nature of Child Abuse 114

G. Social and Legal Responses to Child Abuse 115

1) Criminal Sanctions 116

2) Child Protection Proceedings 118

3) Family Law Proceedings 123

4) Damages for Child Abuse 123

5) Institutional Child Abuse 127

Chapter 6:THE CRISES OF MARRIAGE BREAKDOWN AND PROCESSES FOR DEALING WITH THEM 129

A. The Crises of Marriage Breakdown 129

B. The Emotional Divorce 130

C. Recent Trends in Family Dispute Resolution 133

D. Duties of the Parties and the Legal Profession to Promote Reconciliation and Consensual Resolution 135

1) Duties of the Parties 135

2) Duties of Legal Adviser 135

3) Duty of the Court: Reconciliation 137

E. Marriage and Family Counselling 142

F. Negotiation 143

1) The Importance of Negotiation 144

2) Negotiation Techniques 144

3) Aspects of Successful Negotiation on Family Breakdown 146

G. Mediation 148

1) Nature of Mediation 148

2) Approaches to Mediation 148

3) Reasons for Mediation 149

4) Goals of Mediation 149

5) Arriving at a Fair Settlement 150

Detailed Table of Contents xiii

6) Circumstances in Which Mediation Is Inappropriate 150

7) Full Disclosure and Confidentiality 151

8) Involvement of Third Parties 151

9) Involvement of Children 151

10) Involvement of Lawyers 152

11) Issues to Be Mediated 152

12) Neutrality of Mediators 153

13) Common Impediments to Settlement 153

a) Emotional Barriers 153

b) “Stuck Spots” 154

c) Imbalances of Power 154

d) War Games 154

14) Mediation Strategies to Circumvent or Remove Impediments to Settlement 154

a) Dealing with Anger and Hostility 154

b) Circumventing “Stuck Spots” 155

c) Private Caucusing 156

d) Restoring Trust and Respect 156

e) Redressing Power Imbalances 157

15) Steps in the Mediation Process 157

a) Setting the Stage 157

b) Defining the Issues 158

c) Processing the Issues 158

d) Resolving the Issues 159

16) Pros and Cons of Mediation 159

17) Professional and Community Responses to Mediation 159

18) The Future of Family Mediation 160

H. Arbitration 162

1) Advantages of Arbitration 162

a) Selection of Arbitrator(s) 162

b) Type of Hearing 163

c) Flexibility and Speed 163

d) Definition of Issues 164

e) Privacy 164

f) Expense 164

2) Disadvantages of Arbitration 165

3) Court-Annexed Arbitration 165

4) Judicial and Legislative Responses to Arbitration 167

I. Med-Arb 170

Canadian family lawxiv

J. Parenting Coordination 172

K. Concluding Observations 174

Chapter 7:DIVORCE: JURISDICTION; JUDGMENTS; FOREIGN DIVORCES; GROUNDS FOR DIVORCE; BARS 176

A. Separation Agreements; Divorce Settlements 176

B. Jurisdiction over Divorce 177

1) Introduction 177

2) Definition of “Court” 179

3) Exercise of Jurisdiction by Judge Alone 179

4) Jurisdiction in Divorce Proceedings 179

a) Basic Statutory Criteria 179

b) Competing Foreign Proceeding 180

5) Jurisdiction in Corollary Relief Proceedings 181

6) Jurisdiction in Variation Proceedings 182

7) Transfer of Proceedings to Another Province 182

8) Jurisdiction — Application for Contact Order 183

9) Removal or Retention of Child of Marriage 184

10) Child Habitually Resident Outside Canada 185

11) Habitual Residence 186

C. Divorce Judgments 188

1) Effective Date of Divorce Judgment; Appeals; Rescission of Divorce Judgment 188

2) Expedition of Divorce Judgment 189

3) National Effect of Divorce and Corollary Orders 190

4) Right to Remarry 191

D. Recognition of Foreign Divorces 191

1) General Criteria 191

2) Extra-Judicial Divorce 193

3) Substantive and Procedural Defects 193

4) Doctrine of Preclusion 193

E. Recognition of Foreign Order That Varies Parenting or Contact Order 194

F. Marriage Breakdown as Sole Ground for Divorce 195

1) Spousal Separation as Proof of Marriage Breakdown 197

2) Adultery and Cruelty as Proof of Marriage Breakdown: No Waiting Period 200

Detailed Table of Contents xv

3) Marriage Breakdown: Adultery 201

4) Marriage Breakdown: Cruelty 203

G. Bars to Divorce 209

1) Collusion 210

2) Connivance and Condonation 211

3) Absence of Reasonable Arrangements for Child Support 214

4) Barriers to Religious Remarriage 218

Chapter 8:SPOUSAL SUPPORT ON OR AFTER DIVORCE 221

A. Definition of “Spouse” and “Spousal Support” 221

B. Formal Legal Equality Between Spouses 222

C. Types of Orders 222

1) Diverse Types of Orders 222

2) Nominal Orders 222

3) Interim Support Orders 223

4) Lump Sum Support Orders 230

5) Security 236

6) Fixed-Term Spousal Support Orders; Review Orders 239

D. Terms, Conditions, and Restrictions 245

E. Relevant Factors 246

1) Definition of “Condition” of the Spouses 246

2) Definition of “Means”; Effect of Substantial Property Division 248

3) Needs and Capacity to Pay; Economic Self-Sufficiency; Relevance of Cohabitational Standard of Living 255

4) Definition of “Other Circumstances” 257

5) Post-Separation Income Increase 257

F. Spousal Conduct 265

G. Four Objectives of Spousal Support 269

H. Broad Judicial Discretion 278

I. Overarching Principle of Equitable Sharing 280

J. Needs and Capacity to Pay Not Excluded by Compensatory Model 281

K. Implications of Child Care During Marriage and After Divorce 284

L. Alleviation of Feminization of Poverty 284

M. No Pat Formula 284

Canadian family lawxvi

N. Effect of Spousal Agreement on Subsequent Application for Spousal Support 286

1) Finality of Spousal Agreement 291

2) Applicability of Miglin to Payors 291

3) Non-cohabitation Covenants 292

4) Effect of Spousal Agreement on Interim Orders 293

5) Effect of Marriage Contract or Cohabitation Agreement 295

6) Variation Orders 297

7) Effect of Spousal Agreement on Child Support 299

8) Applications Under Provincial Statute 299

O. Effect of Sponsorship Agreement 300

P. Double Recovery, or Double Dipping 300

Q. Income Tax and Retroactive Orders 302

R. Variation and Termination of Support Orders 305

1) General 305

2) Variation of Fixed-Term Orders 315

3) Effect of Remarriage or Common Law Relationship 317

a) Effect of Remarriage 317

b) Effect of Common Law Relationship 322

4) Finality of Orders 324

S. Cost-of-Living Indexation 326

T. Retroactive Spousal Support Orders 327

U. Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines 333

1) Overview of the Guidelines 333

a) Introduction 333

b) Nature of the Guidelines 335

c) Advantages and Disadvantages of the Guidelines 335

d) Basic Structure and Application of the Guidelines 336

i) Income-Sharing Regime Deemed Consistent with Spousal Support Criteria Under the Divorce Act 336

ii) Proposed Applicability of the Guidelines 337

iii) Two Basic Formulas — Marriages Without and with Dependent Children 339

iv) Floors and Ceilings 340

v) Restructuring: Trade-offs Between Amount and Duration 342

vi) Exceptions 342

e) The Without Child Support Formula 344

Detailed Table of Contents xvii

f) The With Child Support Formula 345

i) Reasons for Separate Model Where Dependent Children Involved; Parenting Partnership Model 345

ii) Primary Differences Between the Two Basic Formulas 346

iii) Summary of Basic With Child Support Formula 346

iv) Duration Under the Basic Formula 348

v) Shared and Split Custody 348

vi) Stepchildren 349

vii) Hybrid Formula for Adult Children 349

viii) Hybrid Formula Where Spousal Support Paid by Custodial Parent 350

ix) Crossover Between Formulas 350

g) Narrowing the Range 351

h) Quebec 354

i) General Observations 354

2) Judicial Responses to the Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines 354

V. Appeals 381

Chapter 9:CHILD SUPPORT ON OR AFTER DIVORCE 382

A. General Observations 382

B. Income Tax — Child Support 383

C. Presumptive Rule; Table Amount of Child Support; Section 7 Expenses 383

D. Exceptions to Presumptive Rule 384

E. Obligation of De Facto Parent 385

1) Relevant Statutory Provisions 385

2) Termination of Parent–Child Relationship: Impact on Child Support 389

3) Respective Obligations of Biological and Adoptive Parents and of Persons Who Stand in the Place of Parents 390

F. Children over Provincial Age of Majority 394

1) Relevant Provisions of Divorce Act and Federal Child Support Guidelines 394

2) Status of Applicant; Payment to Parent or Child 396

3) Statutory Definition of “Child of the Marriage”; Eligibility of Adult Children for Child Support 397

a) General 397

Canadian family lawxviii

b) Sick or Disabled Children 399

c) Unemployed Adult Children 401

4) Post-Secondary Education or Training 401

a) General 401

b) Options Available to the Court Under Section 3(2) of the Federal Child Support Guidelines 406

c) Expenses for Post-Secondary Education Under Section 7 of the Federal Child Support Guidelines 414

G. Incomes over $150,000 418

H. Split Custody; Section 8 of Guidelines 422

I. Shared Custody: 40 Percent Rule 423

J. Undue Hardship 436

K. Effect of Order or Agreement 443

L. Special and Extraordinary Expenses 449

1) General 449

2) Child-Care Expenses 452

3) Medical and Dental Insurance; Medical, Dental, or Health-Related Expenses 453

4) Extraordinary Educational Expenses; Private School 456

5) Extraordinary Expenses for Extracurricular Activities 462

M. Variation of Child Support Orders 465

1) Variation of Amount of Child Support Made Under Applicable Table 466

2) Variation Where Amount of Child Support Not Under Provincial or Territorial Table 467

3) Variation of Orders Predating Implementation of Guidelines 469

4) Remission of Arrears and Overpayments 469

N. Determination and Disclosure of Income 481

O. Disability Payments and Child Support 527

P. Types of Orders 528

1) Interim Orders 528

2) Periodic and Lump Sum Orders 530

3) Orders to Pay and Secure Child Support 531

Q. Retroactive Child Support Orders Under the Divorce Act 532

R. Priority of Child Support over Spousal Support; Effect of Child Support Order on Assessment of Spousal Support 542

Detailed Table of Contents xix

1) Relevant Statutory Provisions 542

2) Commentary 543

Chapter 10:PARENTING ARRANGEMENTS AFTER DIVORCE 548

A. Introduction 548

B. Jurisdiction 552

1) Constitutional Authority of Parliament of Canada 552

2) Definition of “Court” 552

3) Competing Jurisdictions Under Federal and Provincial Legislation 552

4) National Effect of Orders; Extraprovincial Registration and Enforcement 553

C. Types of Orders 553

1) General 553

2) Interim Parenting and Contact Orders 554

D. Contents of Parenting Order; Parenting Time; Decision-Making Authority; Duration of Order; Conditions; Family Dispute Resolution; Right to Information 557

E. Preservation of Family Bonds; Shared Parenting Responsibilities; Parenting Time 559

1) General Application 559

2) Infants and Toddlers 573

F. Contact Orders 576

G. Terms and Conditions 577

1) General; Duration of Orders; Review Orders; Supervision Orders 577

2) Intended Change of Residence; Relocation Rights 580

H. Best Interests of the Child 585

I. Conduct 592

1) General 592

2) Child Sexual Abuse Allegations 594

J. Effect of Agreement 595

K. Religious Upbringing of the Child 597

L. Variation and Rescission of Interim and Permanent Parenting and Contact Orders 598

Canadian family lawxx

M. Parental Conflict Resolution 606

N. Voice of the Child 608

O. Parenting Plans 616

P. Process 617

Q. High Conflict: Parental Alienation 618

Chapter 11:APPEALS 623

A. Definition of “Appellate Court” 623

B. General Observations 623

C. Restrictions on Status Appeals 624

D. Restrictions on Corollary Order Appeals 624

E. Role and Powers of Appellate Court 628

F. Interim Orders 630

G. Denial of Appeal; Motion to Dismiss Appeal; Reinstatement of Appeal 630

H. Effect of Appeal 631

I. Stay of Order Pending Appeal 631

J. Absence or Delay of Reasons for Judgment 632

K. Fresh Evidence 634

L. Appeals to the Supreme Court of Canada 635

Chapter 12:REMEDIES AVAILABLE UNDER PROVINCIAL AND TERRITORIAL LEGISLATION 636

A. Spousal Support 636

1) Diversity Under Provincial and Territorial Statutes 636

2) Differences Between Federal Divorce Act and Provincial and Territorial Legislation 638

B. Child Support Under Provincial and Territorial Legislation 639

C. Need for Rationalization of Income Support Systems 642

D. Enforcement of Support 642

Detailed Table of Contents xxi

E. Parenting Disputes Under Provincial and Territorial Legislation 643

1) Welfare or Best Interests of the Child 643

2) Choice of School 647

3) Types of Orders 649

4) Wishes of Child; Judicial Interviews; Legal Representation 650

a) Hearsay Evidence 654

b) In-Court Testimony of Young Children 655

c) Interviewing Child in Chambers 656

d) Investigation by the Children’s Lawyer 657

e) Court-Ordered Independent Assessment 662

f) Legal Representation 662

5) Mediation and Reconciliation Attempts; Confidentiality of Process 663

6) Court-Ordered Investigations, Assessments, and Reports 665

7) Grandparents and Other Third Parties; Multiple Parents 683

8) Provincial Parenting Programs 690

9) Enforcement of Access (or Contact) Orders 690

Chapter 13:MATRIMONIAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 695

A. Provincial and Territorial Legislative Diversity 695

1) Introduction 697

2) Objectives of Family Law Act 697

3) Definition of “Spouse” 698

4) First Nations Property; Foreign Immovable Property 698

5) Domestic Contracts 699

6) Applications Respecting Ownership and Possession of Property 700

a) General 700

b) Presumptions 701

7) Triggering Events for Equalization of Net Family Properties 703

a) Separation as a Triggering Event 704

b) Death as a Triggering Event 710

c) Improvident Depletion of Net Family Property 710

d) Alternative Triggering Events 711

8) Limitation Periods 711

9) Equalization of Net Family Properties 712

a) General Observations 712

b) Significance of Ownership to Equalization Scheme 717

Canadian family lawxxii

c) Definition of “Property” 718

d) Pensions 720

e) Professional Licences and Practices; Goodwill 725

f) Value 726

g) Valuation of Business; Private Companies 727

h) Valuation Date 728

i) Income Tax and Other Prospective Liabilities 729

j) Expert Evidence: “Splitting the Difference” 731

k) Deduction of Debts and Liabilities 732

l) Valuation of Premarital Property 734

m) Excluded Property 738

n) Property Acquired by Gift or Inheritance 739

o) Income from Third-Party Postmarital Gift or Inheritance 740

p) Damages and Disability Benefits 741

q) Life Insurance Policies 743

r) Traceable Property 744

s) Property Excluded by Domestic Contract 744

t) Domestic Contracts: Canada Pension Plan 745

10) Unequal Division of Net Family Properties 745

a) Judicial Discretion Based on Unconscionability 745

b) Undisclosed Premarital Debts or Liabilities 747

c) Debts or Other Liabilities Incurred Recklessly or in Bad Faith 747

d) Interspousal Gifts 748

e) Depletion of Net Family Property 748

f) Duration of Cohabitation 749

g) Debts and Other Liabilities Incurred for Support of Family 750

h) Written Agreement 750

i) Any Other Circumstance Relating to the Acquisition, Disposition, or Management of Property 750

11) Entitlement on Death 752

a) Death as a Triggering Event 752

b) Election by Surviving Spouse 752

12) Property and Financial Statements 755

13) Powers of Court 757

a) General Observations 757

b) Order for Payment 759

c) Order for Security 759

d) Deferred or Instalment Payments 759

e) Transfers of Property; Partition and Sale 760

f) Financial Information and Inspections 761

Detailed Table of Contents xxiii

g) Variation of Order for Instalment or Deferred Payments 761

h) Operating Business or Farm 761

i) Interest 762

14) Restraining Orders and Preservation Orders 762

15) Variation and Realization of Security 764

16) Retrospective Operation 764

17) Occupation Rent and Accountancy Claims 764

18) Disposition and Possession of the Matrimonial Home 765

a) General Observations 765

b) Definition and Designation of “Matrimonial Home” 766

c) Disposition of Matrimonial Home 766

d) Possessory Rights in Matrimonial Home 767

e) Penalties for Contravention of Exclusive Possession Order 771

f) Variation of Possessory Orders 772

g) Severance of Third-Party Joint Tenancy in Matrimonial Home 772

19) Registration of Orders Against Land 773

20) Situs of Matrimonial Home; Retrospective Operation of Part II of Family Law Act 773

Table of Cases 775

About the Authors 829