• Developed through observation.

• The thinking of children is qualitatively different from thinking in adults.

• Knowledge and cognitive development

depend on the child’s pre-programmed

behaviours interacting with the world.

• Development follows sequential stages.

Egocentrism = Inability to distinguish perspectives

Schemes/Schemas = Patterns of knowledge. Operations = logical procedures allowing

mental manipulation of thoughts/concepts. Assimilation = Attempts to understand novel

situations in terms of existing schemas. Accommodation = Ability to modify existing

schemas in order to understand novel situations.

Adaptation = Assimilation + Accommodation

1. Sensorimotor (0 - 18/24m)

2. Pre-Operational (18/24m – 7y)

3. Concrete Operational (7 – 11y)

4. Formal Operational (11y +)

Through reflexive behaviour stimulus-response/cause-effect relationships are learned.

Self is differentiated from external world Object permanence is achieved; knowledge

that objects continue to exist even if we can no longer see them

No understanding of temporal relationships is evident.

Lack of Object Permanence

Symbolic schemas used (e.g. play, drawing). Egocentricity gradually declines as the ability

to understand alternative perspectives develops (decentre).

Perception influences judgement.

3 Mountains

Task

Conservation Task

Logical thought appears. Mental or physical

actions can be considered

in reverse. Egocentrism disappears.

Reasoning and thought can be purely verbal/logical and self reflective

Reasoning from other perspectives is possible Abstract concepts are understandable Systems of belief develop A complex self identity develops

• Problems with formal operations– Formal operation is rarely reached by 11 – A good proportion of adults rarely or never think in

such away unless constrained to do so by the task

• Underestimates children’s abilities – too rigid– Most researchers agree that children posses many of

the abilities at an early age than Piaget suspected

• Problems with research methods– Small, unrepresentative sample (own children)

• Style of thinking is influenced by culture

Growth in communication skills. Single words→short sentences→competent

but unsophisticated language. Towards the end: Development of linguistic

pragmatics: Rules of appropriate use. Social skills requiring appreciation of alternative

perspectives. Understanding of indirect questions, sarcasm, hints. Politeness.

Development parallels reduction and disappearance of egocentrism.

Alternative perspective taking becomes fully developed.

Able to say what others know. Able to persuade rather than simply to use

crude requests. Development of humour

Increased subtlety. Irony and satire. Understanding unfamiliar words inferred

from their context. Abstraction and understanding of abstract

concepts increases : egocentrism decreases.

• Linguistic ability and communicative skill are closely related to the Piagetian stages

• As abstraction develops egocentrism declines whilst social skills of communication (pragmatics) develop:– Spoken language becomes complex and directed at

achieving goals in a social context.– Abstract concepts become more readily understood.– Written communication develops as the

perspective/needs of the reader are appreciated.

Dr Mark Worthington

Clinical Psychologist

Phonemes: Units of sound used to construct word sounds Phonology; rules about structure & sequence of speech sounds

Grammar Morphemes: Word or meaning units, made up of phonemes. Syntax: rules in which words are arranged into sentences

Semantics: how concepts are expressed through sounds. Pragmatics: relationships between words and their social

uses, rules for appropriate and effective communication

Language:• Complex syntactic rules describe language.• Acquisition of language is the acquisition of these rules.

• Universal Language:– A common underlying structure to languages

related to genetic factors that enable language acquisition (language acquisition device).

• Conditioning is insufficient to account for richness and speed of development.

• Language acquisition proceeds through stages.

• Rate of acquisition is related to intelligence.

• Phonological– Speech sounds – cooing/babbling (strings of phonemes)– Categorisation of sounds made by others– End of year 1 – phoneme range specific to native

language, first words are spoken

• Semantic– Understanding develops before production– Recognition of familiar words, use of preverbal gestures

• Pragmatic– Engagement in joint attention and turn-taking activities

• Phonological– Recognise correct pronunciation of familiar words– No word order (18m) rigid word order learned from

interactions (24m)

• Semantic– Vocabulary spurt 18-24m; 13 300 words

• Grammatical– Telegraphic speech (two word combinations)

• e.g. ‘big house’ (attributive), ‘Daddy ball’ (agent-object)

• Pragmatics – Engage in conversational turn-taking and topic

maintenance

• Phonological– Phonological awareness and pronunciation improve

• Semantic– Rapid word learning– Difficulty using words correctly – e.g. Overextensions,

underextensions

• Grammatical– Simple 3-word sentences follow adult rules, gradually

get refined– Grammatical morphemes added as these emerge– over-generalisation of grammatical rules

• Phonological– Simple utterances/sentences

• Semantic– can understand metaphors

• Grammatical– Generally correct grammar– Begin to use future tense– Understanding still greater than generation

Semantic Verbal thought is apparent

Grammatical Several clauses in sentences.

Pragmatics Social rules apply

Resembles adult language

Awareness of own ability to use language

Linguistic skills are a subgroup of communication skills

Many species display communicative competence.

At what point does word use become language?

Non-verbal behaviour is closely related. Signing as language?

First year crucial for differentiation of phonemes.

Syntactic development over first few years. Full competence is never achieved following

early language deprivation. Similar evidence in deaf children’s acquisition

of sign language.

Cognitive development necessary but not sufficient for acquisition

Relies on social context, learning relationships between objects/people.

Cognitive development leads. Language is one communication skill. Phonetic forms are reduced over time

according to native language. Isolation impairs later acquisition. Worse if also socially isolated.