development origin and meanings. in the beginning in 1945 the second world war ended europe was in...
TRANSCRIPT
Development
Origin and Meanings
In the Beginning
In 1945 the Second World War ended Europe was in ruins Old colonial rule couldn’t be restored Decolonization began
– First India, Pakistan and the Philippines (1940s)– Then other Asian countries and Africa (1950s-1960s)– Ending with South Pacific (1970s)– Latin America,19th century
The journey ahead
The new states were faced with many problems notably– Low incomes– Little industry– Poor health– Low education levels– Inadequate infrastructure– New political institutions– High expectations of populations
The answer: Development
Start on the road to development Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid Optimism because of
– Marshall Plan– Russia– External aid– Commitment
Meanings of Development Infrastructure Social Spiritual and Cultural Growth Change Progress Living Standard Basic Needs Happiness ???
Meanings of Development (Contd.)
– Growth and economic abundance?– Sustainability?– Security?– Illusion?– Freedom?– The end of inequality?
Meanings of Development (Contd.)
“A positive word… is virtually synonymous with progress” (Allen and Thomas 2000:23)
“Good change” (Chambers 1997)
“Development is a seductive term” (Gasper 2004)
Why meanings matter?
Meanings and Approach
Competing political aims and social values Contrasting theories of social change
(1)Modernisation
(2)Dependency
(3)Environment/Ecology-Sound Development
(4)Basic Human Needs (BHN)/BNA
(5)Liberation; and
(6)Endogenous Development
Major Six (6) Development Paradigms
Shift in Development Policy Approaches
60’s : Local Market
70’s : Local Administration System
80’s : Local Community
90’s : Local Society
Development Approaches and Level of Target(Factors for Sustainability)
Participatory Approach (PA)
Needs
Capability Building through Experiential Learning Process
Social/ Institutional Mechanism
Conventional Approach
PLSD
Local Societal System
Local Administration
Local Market
Local Community
Household
Outer Syste
m
Inner Syste
m
End of World War 2 also marked beginning of the end for colonialism– India, Philippines and Indonesia independent before
1950– Other Asian and African countries followed in the 1950s
and 1960s– Caribbean and eventually South Pacific in 1970s and
1980s– Note that Latin American independence came in 19th
century
Liberation and optimism
The new states were embarking on a path to development and modernisation
Catch up with the rich countries– Russia as example– Marshall Plan as example– New committed elites– Nation-state organised for development– Rich world and new multilateral institutions committed to
development
We have the technology
Theoretical framework drew on classical sociology and the concept of universal progress
‘Less developed’ (or traditional) societies were to acquire the characteristics common to ‘more developed’ ones
Task was to remove obstacles Acknowledged the complex interaction between
social, cultural, political and economic life
Modernisation Theory
According to Rostow (1960) possible to identify all societies in their economic dimensions as lying within 1 of 5 categories– Traditional society– Preconditions for take-off– The drive for maturity– The age of high consumption
Stages of Economic Growth
Ethnocentric as modernisation = westernisation Suggested that West in golden age despite obvious
domestic problems (eg poverty) Cold War gave impetus to the promotion of capitalism as
an antidote to communism Ideological screen for post-war neocolonialist dominance There was no smooth path to modernity Underplayed importance of relations between nations
and classes Was capitalism acting the same way in developing
countries as previously in Europe
Critiques of modernization theory
By 1970s for many developing countries– Persistent poverty– Poor growth record– Widening gulf between rich and poor countries– Inequitable global power relations– Increasing poor country debt– Self-interested elites– Corruption– Authoritarian rule– Civil wars and disorder
Multiple problems
Classical Marxist theory saw the development of capitalism as an essential stage of history
But faced with evidence of uneven development, Marxists began to question unilinear theories
‘Backwardness’ began to be seen as a result of modernisation
Bourgeoisie did not reinvest in productive ventures as had done in the West
Developing countries also served interests of rich former colonial powers
Imperialism, dependency and world systems
Dependency and world systems theories argued that underdevelopment was a function of unequal relations between societies
Look at role of a country in the world capitalist system
International division of labour Exogenous forces NOT endogenous ones
explained underdevelopment
Imperialism, dependency and world systems
Core capitalist countries exploited peripheral capitalist countries
Chains of exploitation through to rural areas of developing countries
Unequal exchange led to drain of resources from periphery to core
Adverse terms of trade led to enhanced inequalities and active underdevelopment
Imperialism, dependency and world systems
Portraying world economy as a zero-sum game No empirical support for delinking from world
system Underestimation of endogenous forces Failure to predict collapse of socialist economies Did capitalism cause underdevelopment? How can Asian and BRIC success be explained?
Critiques of dependency and world systems
State-centred models of development lost their attraction– End of Cold War– Criticism of foreign aid– Criticism of development results– Failure of ISI– Rejuvenation of economic liberalism in wealthy
nations, notably USA and UK
Neo-liberalism
New orthodoxy was for market-oriented development
Neoliberal principles included– Self-interest– Market fundamentalism– Minimal state– Low taxation
State re-oriented to underpin and support market-friendly policies
Neoliberalism
– Controlling inflation through wage controls– Privatization of publicly owned enterprises– Balancing state budgets through reducing government
expenditure– Eliminating or reducing government expenditure– Eliminating or reducing state subsidies on basic goods– Generation of foreign exchange through export-oriented
industries– Elimination of controls on foreign capital
Washington Consensus
According to Fukuyama liberalism’s triumph over communism marked – ‘the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution
and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government’
Huntington disagreed and said the 21st century would be characterized by ‘civilization politics’
Neo-liberalism
Huntington’s 4 periods of modernity distinguished by the nature of conflict:1. Pre-1789: wars between princes and principalities
2. 1789-1918: wars between nation-states in the age of nationalism and colonialism
3. 1918-late 1980s: communism v liberalism with 3rd world as territory of dispute
4. 1990s-: cultural divisions leading to conflicts between nations and groups of different civilizations
Clash of civilizations
Over the past decade neoliberalism has come under attack
Debt relief Rise of good governance Greater emphasis on poverty alleviation
and social goals Idea of development as rights Millennium Development Goals
Toning down neoliberalism
Throughout the history of development have been writers and movements that have challenged orthodoxy
Alternative approaches discard idea that development is about emulating western experience
In the 1960s and 1970s Freire promulgated the ‘pedagogy of the oppressed’ while Schumacher advanced the notion that ‘small is beautiful’
Challenging orthodoxy
Environmental challenges– Environmental degradation persistent theme– Focus on pressures on the planet– Neoliberal see first poverty alleviation then
environmental protection– Critics say neoliberal model will destroy the very
basis of life– Globalization of food chains desensitizes us to
environmental consequences
Challenging orthodoxy
Feminist challenges– Gender politics has permeated all levels of the political
process– Ecofeminists claim that environmental degradation is a
product of patriarchal structures– Ecofeminists claim that women have more
environmental knowledge than men– Some see globalization as exploitation of women as
cheap workers– Reduction of state welfare under neoliberalism affected
women more than men
Challenging orthodoxy
Post-developmental challenges– A wholesale critique of western structures of
knowledge and power– Abandon grand designs and theories– Collective action and popular struggles in
grassroots politics– Seeking to give communities and individuals
power over their own environments
Challenging orthodoxy