Developmental Psychology

Study of psychological changes that occur in human beings as they age

Originally concerned with infants and children Also includes adolescence and more recently, Aging Studies change across a broad range of topics

Motor skills Problem solving abilities Conceptual understanding Acquisition of language Moral understanding Identity formation

Developmental Psychology

Key questions

Do children think in a different way to adults Or do they simply lack the experience of adults?

Is development gradual - accumulation of knowledge Or does it take big jumps - step from one way of thinking to another?

Are children born with innate knowledge Or do they figure things out through experience?

Is development driven by the social context Or by something inside each child?

Developmental Psychology

A number of areas can be studied in Developmental Psychology

Example: educational psychology, social psychology We focus on Cognitive Development

(We are cognitivists) Focus on Piaget’s theory

Why is it interesting for AI? As early as 1950 Turing proposed

Build a child AI, rather than an adult Teach it what it needs to know Why build a child? Easier than adult because he knows less

Jean Piaget Born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland,

on August 9, 1896 Took an early interest in nature,

especially the collecting of shells Became interested in

Biological Adaptation …Led to interest in human intelligence and knowledge

surely the highest form of biological adaptation

Genetic Epistemology

Genetic doesn’t mean Genetic AlgorithmGenetic means studying the origin

Where it comes from

Epistemology means “theory of knowledge”

So Genetic Epistemology is A theory of where knowledge comes from

What Is It About?

Genetic Epistemology

Highest form of biological adaptation

What Is It About?

The first thing Piaget noticed:

Children’s way of thinking is really different to adults

Piaget’s Observations

Because there’s a gas inside, when there’s a lot of gas it’s heavy, it’s very strong and then it flies.

A

Why does a helium balloon go up?Q

Why does a large boat float?QWhy does a small pebble sink to the bottom?But a small chip of wood floats…Q

Why does a large piece of wood float?Q

Piaget noticed:

Children’s way of thinking is really different to adults But he also noticed something in common

When they have a contradiction… Gradually they change their world model Come up with a new way to explain what they see They are creative in conjecturing new models Just like a scientist discovering laws of physics

Key point: Children CONSTRUCT their own model of the world. Intelligence is about having a function that can

Take on board new data Construct a theory of the world which fits the data

Piaget’s Theory

Piaget

““Just as the main functions of the living Just as the main functions of the living being are identical in all organisms but being are identical in all organisms but

correspond to organs which are very correspond to organs which are very different in different groups, different in different groups,

so also between the child and the adult a so also between the child and the adult a continuous creation of varied structures continuous creation of varied structures

may be observed may be observed although the main functions of thought although the main functions of thought

remain constant.”remain constant.”

Cognitive structuresContinuous creation

Cognitive functionsOrganise + Adapt

Invariant – nucleus in infant

Constructivism

Piaget’s Theory – How It Works

The progress of developmentVariable ages + much overlapold habits reappear

Show how little is known initially

Gain insight into functions used

Piaget’s Observations

Sucking and grasping reflexesRespond to stimuli

For play/practise

Reflex preserves itself by repeating

Schema: S-R-SStimulus-Response-Stimulus

In the beginning: Reflex ( 0 1 months )

Sucking and grasping reflexesRespond to stimuli

For play/practise

Reflex preserves itself by repeating

DevelopmentSearch improves

Accommodates to new objects

Discerns stimuli for special modes

Sign recognition improves

In the beginning: Reflex ( 0 1 months )

Thumb suckingGrasping:

1. Reflex, with interest2. Grab object and suck hand3. Carry object to mouth4. Grab object when in view

Suddenly realise hand and vision are in the same world5. Intentional motion of hand

Circular Reactions ( 1 4 months )

Repeat interesting spectacle

Interrupted grabbing

Reconstruct whole from visible part

But does not retrieve if completely hidden

Remove obstacles to perception

Objects have no other side

Image at disposal of action

Bridge: actions dissociated from end result

Repeating Discoveries ( 4 8 months )

Explore object properties

Chain actions to achieve goal

Intention; find means; apply actions

Objects have other side

Search for vanished objectsA not B error

Failure to modify action

Bridge: dropping objects

Intelligent Coordination ( 8 12 months )

Adjust actions using feedbackStick

Support

Really trying to understand the world

Succeeds on A not B

Fails covert displacements

Limited construction of reality

Experimentation ( 12 18 months )

Planning becomes covertCombining action sequences

Experimentation

Succeeds in covert displacements

Imitation to represent

Difficulty old magic forms reappear

Representation ( 18 24 months )

Play and Imitation

Fails seriation tasks

Does not know conservation

Language - preconcepts

Transduction instead of induction/deduction

Preoperational (2-7)

Because there’s a gas inside, when there’s a lot of gas it’s heavy, it’s very strong and then it flies.

AWhy does a helium balloon go up?Q

Knows conservation

Can manipulate concrete objects mentally

Cannot manipulate abstract relationsEdith fairer Lily; Edith darker Susan

Cannot accept assumptions

Concrete Operational (7-11)

Formal Operational (11+)

Can manipulate abstract relations

Can entertain non-concrete hypotheses

Incremental construction

Repeating work on a new plane

Implicit representation of concepts

Only pay attention to what makes sense

Development driven by conflict

General Themes

Piaget

““Every time we teach a child something, Every time we teach a child something, we keep him from inventing it himself.”we keep him from inventing it himself.”

Commonsense is Not Intelligence

Not sufficientStructure not function

Not necessaryFunction can build structure

Comparison with Darwin Darwin looked at all the various forms of life and asked

where did they come from?

He saw a common mechanism… which could have given rise to all the varieties of life we see today.

Many complex forms of life… could evolve out of very simple forms of life by a relatively simple mechanism

Piaget looked at all the various forms of mental activity in humans of all ages saw a common mechanism which could have given rise to them all

Complexities of adult human mind… could grow out simple forms in infant’s mind a relatively simple set of innate structures and functions.

Darwin was concerned with the origin of species Piaget was concerned with the origin of mind

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory Some people contradict Piaget’s theory

But beware! They lie!

Considerable controversy in the field Results to corroborate Piaget’s theory And results to contradict his theory And results to contradict the contradictions And …

Psychology has a lot of conflicting results A science in its infancy, just over 100 years old (Compare Physics)

Course Overview What is AI?

What are the Major Challenges?

What are the Main Techniques?

Where are we failing, and why?

Step back and look at the Science

Step back and look at the History of AI

What are the Major Schools of Thought?

What of the Future?

Looking at the Science Engineering vs. Science Introduction to Cognitive Science Cognitive Psychology 1 Cognitive Psychology 2 Cognitive Development Linguistics Neuroscience Philosophy