diction say what you mean and mean what you say. diction is at the heart of any discussion about...

DictionDiction

Say What You Mean and Say What You Mean and Mean What You SayMean What You Say

DictionDiction

Is at the heart of any discussion Is at the heart of any discussion about styleabout style

=word choice, figurative language, =word choice, figurative language, sound of sentencessound of sentences

Above and beyond grammar, Above and beyond grammar, creates the tone of a textcreates the tone of a text

DictionDiction

ToneTone TThe speaker’s attitude toward the he speaker’s attitude toward the

subject matter or audience, as subject matter or audience, as revealed by the choice of language revealed by the choice of language and the rhythms of speechand the rhythms of speech

E.g. sarcastic, matter-of-fact, cold, E.g. sarcastic, matter-of-fact, cold, energetic, academic, humorous, etc.energetic, academic, humorous, etc.

DictionDiction

Level of language:Level of language: FormalFormal

characterized by a learned vocabulary characterized by a learned vocabulary and grammatically correct forms. Does and grammatically correct forms. Does not usually include colloquialismsnot usually include colloquialisms

InformalInformal language closest to everyday language closest to everyday

conversationconversation; may include colloquialisms ; may include colloquialisms and slangand slang

DictionDiction

Level of language:Level of language: SlangSlang

Lively, colourful language that is often Lively, colourful language that is often limited to certain groups (social, regional) limited to certain groups (social, regional) and passes in and out of fashionand passes in and out of fashion

““Fine Writing”Fine Writing” Unnecessarily formal or pretentious Unnecessarily formal or pretentious

dictiondiction

Two-Part VerbsTwo-Part Verbs

Simple verb in combination with Simple verb in combination with another word or wordsanother word or words E.g. cool off, sit down, find outE.g. cool off, sit down, find out

Often form idiomatic expressions Often form idiomatic expressions that are informal or colloquial in that are informal or colloquial in tonetone

Avoid or use sparingly in academic Avoid or use sparingly in academic writingwriting

Figurative LanguageFigurative Language

PProvides a writer with the opportunity rovides a writer with the opportunity to write imaginatively, to write imaginatively, whilewhile also also testtestinging the imagination of the reader the imagination of the reader

Helps readers visualize what is being Helps readers visualize what is being written aboutwritten about

Enhances style by making texts more Enhances style by making texts more interestinginteresting

Sharpens meaningSharpens meaning

ImageryImagery

CCreates pictures in the reader’s reates pictures in the reader’s mind, and also suggests a number mind, and also suggests a number of imaginative associationsof imaginative associations

Figure of SpeechFigure of Speech

An example of figurative language An example of figurative language that states something that is not that states something that is not literally true in order to create an literally true in order to create an effecteffect

Some common figures of speech Some common figures of speech are:are:

SimileSimile

A comparison using “like” or “as.” A comparison using “like” or “as.” The similarity between two objects The similarity between two objects is made explicit; there is no is made explicit; there is no pretence of absolute identity.pretence of absolute identity.

Example:Example: The river The river is likeis like a snake winding a snake winding

across the plain.across the plain.

MetaphorMetaphor

An assertion that two things in some An assertion that two things in some way similar are identicalway similar are identical

Example:Example: The river The river isis a snake winding across the a snake winding across the

plain.plain. The river The river snakessnakes its way across the its way across the

plain.plain. The river winds snakily across the plain.The river winds snakily across the plain.

IronyIrony

Recognition of the difference Recognition of the difference between real and apparent between real and apparent meaningmeaning

There are many different types of There are many different types of irony, but the most common irony, but the most common in in academic writing isacademic writing is::

Verbal IronyVerbal Irony

The contrast is between the literal The contrast is between the literal meaning of what is said and what meaning of what is said and what is meant; the meaning of the is meant; the meaning of the words used is the opposite of their words used is the opposite of their sense.sense.

Satire (and its cousin sarcasm)Satire (and its cousin sarcasm) is a is a form of verbal irony.form of verbal irony.

Figurative Language Gone Figurative Language Gone WrongWrong

Inappropriate MetaphorsInappropriate Metaphors Create images that don’t make sense Create images that don’t make sense

or are inappropriate for your audienceor are inappropriate for your audience Overextended MetaphorsOverextended Metaphors

Are too long, and the metaphor takes Are too long, and the metaphor takes control; in other words, the point you control; in other words, the point you want to make is lostwant to make is lost

Figurative Language Gone Figurative Language Gone WrongWrong

Dead Metaphors & ClichDead Metaphors & Clichésés Have little force and tend to be Have little force and tend to be

ineffective ineffective Mixed MetaphorsMixed Metaphors

Abruptly switch from one comparison Abruptly switch from one comparison to another without intending toto another without intending to

Concrete and Abstract Concrete and Abstract DictionDiction

Concrete wordsConcrete words Denote tangible things capable of Denote tangible things capable of

being apprehended by the physical being apprehended by the physical sensessenses

Abstract wordsAbstract words Denote intangible things like ideas or Denote intangible things like ideas or

qualitiesqualities

Concrete and Abstract Concrete and Abstract DictionDiction

You need a combination of both, but You need a combination of both, but be sure to ground your writing in the be sure to ground your writing in the concrete (use specific examples to concrete (use specific examples to illustrate your points)illustrate your points)

Readers remember the concrete – it Readers remember the concrete – it illustrates and lends meaning to the illustrates and lends meaning to the abstractabstract

The more specific (i.e. concrete) your The more specific (i.e. concrete) your writing is, the clearer and more writing is, the clearer and more effective it will beeffective it will be

Weak GeneralizationsWeak Generalizations

AVOID AT ALL COSTS!!!AVOID AT ALL COSTS!!! Use examples and always be Use examples and always be

specificspecific Employ:Employ:

Figurative languageFigurative language ImageryImagery Research sourcesResearch sources

as necessitated by the assignmentas necessitated by the assignment

Denotation and Denotation and ConnotationConnotation

DenotationDenotation What a word means (dictionary What a word means (dictionary

definition)definition) WWhat a word signifies without emotional hat a word signifies without emotional

associations, judgements, or opinionsassociations, judgements, or opinions ConnotationConnotation

WWhat a word suggestshat a word suggests UUsually determined through contextsually determined through context

Denotation and Denotation and ConnotationConnotation

When choosing words, pay attention When choosing words, pay attention to connotative meanings that you to connotative meanings that you may not intendmay not intend

Example:Example: Brash denotes confidence, but has Brash denotes confidence, but has

negative connotationsnegative connotations Self-assured also denotes confidence, Self-assured also denotes confidence,

but it carries more positive but it carries more positive connotationsconnotations

EuphemismEuphemism An inoffensive or positive word or An inoffensive or positive word or

phrase used to avoid a harsh, phrase used to avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or distasteful realityunpleasant, or distasteful reality

A tactful word or phrase which avoids A tactful word or phrase which avoids directly mentioning a painful realitydirectly mentioning a painful reality (from William Lutz, “The World of (from William Lutz, “The World of

Doublespeak”Doublespeak” Only the first definition constitutes Only the first definition constitutes

“doublespeak”“doublespeak” doublespeak is misleading or deceivingdoublespeak is misleading or deceiving

JargonJargon

The specialized language of a The specialized language of a trade, profession, or similar grouptrade, profession, or similar group

Is doublespeak if it is used to make Is doublespeak if it is used to make the simple seem complex, “used the simple seem complex, “used not to express but to impress” not to express but to impress” (Lutz)(Lutz)

BureaucrateseBureaucratese

A method of piling on words to A method of piling on words to overwhelm the audienceoverwhelm the audience

it sounds good but really makes no it sounds good but really makes no sensesense

Inflated LanguageInflated Language

Remember “Fine Writing”?Remember “Fine Writing”? Political correctness can fall into Political correctness can fall into

this categorythis category Often also constitutes a kind of Often also constitutes a kind of

euphamismeuphamism

Wrong WordWrong Word

Incorrect word choice is a common Incorrect word choice is a common student errorstudent error

If you aren’t sure what word to If you aren’t sure what word to use, consult your dictionaryuse, consult your dictionary

Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy

Clear the deadwoodClear the deadwood Strive for clarity and precisionStrive for clarity and precision As you proofread and revise a text, As you proofread and revise a text,

delete unnecessary words but delete unnecessary words but keep or add exact oneskeep or add exact ones ..

Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy Wordy first draft: Wordy first draft:

In the early part of the month of February In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.toward Halifax.

First revision: First revision: In In thethe early early part of the month ofpart of the month of February February

there wasthere was a really mean blizzard with very a really mean blizzard with very high winds high winds thatthat was moving threateningly was moving threateningly toward Halifax.toward Halifax.


Second revision: Second revision: In early February a In early February a ((really meanreally mean) vicious) vicious

blizzard with blizzard with ((very highvery high) ) 150-kilometer-150-kilometer-per-hourper-hour winds was winds was ((moving threateningly moving threateningly towardtoward)) threatening threatening Halifax. Halifax.

Finished copy: Finished copy: In early February a vicious blizzard with In early February a vicious blizzard with

150-kilometer-per-hour winds was 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax.threatening Halifax.


Compare:Compare: In the early part of the month of In the early part of the month of

February there was a really mean February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.moving threateningly toward Halifax.

In early February a vicious blizzard In early February a vicious blizzard with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax.was threatening Halifax.


Make every word countMake every word count OOmit words or phrases that add mit words or phrases that add

nothing to your meaningnothing to your meaning GGuidelines uidelines forfor omitting wordiness: omitting wordiness:


Avoid tautology (the use of Avoid tautology (the use of different words to say the same different words to say the same thing)thing) Wordy: Wordy:

Commuters going back and forth to work Commuters going back and forth to work or school formed carpools.or school formed carpools.

Concise: Concise: Commuters formed carpools.Commuters formed carpools.

Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy The useless words in brackets below The useless words in brackets below

serve only to echo meaningserve only to echo meaning Avoid such wordiness in your own writingAvoid such wordiness in your own writing::

yellow [in colour]yellow [in colour] circular [in shape]circular [in shape] at 9:45 pm [that night]at 9:45 pm [that night] return [back]return [back] [basic] essentials[basic] essentials bitter[-tasting] drinkbitter[-tasting] drink but [though]but [though]

Wordiness & RedundancyWordiness & Redundancy Do not use many words when a few Do not use many words when a few

will express the idea wellwill express the idea well Wordy: Wordy:

In the event that the evaluation system is In the event that the evaluation system is changed, expect complaints on the part of changed, expect complaints on the part of employees.employees.

Concise: Concise: If the evaluation system is changed, expect If the evaluation system is changed, expect

complaints from employees. (2 words take complaints from employees. (2 words take the place of 8)the place of 8)


Wordy: Wordy: As far as sexism is concerned, it As far as sexism is concerned, it

seems to me that a woman can be as seems to me that a woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man.guilty of sexism as a man.

Concise: Concise: A woman can be as guilty of sexism A woman can be as guilty of sexism

as a man. (11 useless words deleted)as a man. (11 useless words deleted)


Beware ready-made phrases:Beware ready-made phrases: at this point in time→nowat this point in time→now bring to a conclusion→concludebring to a conclusion→conclude during the same time that→whileduring the same time that→while in a great many instances→oftenin a great many instances→often on account of the fact that→becauseon account of the fact that→because situated in the vicinity of→nearsituated in the vicinity of→near was of the opinion that→believedwas of the opinion that→believed by means of by means of →→byby due to the fact that due to the fact that →→becausebecause

Passive VoicePassive Voice

Passive voice is wordy.Passive voice is wordy. Active voice is direct.Active voice is direct. Example:Example:

Be assured that action will be taken.Be assured that action will be taken. I assure you that I will act.I assure you that I will act.

Passive voice often leaves the actor Passive voice often leaves the actor of the verb out of the construction of the verb out of the construction (as in the example above).(as in the example above).

Awkward RepetitionAwkward Repetition

Avoid careless or needless repetition Avoid careless or needless repetition of a word or phraseof a word or phrase

Faulty: Faulty: This interesting instructor knows how to This interesting instructor knows how to

make an uninteresting subject make an uninteresting subject interesting. interesting.

Revised: Revised: This instructor knows how to make a dull This instructor knows how to make a dull

subject interesting.subject interesting.

Awkward RepetitionAwkward Repetition Awkward:Awkward:

We had problems solving these problems.We had problems solving these problems. Revised:Revised:

We had a hard time solving these problems.We had a hard time solving these problems. Awkward:Awkward:

His boss is not like her boss. Her boss is more His boss is not like her boss. Her boss is more reliable than his boss.reliable than his boss.

Revised:Revised: Their bosses are different. Hers is more reliable Their bosses are different. Hers is more reliable

than his.than his.


Avoid carelessly repeating a root or Avoid carelessly repeating a root or word baseword base..

Awkward: Awkward: I got the impression that his I got the impression that his

expression of sympathy was insincere.expression of sympathy was insincere. Revised: Revised:

I felt that his expression of sympathy I felt that his expression of sympathy was insincere.was insincere.


Eliminate careless Eliminate careless rhymesrhymes and other and other distracting repetition of sounds.distracting repetition of sounds.

Awkward: Awkward: The use of catalytic converters is just one The use of catalytic converters is just one

contribution to the solution of the problem contribution to the solution of the problem of air pollution.of air pollution.

Revised: Revised: The use of catalytic converters is just one The use of catalytic converters is just one

way to help reduce air pollution.way to help reduce air pollution.

Politics and the English Politics and the English Language (by George Orwell)Language (by George Orwell)

Written in 1946, yet his complaints Written in 1946, yet his complaints about Modern English still relevantabout Modern English still relevant

The errors and shortcuts that he The errors and shortcuts that he points out are those we have just points out are those we have just discusseddiscussed

Politics and the English Politics and the English LanguageLanguage

Questions writers should ask themselves:Questions writers should ask themselves: What am I trying to say?What am I trying to say? What words will express it?What words will express it? What image or idiom will make it clearer?What image or idiom will make it clearer? Is this image fresh enough to have an Is this image fresh enough to have an

effect?effect? Could I put it more shortly?Could I put it more shortly? Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?


Orwell wants us to ground our writing Orwell wants us to ground our writing in the concrete rather than in the in the concrete rather than in the abstract.abstract.

Be specific, not vague.Be specific, not vague. ChooseChoose rather than simply rather than simply acceptaccept the the

language that you use – come up with language that you use – come up with your own metaphors and turns of your own metaphors and turns of phrase rather than using ready-mades.phrase rather than using ready-mades.


Rules writers should follow:Rules writers should follow: Never use a metaphor, simile, or Never use a metaphor, simile, or

other figure of speech which you are other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print.used to seeing in print.

Never use a long word where a short Never use a long word where a short one will do.one will do.

If it is possible to cut a word out, If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.always cut it out.


(Rules cont’d)(Rules cont’d) Never use the passive voice where Never use the passive voice where

you can use the active.you can use the active. Never use a foreign phrase, a Never use a foreign phrase, a

scientific word, or a jargon word if you scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English can think of an everyday English equivalent.equivalent.

Break any of these rules sooner than Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.say anything outright barbarous.

diction say what you mean and mean what you say. diction is at the heart of any discussion about...

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