Dictionary of

Abbreviations for Academic Degrees Compiled by Andrey Yasharov

First Edition

andrey.yasharov@gmail.com

http://andreyyasharov.blogspot.com/

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Title Item

No. Abbreviated

Form Full Form

Definition

1 A.A.S. Associate of Applied Science

An Associate Degree is an academic degree

awarded by community colleges, junior

colleges and some bachelor's degree-granting

colleges and universities upon completion of a

course of study usually lasting two years.

2 A.S. Associate of Science

An Associate Degree is an academic degree

awarded by community colleges, junior

colleges and some bachelor's degree-granting

colleges and universities upon completion of a

course of study usually lasting two years.

Common abbreviations are A.A. (Associate of

Arts), A.S. (Associate of Science), A.A.S.

(Associate of Applied Science; or in some

cases, Associate of Arts and Sciences), A.O.S.

(Associate of Occupational Studies), A.B.A.

(Associate of Business Administration), and

A.G.S. (Associate of General Studies).

3 A.S.N. Associate of Science in Nursing

An Associate of Science in Nursing is an

entry-level tertiary education nursing degree. In

the United States, this type of degree is usually

awarded by community colleges or similar

nursing schools. Students awarded an Associate

of Science in Nursing are qualified to sit for the

NCLEX-RN and apply for licensure as a

Registered Nurse.

Some hospital-based nursing schools that

granted diplomas altered their curriculum to

offer associate degrees.

Many nursing schools offering a bachelor's

degree have "fast-track" programs to enable

practicing nurses with an associate's degree to

earn a bachelor's degree in approximately two

years.

4 A.B. Artium Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Arts)

This is usually an undergraduate academic

degree awarded for a course or major that

generally lasts for three, four, or in some cases

and countries, five or six years. It may also be

3

the name of a postgraduate degree, such as a

Bachelor of Civil Law (granted by the

University of Oxford.)

5 A.M. Artium Magister (Master of Arts)

A Master of Arts is a postgraduate academic

master's degree awarded by universities in

North America and the United Kingdom (it

may now also be awarded in other countries,

such as Switzerland). The degree is typically

studied for in Fine Art, Humanities, Social

Science or Theology and can be either fully-

taught, research-based, or a combination of the

two.

6 A.C.A. Associate of the Institute of Chartered

Accountants See glossary

7 A.F.A. Amateur Football Association;

Associate of the Faculty of Actuaries

The Amateur Football Alliance is a County

Football Association in England. It is unusual

among County FAs in not being based around a

particular geographical area. It was founded in

1907, as the Amateur Football Defence

Foundation, quickly changed to Amateur

Football Association, when The FA required

all county associations to admit professional

clubs. Its aim was, as the decline of amateurism

at the highest levels of football set in, to protect

and preserve the original amateur spirit. It

prides itself on the skill and competitiveness of

its leagues, and on its traditions of fair play and

respect for opponents and match officials.

Many leagues still maintain local rules that

require clubs to provide food and drink to their

opponents and match officials after the match

in a clubhouse or public house.

See glossary

8 A.F.R.Ae.S. Associate Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical

Society See glossary

9 A.K.C. Associate of King's College, London

The Associateship or Associate of King's

College award has been the degree-equivalent

qualification of King's College London since

1833. It is the original qualification that the

university awarded to its students. Since 1909,

only students registered for an University of

London degree at King's have been allowed to

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study for the associateship. The three-year

course involves weekly lectures concerning

theology, ethics and philosophy. At the

discretion of the Dean some postgraduates, and

medical students who do not intercalate, are

allowed to compress the programme into two

years. Students take an annual examination.

After graduating from King's, students who

succeed in the AKC exams will be eligible to

be elected as Associates of King's College.

Associates use the post-nominal letters A.K.C.

after their names, along with the main

qualification.

10 A.L.B Bachelor of Liberal Arts

The Bachelor of Liberal Arts (B.L.A.;

occasionally A.L.B.) is the title of an

undergraduate academic degree. Generally, it is

awarded to students who major in liberal arts,

pursue interdisciplinary studies, or design their

own concentrations. Often a Bachelor of

Liberal Arts degree is undertaken with the help

of a faculty advisor. A candidate designs a

unique course of study that sometimes

culminates in a thesis or capstone project. The

B.L.A. degree allows for greater curricular

flexibility than a traditional Bachelor of Arts

degree, enabling students to double major, or

pursue a broad-based liberal arts education.

11 A.M.I.C.E. Associate Member of the Institution of Civil

Engineers See glossary

12 A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy

An Associate of the Royal Academy is a

practicing artist who has been elected as a

member of the Royal Academy, an art

institution based in London, England.

13 A.R.A.M. Associate of the Royal Academy of Music See glossary

14 A.R.C.A. Associate of the Royal College of Art See glossary

15 A.R.C.M. Associate of the Royal College of Music See glossary

16 A.R.C.O. Associate of the Royal College of Organists See glossary

17 A.R.C.S. Associate of the Royal College of Science See glossary

18 A.R.I.B.A. Associate of the Royal Institution of British

Architects See glossary

19 A.R.P.S. Associate of the Royal Photographic Society See glossary

5

20 A.R.S.A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy;

Associate of the Royal Society of Arts See glossary

21 A.R.S.L. Associate of the Royal Society of Literature See glossary

22 A.R.S.M. Associate of the Royal School of Mines See glossary

23 A.R.S.S. Antiquariorum Regis Societatis Socius -

Fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquaries See glossary

24 A.S.A.A. Associate of Society of Incorporated

Accountants and Auditors –

25 B.A. Bachelor of Arts

Bachelor is a person who has received what is

usually the lowest degree conferred by a four-

year college, university or professional school;

Bachelor of Arts (B.A. or A.B.), from the

Latin Artium Baccalaureus) is an

undergraduate bachelor's degree awarded for

either a course or a program in the liberal arts

or the sciences, or both.

26 B.A.A. Bachelor of Applied Arts

Bachelor of Applied Arts is a bachelor's

undergraduate degree with more specialization

in qualitative aspects of a discipline, often

requiring skill. The unfair and inaccurate

stereotype of term "Applied Arts" is that it is

vocational, not academic, which, by definition,

is not the primary mission of most major

academic institutions. A Bachelor of Applied

Arts degree is distinguished from a Bachelor of

Applied Science (B.A.S.) in that it focuses

more on qualitative aspects while the latter

focuses more on quantitative, mechanical,

physical sciences, natural sciences, and such.

While applied arts were once considered

vocational, it has flourished at many

universities over the last 75 years as highly a

sophisticated and complex academic discipline,

spanning myriad fields. Major academic

institutions would likely structure the

curriculum of Architecture as applied arts and

that of Structural Engineering as applied

sciences; many universities would classify the

former plainly as "Architecture" and the latter

as "Engineering". Most major institutions offer

a combination of arts and sciences, partly

because the related discipline requires

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knowledge of both.

27 B.A.A.E. Bachelor of Aeronautical and Astronautical

Engineering See glossary

28 B.A.Comm. Bachelor of Arts in Communication See glossary

29 B.Acc., B.Acy.,

B. Accty. Bachelor of Accountancy

The degree of Bachelor of Accountancy is the

principal academic degree in accountancy. It is

not to be confused with a B.B.A. in Accounting

and B.Com. in Accounting, which are general

business administration and commerce degrees

with accounting as an area of concentration.

The Bachelor of Accountancy is a specialized

degree on its own.

30 B.A.E.

Bachelor of Aeronautical Engineering,

Bachelor of Agricultural Engineering,

Bachelor of Architectural Engineering,

Bachelor of Art Education

See glossary

31 B.A.S.

Bachelor of Applied Science,

Bachelor of Art and Science;

Bachelor of Architectural Studies

See glossary

32 B.A.A.S Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences See glossary

33 B.A.Sc. Bachelor of Applied Science

A Bachelor of Applied Science is an

undergraduate academic degree awarded for a

course of study that generally lasts three years

in the UK or four or five years in North

America.

34 B.A.U.P. Bachelor of Arts in Urban Planning See glossary

35 B.AgrSc Bachelor of Agricultural Science See glossary

36 B.Bus. Bachelor of Business

A Bachelor of Business is a three or four year

business degree offered by many universities

around the world, particularly in Australia and

New Zealand. It is similar in format and

structure to a Bachelor of Business

Administration (B.B.A.), Bachelor of Business

Science (B.Bus.Sci.) and Bachelor of Business

Studies (B.B.S.).

37 B.C.E. Bachelor of Civil Engineering See glossary

38 B.Comm. Bachelor of Commerce

A Bachelor of Commerce, is an undergraduate

academic degree awarded for a curriculum that

generally lasts three years in Australia, India,

New Zealand, Republic of Ireland and the

United Kingdom, Malta and four years in North

7

America and South Africa. The degree has ties

to British colonies and is not common in the

United States. A Bachelor of Commerce may

cover the same coursework as a Bachelor of

Business Administration (B.B.A.), except that

it often places more emphasis on theory and

business principles. A Bachelor of Commerce

can also be known as a Bachelor of Commerce

and Administration (B.C.A.). Depending on the

institution, a formal academic major may or

may not be established.

39 B.App.Sc. Bachelor of Applied Science

A Bachelor of Applied Science is an

undergraduate academic degree awarded for a

course of study that generally lasts three years

in the UK or four or five years in North

America.

40 B.As. Bachelor of Asian Studies See glossary

41 B.A.Econ. Bachelor of Economics See glossary

42 B.A.Ed. Bachelor of Arts in Education

A Bachelor of Education is an undergraduate

academic degree which qualifies the graduate

as a teacher in schools.

43 B.A.J. or A.B.J. Bachelor of Arts in Journalism See glossary

44 B.Arch. Bachelor of Architecture

The Bachelor of Architecture is an

undergraduate academic degree awarded for a

course of study that generally lasts five years in

North America.

45 B.B.A. Bachelor of Business Administration

Bachelor of Business Administration is a

bachelor's degree in Business Administration.

In most universities, a Bachelor of Business

Administration degree is conferred upon a

student after four years of full-time study (120

credit hours) in one or more areas of business.

46 B.B.E. Bachelor of Build Environment See glossary

47 B.B.NSc. Bachelor of Behavioural Neuroscience See glossary

48 B.Bus Bachelor of Business

A Bachelor of Business is a three or four year

business degree offered by many universities

around the world, particularly in Australia and

New Zealand. It is similar in format and

structure to a Bachelor of Business

Administration (B.B.A.), Bachelor of Business

Science (B.Bus.Sci.) and Bachelor of Business

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Studies (B.B.S.).

49 B.C.A. Bachelor of Commerce and Administration

A Bachelor of Commerce, or B.Comm., is an

undergraduate academic degree awarded for a

curriculum that generally lasts three years in

Australia, India, New Zealand, Republic of

Ireland and the United Kingdom, Malta and

four years in North America and South Africa.

The degree has ties to British colonies and is

not common in the United States. A Bachelor

of Commerce may cover the same coursework

as a Bachelor of Business Administration

(B.B.A.), except that it often places more

emphasis on theory and business principles. A

Bachelor of Commerce can also be known as a

Bachelor of Commerce and Administration

(B.C.A.). Depending on the institution, a

formal academic major may or may not be

established.

50 B.C.A. Bachelor of Creative Arts See glossary

51 B.Ch. Bachelor of Chemistry; Baccalaureus

Chirurgiæ - Bachelor of Surgery See glossary

52 B.Ch.E. Bachelor of Chemical Engineering See glossary

53 B.C.L. Bachelor of Canon Law, Bachelor of Civil

Law

Bachelor of Civil Law is the name of various

degrees in law conferred by English-language

universities. Historically, it originated as a

postgraduate degree in the universities of

Oxford and Cambridge, but many universities

now offer the B.C.L. as an undergraduate

degree. The reference to civil law was not

originally in contradistinction to common law,

but to canon law, although it is true that

common law was not taught in the civil law

faculties in either university until at least the

second half of the 18th century. However, some

universities in English-speaking countries use

the degree in the former sense.

See glossary

54 B.Comm. or

B.Com. Bachelor of Commerce

A Bachelor of Commerce, or B.Comm., is an

undergraduate academic degree awarded for a

curriculum that generally lasts three years in

Australia, India, New Zealand, Republic of

Ireland and the United Kingdom, Malta and

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four years in North America and South Africa.

The degree has ties to British colonies and is

not common in the United States. A Bachelor

of Commerce may cover the same coursework

as a Bachelor of Business Administration

(B.B.A.), except that it often places more

emphasis on theory and business principles. A

Bachelor of Commerce can also be known as a

Bachelor of Commerce and Administration

(B.C.A.). Depending on the institution, a

formal academic major may or may not be

established.

55 B.Comp. Bachelor of Computing

Bachelor of Computing is a bachelor's degree

in computing. This degree is offered only in

some universities, and is slightly, but

significantly, different from a B.Sc. in

Computer Science or a B.CS.

56 B.C.P. Bachelor of City Planning See glossary

57 B.C.S. or

B.CompSc. Bachelor of Computer Science

Bachelor of Computer Science is a type of

bachelor's degree, usually awarded after four

years of collegiate study in computer science.

The same core curriculum may, depending on

the school, result in other degrees, including:

Bachelor of Arts in Computer Science;

Bachelor of Mathematics in Computer

Science; Bachelor of Science in Computer

Science; Bachelor of Engineering in

Computer Science.

58 B.C.M. Bachelor of Computer and Mathematical

Sciences

Bachelor of Computer and Mathematical

Sciences is an undergraduate academic degree

awarded to a student after three years of

studying computer science, information

technology and/or mathematics at an accredited

university in Australia (other countries may

offer this degree, this is unknown at the time of

writing). A Bachelor of Computer and

Mathematical Sciences is a flexible academic

degree allowing a double major combining

majors within the fields of Computer Science,

Mathematics and Information Technology, as

well as other approved subject areas within the

university. Third year units in Computer

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Science particularly, offer a wide range of

future study interests, including Robotics,

Finance and Programming.

59 B.D., B.Div. Bachelor of Divinity

In Western Christian theology, a Bachelor of

Divinity is usually an undergraduate academic

degree awarded for a courses taken in the study

of divinity or related disciplines, such as

theology or, rarely, religious studies.

60 B.Des. Bachelor of Design (Visual design discipline)

A Bachelor of Design (B.Des.) degree is

usually an undergraduate academic degree

awarded for a course or major that generally

lasts three or four years.

61 B.E. Bachelor of Education,

Bachelor of Engineering

A Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) is an

undergraduate academic degree which qualifies

the graduate as a teacher in schools.

Bachelor of Engineering (B.A.I. (in latin),

B.Eng., or B.E.) is an undergraduate academic

degree awarded to a student after three, four or

five years of studying engineering at an

accredited university in the United States,

United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia,

New Zealand, Nigeria, China and India. A

Bachelor of Engineering is a Professional

Degree and therefore a requirement for

undertaking some engineering work. This is

controlled by the national professional

engineering society or institute who accredit the

universities and is also often controlled by law.

62 B.Ec. Bachelor of Economics See glossary

63 B.Ed. Bachelor of Education See glossary

64 B.Eng. or B.E.,

BAI (in Latin)

Bachelor of Engineering, Baccalaureus in Arte

Ingeniaria

Bachelor of Engineering is an undergraduate

academic degree awarded to a student after

three, four or five years of studying engineering

at an accredited university in the United States,

United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia,

New Zealand, Nigeria and India. A Bachelor of

Engineering is a Professional Degree and

therefore a requirement for undertaking some

engineering work. This is controlled by the

national professional engineering society or

institute who accredit the universities and is

also often controlled by law.

11

65 B.Eng.BioSci. Bachelor of Engineering and Biosciences See glossary

66 B.Eng.C.S. Bachelor of Engineering and Computer

Systems See glossary

67 B.Eng.Mgt. Bachelor of Engineering and Management See glossary

68 B.Eng.Society Bachelor of Engineering and Society See glossary

69 B.E.S. Bachelor of Environmental Studies

A Bachelor of Environmental Studies is an

undergraduate bachelor's degree awarded for

courses taken in the study of environmental

studies or related disciplines, such as

geography, urban planning, environmental

resource studies, or architecture. In practice,

this is essentially equivalent to a Bachelor of

Arts degree with a specialty in environmental

studies. Relatively few institutions award

Bachelor of Environmental Studies degrees,

and the distinction between institutions which

do award such degrees and those which award

B.A. degrees for geography, for example, is

usually one of university bureaucracy, rather

than curriculum.

70 B.F.A. Bachelor of Fine Arts

The Bachelor of Fine Arts, is the standard

undergraduate degree for students seeking a

professional education in the visual or

performing arts. The degree differs from a

Bachelor of Arts degree in that the majority of

the program consists of a practical studio

component, as contrasted with lecture and

discussion classes. A typical B.F.A. program

consists of two-thirds study in the arts, with

one-third in more general liberal arts studies;

for a B.A. in Art, the ratio might be reversed. A

B.F.A. degree will often require an area of

specialty such as: acting, musical theatre,

ceramics, creative writing, dance, drawing,

fiber, film production, graphic design,

illustration, industrial design, interior design,

metalworking, new media, painting,

photography, printmaking, or sculpture. Some

schools instead give their students a broad

education in many disciplines of the arts.

71 B.G.S. Bachelor of General Studies A Bachelor of General Studies degree is an

undergraduate degree, offered by some

12

universities in the Western world. It is very

similar to a Bachelor of Arts degree, although

there are often fewer requirements for studies

in humanities and social sciences. In many

cases, the Bachelor of General Studies or B.S.

in General Studies (as offered by Drexel

University via the Goodwin College of

Professional Studies) is offered as a degree

program specifically for adult learners that have

delayed or interrupted their studies, and

typically offers matriculants the ability to

design their own curriculum.

72 B.Hk. or B.H.Kin. Bachelor of Human Kinetics

A Bachelor of Human Kinetics is a four-year

academic degree awarded by a university upon

the completion of a program of study of Human

Kinetics. Specializations within this degree can

include: Athletic Therapy, Kinesiology,

Physical Education, Recreation, and Sport

management.

73 B.H.Sc Bachelor of Health Sciences See glossary

74 B.Hy. Bachelor of Hygiene See glossary

75 B.I.E. Bachelor of Industrial Engineering See glossary

76 B.InfTech. Bachelor of Information Technology See glossary

77 B.InfSci. Bachelor of Information Science See glossary

78 B.IntSt. Bachelor of International Studies See glossary

79 B.J. Bachelor of Journalism (see the University of

Missouri Columbia) See glossary

80 B.L. Bachelor of Law; Bachelor of Letters

The degree of Bachelor of Laws (or

Baccalaureate of Laws) is the principal

academic degree in law in most common law

countries other than the United States, where it

has been replaced by the Juris Doctor degree. It

is abbreviated LL.B (or LLB , or sometimes

LL.b ): "LL" is an abbreviation of the genitive

plural legum (of laws), thus "LL.B." stands for

Legum Baccalaureus in Latin. In the United

States it is sometimes called "Bachelor of Legal

Letters" to account for the double "L". In

Canada, Bachelor of Laws is the name of the

first degree in common law, but is also the

name of the first degree in Quebec civil law

13

awarded by a number of Quebec universities.

The Canadian common law LL.B. is generally

a graduate-entry degree.

81 B.Lang. Bachelor of Languages See glossary

82 B.L.A. Bachelor of Landscape Architecture See glossary

83 B.Lit. Bachelor of Literature -

84 B.M. Bachelor of Music, Bachelor of Medicine

A Bachelor of Music is an undergraduate

academic degree awarded by a college,

university, or conservatory upon completion of

program of study in music. In the United States,

the Bachelor of Music is a professional degree;

the majority of work consists of prescribed

music courses and study in applied music,

usually requiring a proficiency performing an

instrument. Such a program lasts three to four

and a half years.

85 B.M.A.Sc. Bachelor of Military Arts and Sciences

(used at Royal Military College of Canada) -

86 B.Math. Bachelor of Mathematics

A Bachelor of Mathematics is an

undergraduate academic degree awarded for

courses taken in the study of mathematics or

related disciplines, such as computer science or

statistics.

87 B.Mgmt. Bachelor of Management See glossary

88 B.M.S. Bachelor of Maritime Studies See glossary

89 B.Mus., Mus.B,

B.M. Bachelor of Music

A Bachelor of Music is an undergraduate

academic degree awarded by a college,

university, or conservatory upon completion of

program of study in music. In the United States,

the Bachelor of Music is a professional degree;

the majority of work consists of prescribed

music courses and study in applied music. Such

a program lasts three to four and a half years. A

Bachelor of Music may be awarded for Music

Performance, Music Education, Composition,

Music Theory, Musicology/Music History,

Music Technology, Music Business, Music

Entertainment, Music Production or Jazz

Studies.

90 B.M.Ed. or

B.M.E. Bachelor of Music Education See glossary

14

91 B.M.S. Bachelor of Marine Science See glossary

92 B.N. Bachelor of Nursing

The Bachelor of Science in Nursing (B.S.N.,

B.Sc.N.) or Bachelor of Nursing (B.N.) is a

four year academic degree in the science and

principles of nursing, granted by a tertiary

education university or similarly accredited

school. This level of education has become the

standard that many countries in the world

require as an entry-level degree for a licensure

as a registered nurse.

93 B.Pharm. Bachelor of Pharmacy

A Bachelor of Pharmacy is an undergraduate

academic degree in the field of pharmacy. The

degree is a basic prerequisite, in many

countries, for registration to practice as a

pharmacist. In some countries it has been

superseded by the Master of Pharmacy

(M.Pharm.) and Doctor of Pharmacy

(Pharm.D.) degrees.

94 B.S., B.Sc. or S.B.

or Sc.B. Bachelor of Science, Scientiae Baccalaureus

In North America, a Bachelor of Science

degree may be a more specialized version of

B.A., with more focus on the subject and less

on a broad liberal arts background; for

example, a B.S. in economics may require

several more advanced economics courses than

a B.A. in economics, and possibly more support

courses (such as statistics). The B.S. is also

frequently used for professional areas of study

such as engineering, journalism, and

advertising. In the UK, which subjects are

considered science subjects varies, e.g.

economics degrees may be B.A. in one

university but B.Sc. in another. In addition,

some universities, like the London School of

Economics, offer the B.Sc. in practically all

subject areas even when they are normally

associated with arts degrees, while others

award arts qualifications almost exclusively,

namely the Oxbridge universities. In both

instances, this is generally for historical and

traditional reasons. A Bachelor of Science

receives the designation B.Sc. or B.S. for a

major/pass degree and B.Sc. (Hons) or B.S.

15

(Hon) for an honours degree.

95 B.S.A.E.

Bachelor of Science in Aerospace

Engineering; Bachelor of Science in

Agricultural Engineering

See glossary

96 B.S.A. Bachelor of Science in Agriculture See glossary

97 B.S.B.A. Bachelor of Science in Business

Administration See bachelor's degree

98 B.S.B.E. Bachelor of Science in Biological Engineering See glossary

99 B.S.C.B.A. Bachelor of Science in Commerce and

Business Administration See glossary

100 B.S.C.E. or B.C.E. Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering See glossary

101 B.S.Ch.E. or

B.Ch.E. Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering See glossary

102 B.Sc. Bachelor of Science

A Bachelor of Science (B.S., B.Sc. or less

commonly, S.B. or Sc.B. from the Latin

Scientiae Baccalaureus) is an undergraduate

academic degree awarded for completed

courses that generally last three years in

Australia, Austria, Croatia, Denmark, England,

Germany, Hong Kong, India, the Republic of

Ireland, Israel, The Netherlands, New Zealand,

Northern Ireland, Poland, Quebec, Malaysia,

Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland, Wales and

South Africa; or four years in North America,

Iceland, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, the Philippines,

Scotland and Brazil. In North America, a

Bachelor of Science degree may be a more

specialized version of B.A., with more focus on

the subject and less on a broad liberal arts

background; for example, a B.S. in economics

may require several more advanced economics

courses than a B.A. in economics, and possibly

more support courses (such as statistics). The

B.S. is also frequently used for professional

areas of study such as engineering, journalism,

and advertising.

103 B.S.Chem. Bachelor of Science in Chemistry See glossary

104 B.S.C.S. Bachelor of Science in Computer Science See glossary

105 B.S.E. Bachelor of Science in Engineering See glossary

106 B.S.E.E. Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering See glossary

107 B.S.Ed. Bachelor of Science in Education See glossary

16

108 B.S.E.H. Bachelor of Science in Environmental Health See glossary

109 B.S.F.C.S. Bachelor of Science in Family and Consumer

Sciences See glossary

110 B.S.F.R. Bachelor of Science in Forest Resources See glossary

111 B.S.Geo. Bachelor of Science in Geology See glossary

112 B.S.H.E.S.,

B.S.Hu.Env.Sci.

Bachelor of Science in Human Environmental

Sciences See glossary

113 B.S.I.E. Bachelor of Science in Industrial Engineering See glossary

114 B.S.M.E. Bachelor of Science in Mechanical

Engineering See glossary

115 B.S.Med.Tech.,

B.S.Med.T. Bachelor of Science in Medical Technology See glossary

116 B.S.Met.,

B.S.Mt.E.

Bachelor of Science in Metallurgical

Engineering See glossary

117 B.S.Micro.,

B.S.Micr. Bachelor of Science in Microbiology See glossary

118 B.S.Mng.E.,

B.S.Min.E. (Min.)

Bachelor of Science in Mineral Engineering,

Mining See glossary

119 B.S.N., B.Sc.N. Bachelor of Science in Nursing

The Bachelor of Science in Nursing or is a

four year academic degree in the science and

principles of nursing, granted by a tertiary

education university or similarly accredited

school. This level of education has become the

standard that many countries in the world

require as an entry-level degree for a licensure

as a registered nurse.

120 B.S.O.T. Bachelor of Science in Occupational Therapy See glossary

121 B.S.P.A. Bachelor of Science in Physics and

Astronomy See glossary

122 B.S.Pcs. Bachelor of Science in Physics See glossary

123 B.S.Pet.E.,

B.S.Min.E.(Pet.)

Bachelor of Science in Mineral Engineering,

Petroleum See glossary

124 B.S.Phr.,

B.S.Phar. Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy

An undergraduate academic degree in the field

of pharmacy. The degree is a basic prerequisite,

in many countries, for registration to practise as

a pharmacist. In some countries it has been

17

superseded by the Master of Pharmacy

(M.Pharm.) and Doctor of Pharmacy

(Pharm.D.) degrees.

125 B.S.U.P. Bachelor of Science in Urban Planning See glossary

126 B.S.W. Bachelor of Social Work See glossary

127 B. Tech. Bachelor of Technology See glossary

128 B.U.P. Bachelor of Urban Planning See glossary

129 C.A. Chartered Accountant; Chief Accountant

Chartered Accountant is the title of members

of a certain professional accountancy

associations in the Commonwealth countries

and Ireland. The term chartered refers to the

charter under which these bodies were

incorporated. Subjects examined include

financial accounting, management accounting,

auditing, taxation and company law.

130 D.B. Divinitatis Baccalaureus

(Bachelor of Divinity)

In Western Christian theology, a Bachelor of

Divinity is usually an undergraduate academic

degree awarded for a courses taken in the study

of divinity or related disciplines, such as

theology or, rarely, religious studies.

131 D.B.A. Doctor of Business Administration

The degree of Doctor of Business

Administration is a research-oriented

doctorate. The D.B.A. (like the Ph.D.) often

requires significant coursework beyond the

masters level. However, depending on the

scholastic program and the level of preparation

at the bachelors and masters level, coursework

is not always mandatory. The D.B.A. (like the

Ph.D.) normally requires a significant thesis or

final comprehensive project including a formal

defense and approval by an officially

sanctioned and qualified doctoral review

committee. The degree is conferred when all

coursework, testing, and written research is

completed satisfactorily and when it is

reviewed and approved by the committee.

132 D.C. Doctor of Chiropractic See glossary

133 D.C.H. Diploma in Child Health See glossary

134 D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law

Some universities, such as the University of

Oxford, award Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.)

degrees instead of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)

18

degrees. At Oxford, the degree of Doctor of

Civil Law by Diploma is customarily conferred

on foreign Heads of State, as well as on the

Chancellor of the University. (The British

Sovereign is unable to receive university

degrees, since these would, theoretically, place

her under the jurisdiction of the Chancellor of

the university. Prior to her accession, the

present Queen did accept several honorary

degrees, including an Oxford DCL in 1948).

135 D.C.M. Doctor of Chiropractic Medicine See glossary

136 D.C.M. Doctor of Church Music See glossary

137 D.D. Divinitatis Doctor (Doctor of Divinity)

Doctor of Divinity is an academic degree in

divinity. Historically, it identified one who had

been licensed by a university to teach Christian

theology or related religious subjects.

138 D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Surgery

The Doctor of Dental Surgery denotes one of

two common professional doctorates in the

United States for dentists, the other being

Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.). In the

past, the difference consisted of having a

D.M.D. train for a brief period with general

medical students.

139 D.H.L. Doctor of Humane Letters

A Doctor of Humane Letters (Latin:

Litterarum humanae doctor; D.H.L.; or L.H.D.)

is an honorary degree often conferred to those

who have contributed to issues of peace and

social justice.

140 D.Lit. or Litt. Doctor of Literature; Doctor of Letters

A Doctor of Letters is a university academic

degree. In the United Kingdom, the degree is a

higher doctorate, above the Doctor of

Philosophy (Ph.D.), and is issued by a

committee on the basis of a long record of

research and publication.

141 D.M.A. Doctor of Musical Arts

The Doctor of Musical Arts degree (D.M.A.,

or A.Mus.D.), like other doctorates, is a

terminal academic degree. The D.M.A. is

intended for musicians who wish to combine

the highest attainments in their area of

specialization with doctoral-level academic

study in music. D.M.A. students typically

19

complete applied studies culminating in several

solo recitals, take courses within their area of

specialization (as well as related courses in

music theory and music history), and write a

thesis or dissertation. Some programs

additionally require study in a cognate area

within music or in an outside field.

142 D.M.D. Doctor of Dental Medicine See glossary

143 D.Min. Doctor of Ministry See glossary

144 D.Miss. Doctor of Missiology See glossary

145 D.M.S. Doctor of Medical Science See glossary

146 D.N.S. Doctor of Nursing Science

A Doctor of Science in Nursing is an

advanced-level quaternary education degree for

Registered Nurses. A master's-level degree is a

prerequisite for doctorate-level nursing

education. This type of degree is preferred for

nurse educators and nurses in leadership

positions.

147 D.O. Doctor of Osteopathy See glossary

148 D.P.A. Doctor of Public Administration See glossary

149 D.P.H. Doctor of Public Health See glossary

150 D.P.M. Doctor of Podiatric Medicine See glossary

151 Dr. Doctor

Doctor is person holding one of the highest

titles given by a university;

-person whose profession is to attend sick

people.

152 D.S. Doctor of Surgery See glossary

153 D.Sc., Hon.D.Sc. Doctor of Science (usually honorary)

D.Sc., Sc.D., S.D., or Dr.Sc. are common

abbreviations for the Latin Scientiae Doctor,

meaning Doctor of Science.

Doctor is person holding one of the highest

titles given by a university.

The degree is conferred on a member of the

university who has a proven record of

internationally recognised scholarship. A

candidate for the degree will usually be

required to submit a selection of their

publications to the board of the appropriate

faculty, which will decide if the candidate

merits this accolade. The degree will only

exceptionally be awarded to a scholar under the

20

age of forty.

154 D.S.N. Doctor of Science in Nursing

A Doctor of Science in Nursing is an

advanced-level quaternary education degree for

Registered Nurses. A master's-level degree is a

prerequisite for doctorate-level nursing

education. This type of degree is preferred for

nurse educators and nurses in leadership

positions.

155 D.S.W. Doctor of Social Welfare,

Doctor of Social Work

The Doctor of Social Work is an academic

degree for experienced social work

practitioners who wish to further their careers

by gaining training in advanced practice,

research and/or policy analysis. Much of the

course work emphasizes qualitiative and

quantitative analysis methods. The degree

typically leads to teaching, research, leadership

roles in agencies, or self-employed social work

practice. The DSW has become less popular in

the past several decades, as most of the top

ranked Schools of Social Work now offer only

Ph.D. research programs in social work.

See glossary

156 D.V.M. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine

A Veterinary Surgeon is a veterinarian

qualified in the UK and some other English-

speaking countries (See: Commonwealth of

Nations and Commonwealth realms). In the

UK, veterinary surgeons are regulated by the

Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons or

RCVS. The legislation affecting the activity of

UK veterinary surgeons and of the RCVS is the

Veterinary Surgeons Act of 1966.

157 Ed.D. Doctor of Education

The Doctor of Education degree (Ed.D. or

D.Ed.) is a professional doctorate which

prepares the student for administrative or

specialized positions in education. Like other

doctorates, (e.g. the Ph.D., D.A., and so on), the

Ed.D./D.Ed. is an academic degree of the

highest level. In the United States, the Ed.D.

tends to be granted by the Schools of Education

of Universities; hence, it is designated a Doctor

of Education degree.

158 Ed.S. Educational Specialist The Education Specialist, also referred to as

21

Educational Specialist, Specialist in Education,

or Ed.S., is a terminal academic degree in the

U.S. that is designed for individuals who wish

to develop additional skills or increase their

knowledge beyond the master's degree level,

but do not wish to pursue a degree at the

doctoral level. Depending on the type of

program offering the degree, a Master's degree

may or may not be a prerequisite for entry. In

school psychology programs, for instance, the

Specialist degree is often designed to follow

immediately after a bachelor's degree.

159 F.A.I. Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries

A fellow in the broadest sense is someone who

is an equal or a comrade. The term is most

often used in an academic context: a fellow is

(at least in theory) part of an elite group of

learned people who work together as peers in

the pursuit of knowledge. However, there are

no precise rules for how the title is used, and

each academic institution grants the title as it

sees fit.

See glossary

160 F.B.S. Fellow of the Botanical Society –

161 F.C.A. Fellow of the Institute of Chartered Accountants

Professional qualifications in the United

Kingdom are generally awarded by

professional bodies in line with their charters.

These qualifications are subject to the European

directives on professional qualifications. Most,

but not all, professional qualifications are

'Chartered' qualifications, and follow on from

having done a degree (or equivalent

qualification).

See glossary

162 F.C.I.S. Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Secretaries

The organization was founded in 1891 and

incorporated by Royal Charter in 1902. The

initial object of the Institute of Secretaries was

the development of the profession of company

secretary and the creation of high standards in

the Profession. Membership was limited to

those successful in the examinations and those

who demonstrated the standard of experience

set by the Institute.

22

163 F.C.P. Fellow of the College of Preceptors

The College of Teachers (formerly known as

the College of Preceptors) is a large

association of teachers and associated para-

professionals in the United Kingdom. The

College of Teachers was incorporated by Royal

Charter in 1849 as The College of Preceptors.

Subsequently, in 1998 it changed its name to

the College of Teachers.

164 F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society

The Chemical Society was formed in 1841

(then named the Chemical Society of London)

as a result of increased interest in scientific

matters. One of its aims was to hold meetings

for "the communication and discussion of

discoveries and observations, an account of

which shall be published by the Society". In

1847, its importance was recognised by a Royal

Charter, which added to its role in the

advancement of science, the development of

chemical applications in industry. Its members

included eminent chemists from overseas

including August Wilhelm von Hofmann, who

became its president in 1861. Membership was

open to all those interested in chemistry.

Its activities expanded over the years, including

eventually becoming a major publisher in the

field of chemistry. In 1980, it amalgamated

with the Royal Institute of Chemistry, the

Faraday Society and the Society for Analytical

Chemistry to become the Royal Society of

Chemistry.

165 F.F.P.S. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and

Surgeons See glossary

166 F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society See glossary

167 F.I.A. Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries See glossary

168 F.I.Biol. Fellow of the Institute of Biology

The Institute of Biology (IoB) is a professional

body for biologists, primarily those working in

the United Kingdom. Membership currently

stands around 14,000. It was founded in 1950,

received a Royal Charter in 1979 and holds

charitable status. The headquarters of the

Institue is located in Kensington, London, near

to the Natural History Museum and Imperial

23

College London. The IoB is not a trade union,

nor does it have regulatory power over its

membership, like the General Medical Council.

169 F.I.C. Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry –

170 F.R.A.M. Fellow of the Royal Academy of Music

The Royal Academy of Music (sometimes

abbreviated to RAM ) is a music school in

London, England and one of the leading music

institutions in the world. It was founded by

Lord Burghersh in 1822 and in 1830 was

granted a Royal Charter by King George IV 'to

promote the cultivation of the science of music

and to afford facilities for attaining perfection

in it by assisting with general instruction all

persons desirous of acquiring knowledge

thereof'. One of the most revered musical

education establishments in the world, many

important musicians have studied at the

Academy since then.

171 F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society;

Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society

The Royal Astronomical Society began as the

Astronomical Society of London in 1820 to

support astronomical research (mainly carried

on at the time by 'gentleman astronomers' rather

than professionals). It became the Royal

Astronomical Society in 1831 on receiving its

Royal Charter from William IV. A

Supplemental Charter in 1915 opened up the

fellowship to women. It is the UK adhering

organisation to the International Astronomical

Union and a member of the Science Council.

The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain

and Ireland was, according to its Royal

Charter of August 11, 1824, established to

further "the investigation of subjects connected

with and for the encouragement of science

literature and the arts in relation to Asia." From

its incorporation the Society has been a forum,

through lectures, its journal, and other

publications, for scholarship relating to Asian

culture and society of the highest level. It is the

United Kingdom's senior learned society in the

field of Asian studies.

172 F.R.C.I. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute –

24

173 F.R.C.O. Fellow of the Royal College of Organists

The Royal College of Organists or RCO, is an

educational body of the United Kingdom. Its

role is to promote organ and choral music and it

offers musical education and training for

organists and choral directors. The College

maintains the British Organ Library and

provides examinations in organ-playing, choral

directing and organ-teaching. These exams are

legendary for their exhausting standards and

tiny pass rates. They have been criticised by

many distinguished organists for their 19th-

century austerity and elitist approach.

174 F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians

The Royal College of Physicians of London is

the oldest medical institution in England was

founded in 1518 and is one of the most active

of all medical professional organisations. Since

the College's creation as the College of

Physicians (it acquired the "Royal" prefix in

1674) by royal charter of King Henry VIII in

1518, it has engaged in a wide range of

activities dedicated to its overall aim of

upholding and improving standards of medical

practice. Its membership (and the

M.R.C.P.(UK) title) is obtained by doctors who

have completed the Membership of the Royal

College of Physicians exams. Fellows (the

FRCP title) are elected. The Licentiate of the

Royal College of Physicians (L.R.C.P.) is no

longer awarded.

175 F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons

The Royal College of Surgeons of England is

an independent professional body committed to

promoting and advancing the highest standards

of surgical care for patients, regulating surgery,

including dentistry, in England and Wales. The

College is located at Lincoln's Inn Fields in

London.

176 F.R.C.V.S Fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary

Surgeons

The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons is

the regulatory body for veterinary surgeons in

the United Kingdom. Established in 1844 by

Royal Charter, its statutory duties are laid out

in the 1966 Veterinary Surgeons Act.

177 F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society The Royal Geographical Society is a learned

25

society, founded in 1830 with the name

Geographical Society of London for the

advancement of geographical science, under the

patronage of King William IV. It absorbed the

'Association for Promoting the Discovery of the

Interior Parts of Africa' (founded by Sir Joseph

Banks in 1788), the Raleigh Club and the

Palestine Association. It was given a Royal

charter by Queen Victoria in 1859.

176 F.R.Hist.S. Fellow of the Royal Historical Society

The Royal Historical Society was founded in

1868. It is the premier society in the United

Kingdom which promotes and defends the

scholarly study of the past. The Society has a

varied programme of lectures and one-day and

two-day Conferences covering a wide range of

historical issues. Some of its meetings are held

in London; others at university venues

throughout Great Britain. They provide

excellent opportunities for formal and informal

discussion among historians.

177 F.R.H.S. Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society

The Royal Horticultural Society was founded

in 1804 in London, England as the

Horticultural Society of London, and gained

its present name in a Royal Charter granted in

1861 by Prince Albert. It is a charity and exists

to promote gardening and horticulture in

Britain and Europe. This is done through a

series of flower shows and through many

model gardens that are open to the public. The

society celebrated its bicentenary in 2004.

178 F.R.I.B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institute of British

Architects

The Royal Institute of British Architects

(RIBA) is a professional body for architects in

the United Kingdom. Originally named the

Institute of British Architects in London, it was

formed in 1834 by several prominent architects,

including Philip Hardwick, Thomas Allom,

William Donthorne, Thomas Leverton

Donaldson and John Buonarotti Papworth. It

was awarded a Royal Charter in 1837,

becoming the Royal Institute of British

Architects in London, eventually dropping the

reference to London in 1892. The Institute also

26

maintains a dozen regional offices around the

United Kingdom. Parts of the London building

are open to the public. It has a large

architectural bookshop, a café, galleries for

exhibitions, and lecture theatres. Rooms are

hired out for events.

179 F.R.Met.S. Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society

The Royal Meteorological Society traces its

origins back to April 3, 1850 when the British

Meteorological Society was formed as a society

the objects of which should be the advancement

and extension of meteorological science by

determining the laws of climate and of

meteorological phenomena in general. It

became The Meteorological Society in 1866,

when it was incorporated by Royal Charter, and

the Royal Meteorological Society in 1883,

when Her Majesty Queen Victoria granted the

privilege of adding 'Royal' to the title. As of

2006 it has more than 3,000 members

worldwide.

180 F.R.M.S. Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society –

181 F.R.P.S. Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society

The Royal Photographic Society was founded

in the United Kingdom in 1853 "to promote the

Art and Science of Photography". It maintains

an extensive photographic archive and offers

various levels of qualifications in photographic

skills.

182 F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society

The Royal Society of London for the

Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known

simply as The Royal Society, was founded in

1660 and claims to be the oldest learned society

still in existence. Although a voluntary body, it

serves as the academy of sciences of the United

Kingdom (in which role it receives £30 million

annually from the UK Government), and is a

learned society for science. It is a member

organization of the Science Council.

183 F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society, Edinburgh

The Royal Society of Edinburgh (founded

1783) is a separate Scottish body. The Royal

Irish Academy (founded 1785) is a separate

Irish body.

184 F.R.S.L. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature The Royal Society of Literature is the "senior

27

literary organisation in Britain." It was founded

in 1820 by George IV, with the aim to "reward

literary merit and excite literary talent." The

Society has an annual magazine, RSL, and

administers a number of literary prizes and

awards, including the Ondaatje Prize, the

Jerwood Awards and the V. S. Pritchett

Memorial Prize. It can confer the honour of

Companion of Literature for writers of

particular note. It also awards the Benson

Medal for lifetime service in the field of

literature.

185 F.R.S.S.A. Fellow of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts

The Royal Scottish Society of Arts is a

learned society in Scotland, dedicated to the

study of science and technology. It was

founded as The Society for the

Encouragement of the Useful Arts in

Scotland by Sir David Brewster in 1821 and

dedicated to "the promotion of invention and

enterprise". The Society was granted a Royal

Charter in 1841. For many years the promotion

of invention and improvements of all sorts was

the main business of the Society, and its

meetings were the focus of a large and active

cross-section of Edinburgh society - academics,

gentry, professionals such as civil engineers

and lawyers, and skilled craftsmen such as

instrument makers, engravers and printers. The

Society's published Transactions provide a

fascinating record of changes in technology,

and the Society's extensive archive (publicly

accessible in the National Library of Scotland)

is a valuable resource used by researchers.

186 F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Arts;

Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries

The Royal Society for the Encouragement of

Arts, Manufactures and Commerce is a

British multi-disciplinary institution, based in

London. The name Royal Society of Arts is

frequently used by others for brevity, but the

Society itself uses either its full name or the

initials RSA (not least in the letters Fellows of

the Society use after their name – FRSA). It was

founded in 1754 and was granted a Royal

28

Charter in 1847. Notable members have

included Benjamin Franklin, Karl Marx, Adam

Smith, William Hogarth, Charles Dickens and

Guglielmo Marconi.

The Society of Antiquaries of London is a

learned society, based in the United Kingdom,

concerned with "the encouragement,

advancement and furtherance of the study and

knowledge of the antiquities and history of this

and other countries". An antiquary was a

person interested in the study of the past,

particularly the physical traces of the past. The

term was current from the late 16th century to

the 19th century. Antiquarianism then evolved

into more specialised fields of interest such as

archaeology, architectural history, art history,

conservation, heraldry, anthropology, and

ecclesiastical studies, and there is no such thing

as a professional antiquary today. The

continuing use of the word in the Society's

name is an anachronism, but reflects both the

antiquity of the Society and its continuing

broad range of interests.

187 F.S.A.A. Fellow of the Society of Incorporated

Accountants and Auditors

The Association of Chartered Certified

Accountants is a British chartered accountancy

body with a global presence that offers the

Chartered Certified Accountant (Designatory

letters ACCA or FCCA) qualification

worldwide. It is one of the world's largest and

fastest-growing accountancy bodies with

110,000 members and 260,000 affiliates and

students in 170 countries. The Institute's

headquarters are in London with the principal

administrative office being based in Glasgow.

In addition the ACCA has a network of over 70

staffed offices and other centres around the

world.

188 F.S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society

The Royal Statistical Society is a learned

society for statistics and a professional body for

statisticians in the UK. It was founded in 1834

as the Statistical Society of London, in the

same week that the Tolpuddle Martyrs were

29

sentenced (see History of Teaching Statistics).

It became the Royal Statistical Society in 1887,

and merged with the Institute of Statisticians in

1993. Today the society has 7,200 members in

the UK and the rest of the world, only around

1,500 of whom are professionally qualified.

The RSS team reached the finals of University

Challenge: The Professionals 2006. They were

beaten 230 to 125 by the Bodleian Library,

Oxford. They had previously beaten the Granta

team in the first round (first broadcast on 24

July) before going on to beat the team from

Prospect Magazine 280 points to 115 in the

semi-final, broadcast on 31 July.

189 F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological Society

The Zoological Society of London is a learned

society founded in April 1826 by Sir Thomas

Stamford Raffles, Lord Auckland, Sir Humphry

Davy, Joseph Sabine, Nicholas Aylward Vigors

and other eminent naturalists. Raffles was also

the first President, but died shortly after

assuming this office in July 1826. He was

succeeded by the Marquess of Lansdowne, who

obtained a parcel of land in Regent's Park from

the Crown at a nominal rent, and who

supervised the building of the first animal

houses. It received a Royal Charter from

George IV on 27 March 1829. The purpose of

the society was to study animals in comparative

freedom. In April 1828 the Zoological Gardens

were opened to members. In 1831 William IV

presented the royal menagerie to the Zoological

Society, and in 1847 the public were admitted

to aid funding, and Londoners soon christened

the Zoological Gardens the "Zoo". The Zoo

soon had the most extensive collection of

animals in the world.

190 G.P. General Practitioner

A general practitioner, family physician or

family practitioner is a physician/medical

doctor who provides primary care. A G.P./F.P.

treats acute and chronic illnesses, provides

preventive care and health education for all

ages and both sexes. Some also care for

30

hospitalized patients, do minor surgery and/or

obstetrics, where they have hospital privileges.

However, in the past, they were required to do

much more important surgeries, such as

tonsillectomies, hernia repairs, and

appendectomies. For instance, it was common

for a General Practitioner to operate if a patient

had an extremely painful hernia, or an acute

appendus. From time to time, however, they

will remove minor skin lesions surgically.

There has been an steady decrease in family

physicians in the last few decades, due to the

long work hours and little pay compared to

most specialists. The term general practitioner

is common in the United Kingdom and some

other Commonwealth countries, where the

word "physician" is only used for certain

specialists and not for GPs.

191 H.S.S. Historic Societatis Socius

Fellow of the Historical Society

The Royal Historical Society was founded in

1868. It is the premier society in the United

Kingdom which promotes and defends the

scholarly study of the past.

192 H.S.A.A. Health Sciences Advancement Award

The Advanced Extension Awards were

introduced in 2002, in response to the British

Government's Excellence in Cities report, as a

means of testing students at the most

demanding standards found across the world.

They are aimed at the top 10% of students in

the British A Level tests, and are designed to

allow students to "demonstrate their

knowledge, understanding and skills to the

full" . They are assessed completely by virtue of

external examinations.

193 J.D. Juris Doctor (Doctor of Law) not Juris

Doctorate

Juris Doctor (Latin for "Teacher of Law") or

J.D. is a degree in law offered by universities in

a number of countries. It is considered a first

professional degree as one of the main purposes

of the degree is to provide the professional

training for those who wish to become lawyers.

Some U.S. law schools award the first

professional degree in law using the English

terms Doctor of Law or Doctor of

31

Jurisprudence rather than the Latin term Juris

Doctor.

194 J.S.D., S.J.D. Doctor of Juridical Science

Doctor of Laws (Latin: Legum Doctor, LL.D )

is a doctorate-level academic degree in law.

In the United States, the LL.D. is almost always

an honorary degree. The Doctor of Juridical

Science (S.J.D. or J.S.D.), sometimes awarded

as Doctor of the Science of Law, is the degree

awarded for research in the form of a

dissertation, the equivalent to a Ph.D. in law.

195 L.H.D. Litterarum Humaniorum Doctor

(Doctor of Humanities)

The humanities are a group of academic

subjects united by a commitment to studying

aspects of the human condition and a

qualitative approach that generally prevents a

single paradigm from coming to define any

discipline. The humanities are usually

distinguished from the social sciences and the

natural sciences and include subjects such as

the classics, languages, literature, music,

philosophy, the performing arts, religion and

the visual arts. Other subjects at times included

as humanities in some parts of the world

include archaeology, area studies,

communications, cultural studies and history,

although these are often regarded as social

sciences elsewhere.

196 Litt.D. Litterarum Doctor (Doctor of Letters)

A Doctor of Letters (Latin: Litterarum doctor;

D.Litt. ; or Litt.D. ) is a university academic

degree. In the United Kingdom, the degree is a

higher doctorate, above the Doctor of

Philosophy (Ph.D.), and is issued by a

committee on the basis of a long record of

research and publication.

197 LL.B. Legum Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Laws)

The degree of Bachelor of Laws (or

Baccalaureate of Laws) is the principal

academic degree in law in most common law

countries other than the United States, where it

has been replaced by the Juris Doctor degree.

It is abbreviated LL.B (or LL.B , or sometimes

LL.b ): "LL" is an abbreviation of the genitive

plural legum (of laws), thus "LL.B." stands for

Legum Baccalaureus in Latin. In the United

32

States it is sometimes called "Bachelor of Legal

Letters" to account for the double "L". In

Canada, Bachelor of Laws is the name of the

first degree in common law, but is also the

name of the first degree in Quebec civil law

awarded by a number of Quebec universities.

The Canadian common law LL.B. is generally

a graduate-entry degree. Bachelor of Laws is

also the name of the first degree in Scots law

and South African law (both being pluralistic

legal systems that are based partly on common

law and partly on civil law) awarded by a

number of universities in Scotland and South

Africa, respectively. The Bachelor of Laws is

considered a professional degree as one of the

main purposes of the degree is to provide the

academic training for those who wish to

become lawyers.

198 LL.D. Legum Doctor (Doctor of Laws)

Doctor of Laws is a doctorate-level academic

degree in law. Plural abbreviations in Latin are

formed by doubling the letter, hence the double

"L".

199 LL.M. Master of Laws

The Master of Laws is an advanced law degree

that allows someone to specialize in a particular

area of law. It is commonly abbreviated LL.M.

(also L.L.M. ) from its Latin name, Legum

Magister. (For female students, the less

common variant Legum Magistra may also be

used.)

200 L.R.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians See glossary

201 L.R.C.S. Licentiate of the Royal College See glossary

202 M.A. Master of Arts

A Master's degree is an academic degree

usually awarded for completion of a

postgraduate (or graduate) course of one to

three years in duration.

See glossary

203 M.Acc. Master of Accountancy

Master of Accountancy (M.Acc., M.Ac., or

M.Acy.), alternatively Master of Professional

Accounting (M.P.Acc.) or Master Science in

Accounting (M.S.Acc.), is typically a one-

year, non-thesis graduate program designed to

prepare graduates for public accounting and to

33

provide them with the 150 credit hours required

by most states before taking the CPA exam. Or,

some graduates entering corporate accounting

or consulting may pursue the Certified

Management Accountant (C.M.A.) designation

by passing a series of exams.

204 M.A.C. Master of Arts in Communication See glossary

205 M.A.E. Master of Agricultural Economics See glossary

206 M.A.Ed. Master of Art Education See glossary

207 M.A.Ext. Master of Agricultural Extension See glossary

208 M.A.L.D. Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy

The Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy is

a master’s degree offered by the Fletcher

School of Law and Diplomacy.

209 M.A.M. Master of Avian Medicine See glossary

210 M.A.M.S. Master of Applied Mathematical Sciences –

211 M.A.P. Master of Arts in Planning –

212 M.A.T. Master of Arts for Teachers –

213 M.A.U.P. Master of Arts in Urban Planning See glossary

214 M.B. Medicine Baccalaureus Bachelor of Medicine;

Musiae Baccalaureus Bachelor of Music

Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of

Surgery, or in Latin Medicinæ Baccalaureus

et Baccalaureus Chirurgiæ (abbreviated M.B.

B.Chir., M.B. B.Ch., M.B. Ch.B., B.M. B.S.,

M.B. B.S. etc.), are the two degrees awarded

after a course of study in medicine and surgery

at a university in the United Kingdom and other

places following its usage, such as medical

schools in Australia, Hong Kong, Malaysia,

Singapore, New Zealand, Jamaica, South

Africa, Pakistan and India. The naming

suggests that they are two separate degrees;

however in practice they are usually treated as

one.

A Bachelor of Music (B.M., B.Mus. or

Mus.B) is an undergraduate academic degree

awarded by a college, university, or

conservatory upon completion of program of

study in music. In the United States, the

Bachelor of Music is a professional degree; the

34

majority of work consists of prescribed music

courses and study in applied music, usually

requiring a proficiency performing an

instrument. Such a program lasts three to four

and a half years.

215 M.B.A. Master of Business Administration

Master of Business Administration is a

master's degree in business administration,

which attracts people from a wide range of

academic disciplines. The M.B.A. designation

originated in the United States, emerging as the

country industrialized and companies sought

out scientific approaches to management. The

first American business school, Wharton

School of the University of Pennsylvania, was

established in 1881 (initially as an exclusively

undergraduate institution). The Tuck School of

Business, part of Dartmouth College, was the

first graduate school of management in the US.

Founded in 1900, it was the first institution

conferring advanced degrees (masters) in the

commercial sciences, the forebearer of the

modern MBA. Founded in 1898, the University

of Chicago Graduate School of Business, the

second oldest US business school, was the first

graduate school in 1940 to offer working

professionals the Executive M.B.A. (E.M.B.A.)

program, a mainstay at most business schools

today.

216 M.B.B.S.

Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of

Surgery (Medicinæ Baccalaureus et

Baccalaureus Chirurgiæ)

Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of

Surgery, or in Latin Medicinæ Baccalaureus

et Baccalaureus Chirurgiæ (abbreviated M.B.

B.Chir., M.B. B.Ch., M.B. Ch.B., B.M. B.S.,

M.B. B.S. etc.), are the two degrees awarded

after a course of study in medicine and surgery

at a university in the United Kingdom and other

places following its usage, such as medical

schools in Australia, Hong Kong, Malaysia,

Singapore, New Zealand, Jamaica, South

Africa, Pakistan and India. The naming

suggests that they are two separate degrees;

however in practice they are usually treated as

one.

35

217 M.C.B. Master of Clinical Biochemistry See glossary

218 M.C.E. Master of Christian Education;

Master of Civil Engineering See glossary

219 M.Cl.Sc. Master of Clinical Sciences

Master is a person holding an academic degree

higher than a Bachelor’s but lower than a

Doctor’s

220 M.C.L. Master of Comparative Law See glossary

221 M.C.M. Master of Church Music See glossary

222 M.C.P. Master of City Planning See glossary

223 M.C.S. Master of Computer Science See glossary

224 M.D. Medicinae Doctor (Doctor of Medicine)

Doctor of Medicine (M.D. or MD , from the

Latin Medicinæ Doctor) is an academic degree

for medical doctors. It varies between

countries, from being an entry-level

professional degree, to being a relatively rare

higher doctoral research degree.

225 M.Div. Master of Divinity

In Christian theology, the Master of Divinity is

the first professional degree in Divinity in

North America, and is a common academic

degree in theological seminaries. In many

Christian denominations, and of some other

religions, this degree is the standard

prerequisite for ordination to the priesthood or

pastorship or other appointment, ordination or

licensing to professional ministry. At most

seminaries this degree requires around 90 credit

hours of study. It generally includes studies in

Christian ministry and theology. Coursework

usually includes studies in New Testament

Greek, theology, philosophy, church history,

pastoral theology, and Old and New Testament

studies. Many programs also contain courses in

church growth, ecclesiology, evangelism,

systematic theology, Christian education,

liturgical studies, Latin, Hebrew, canon law,

patristics, and the like. Courses in pastoral

counseling and psychology are also standard

parts of an M.Div. program. In addition, the

degree may or may not include a thesis.

226 M.Ed. Master of Education The Master of Education (M.Ed. or M.A.E.) is

a degree conferred by American institutions for

36

educators moving on in their field. Most states

require a Master's-level degree and the

certificate that goes with that work to be hired

for educational administration (principal,

assistant principal, dean, consultant, etc). For

the superintendent level, typically that required

Doctoral-level work to be completed. Another

issue is that most states require continuing

course work in order for teachers to maintain

certification (especially since No Child Left

Behind requirements were implemented in

2001). Admission into a Master's-level program

typically required a Bachelors of Education

(B.S., B.A., or B.Ed) and several years'

experience in an elementary, secondary, or

special education classroom. Education

programs tend to have strict standards to stay in

the program and often take more time to

complete than other programs.

227 M.E.P. Master of Environmental Planning See glossary

228 M.F.A. Master of Fine Arts

A Master of Fine Arts is a graduate degree in

an area of applied or performing arts typically

requiring two to three years of study beyond the

bachelor level. Coursework is primarily of an

applied or performing nature (versus research

and academic inquiry) with the program often

culminating in a major work or performance.

Common fields of study include Theater,

Creative Writing, Filmmaking, and Visual Arts.

229 M.F.R. Master of Forest Resources See glossary

230 M.H. Master of Humanities Humanities the branches of learning having

primarily a cultural character

231 M.H.A. Master of Health Administration

The Master of Health Administration is a

postgraduate professional Masters degree that

provides training in health policy, economics,

project and program implementation. It is

designed to give graduates of health disciplines

(in particular) greater understanding of

management issues and prepare them for senior

management roles, and is awarded by many

American, European and Australian

universities. The degree traditionally focuses on

37

health administration at the local, state, and

federal level as well as in the nonprofit sector.

This contrasts with the generalist Master of

Business Administration or the Master of

Public Administration.

232 M.H.E. Master of Home Economics See glossary

233 M.H.P. Master of Historic Preservation See glossary

234 M.H.S. Master of Health Science See glossary

235 M.H.S.A. Master of Health Services Administration See glossary

236 M.I.Biol. Member of the Institute of Biology See glossary

237 M.I.S. Master of Information Science See glossary

238 M.L.A. Master of Landscape Architecture See glossary

239 M.L.I.S. Master of Library and Information Studies or

Master of Library and Information Science

The Master of Library and Information

Science is a master’s degree required for most

professional librarian positions. The M.L.I.S. is

a relatively recent degree; an older and still

common degree designation for librarians to

acquire is the Master of Library Science, or

M.L.S. degree. The M.L.I.S. and M.L.S.

degrees are widely considered to be equivalent.

In the United Kingdom it is more common for a

vocational degree in library and information

science to bear the standard designation M.A.

or M.Sc.

240 M.Litt. Master of Letters (Magister Litterarum)

The Master of Letters is a postgraduate

Master's degree which has two main systems of

use. The M.Litt. (T) is a one-year full-time

taught degree at the ancient Scottish

universities. Usually, the degree involves nine

months of postgraduate-level courses, followed

by a short research dissertation written during

the summer months. Often the M.Litt. is

awarded here because for the ancient

universities the first degree in the Arts and

Humanities is an undergraduate M.A. (Hons),

and contrasts with the M.Phil. degree, a more

advanced one-year research Masters.

241 M.L.S. Master of Library Science See glossary

242 M.M. Master of Music

The Master of Music (M.M. or M.Mus.) is the

first graduate degree in Music. It is usually

earned after one or two years of further study

38

following the achievement of a first degree.

Some universities in the UK (e.g. Sheffield

University) utilise it as a special research

degree.

243 M.M.C. Master of Mass Communication See glossary

244 M.M.E. Master of Mechanical Engineering See glossary

245 M.M.Ed. Master of Music Education See glossary

246 M.Mus. Master of Music

The Master of Music (M.M. or M.Mus.) is the

first graduate degree in Music. It is usually

earned after one or two years of further study

following the achievement of a first degree.

Some universities in the UK (e.g. Sheffield

University) utilise it as a special research

degree.

247 M.Mus.Ed. Master of Music Education See glossary

248 M.O. Medical Officer See glossary

249 M.O.H. Master of Occupational Health See glossary

250 M.O.H. Medical Officer of Health See glossary

251 M.P.A. Master of Public Administration

The Master of Public Administration degree

is one of professional public affairs degrees that

provides training in public policy and

project/program implementation (more recently

known as public management).

252 M.P.A. Master of Public Affairs

The Master of Public Affairs historically has

been a professional Master's degree offered in

public policy schools that provides training in

public policy and the operation of government,

similar to a Master of Public Policy.

253 M.P.H. Master of Public Health

The Master of Public Health is a professional

master's degree awarded for studies in areas

related to public health. The Council on

Education for Public Health has accredited 37

schools of public health in the U.S. through a

formal review process, however, many other

schools have MPH programs.

254 M.Phil. Master of Philosophy

Philosophy all learning exclusive of technical

precepts and practical Arts (history, language,

etc.)

In the usage of the United Kingdom, United

States, Australia, New Zealand and some other

countries, the Master of Philosophy is a

39

research degree, requiring the completion of a

thesis. It is a lesser degree than the Doctor of

Philosophy (Ph.D.), greater than (or sometimes

equal to) the Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.,)

and in some instances may be awarded as a

substitute for a Ph.D. thesis, which is a

marginal fail. It may also serve as a provisional

enrolment for the Ph.D. It is generally thesis

only, and is regarded as a senior or second

master’s degree. An M.Phil. is generally

considered equivalent to the French Diplôme

d'études Approfondies or D.E.A., Spanish

Diploma de Estudios Avanzados D.E.A., or

First Doctoral Degree.

255 M.P.P. Master of Public Policy

The Master of Public Policy is a professional

Master's degree that provides training in policy

analysis and program evaluation at public

policy schools. Over time, the curriculum of

Master of Public Policy and the Master of

Public Administration (M.P.A.) degrees have

blended and converged, due to the realization

that policy analysis and program evaluation

could benefit from an understanding of public

administration, and vice versa. Today, the core

course offerings of many M.P.A. and M.P.P.

programs are similar, with M.P.A. programs

providing training in policy analysis, and

M.P.P. programs providing coursework in

program implementation. However, M.P.P.

programs still place more emphasis in policy

analysis, research and evaluation, while M.P.A.

programs place more emphasis on

operationalization of public policies and the

design of effective programs and projects to

achieve public policy goals. Some universities

have begun offering a combined M.P.P.A.

degree, Master of Public Policy and

Administration.

256 M.P.P.P.M. Master of Plant Protection and Pest

Management See glossary

257 M.P.S., or

M.Prof.Studs., or Master of Professional Studies

Master of Professional Studies is a (usually

terminal) interdisciplinary academic degree and

40

M.Prof.Studies. is sometimes used for programs that do not fit

into any traditional categories.

258 M.R.A.S. Member of the Royal Asiatic Society;

Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences See glossary

259 M.R.C.C. Member of the Royal College of Chemistry See glossary

260 M.R.C.P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians See glossary

261 M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons See glossary

262 M.R.C.V.S. Member of the Royal College of Veterinary

Surgeons See glossary

263 M.R.E. Master of Religious Education

The Master of Religious Education is a

terminal academic degree in preparation for

professional teaching ministry, usually offered

by Christian institutions. The curriculum

includes two years of theological study and

sometimes a thesis.

264 M.R.G.S. Member of the Royal Geographical Society See glossary

265 M.R.I. Member of the Royal Institution. See glossary

266 M.R.I.A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy See glossary

267 M.R.P. Master of Regional Planning See glossary

268 M.R.Pharm.S. Member of the Royal Society of Pharmasists See glossary

269 M.S. Master of Science; Master in Surgery;

The Master of Arts (Magister Artium) and

Master of Science (Magister Scientiæ) degrees

are the basic degree types in most subjects, and

may be either entirely course-based or entirely

research-based, or (more typically) a mixture.

The Master of Surgery is an advanced medical

degree. It is commonly abbreviated M.Ch. or

Ch.M. (as well as M.Chir. ) from its Latin

name, Magister Chirurgiae, as well as M.S. by

programs in India.

270 M.S.A.E. Master of Science in Aerospace Engineering See glossary

271 M.S.Bio.C. Master of Science in Biochemistry See glossary

272 M.S.C. Master of Science in Commerce See glossary

273 M.Sc. Master of Science

The Master of Arts (Magister Artium) and

Master of Science (Magister Scientiæ) degrees

are the basic degree types in most subjects, and

may be either entirely course-based or entirely

research-based, or (more typically) a mixture.

274 M.S.C.E. Master of Science in Chemical Engineering See glossary

275 M.S.C.E. Master of Science in Civil Engineering See glossary

41

276 M.S.Chem. Master of Science in Chemistry See glossary

277 M.S.C.J. Master of Science in Criminal Justice See glossary

278 M.S.C.S. Master of Science in Computer Science See glossary

279 M.S.E. Master of Science in Engineering See glossary

280 M.S.Ed. Master of Science in Education See glossary

281 M.S.E.E. Master of Science in Electrical Engineering See glossary

282 M.S.E.M. Master of Science in Environmental

Management

The M.E.M. (Master of Environmental

Management) is a degree designed for students

with primary interests in careers in

environmental policy and analysis, stewardship,

education, consulting, or management dealing

with natural resource or environmental issues.

The program requires course work in both the

natural and social sciences, with a particular

focus on the relationship among science,

management, and policy. The ultimate purpose

of the degree program is to prepare students to

address ecological and social systems with

scientific understanding and an ability to make

sense of the complex underlying social and

ecological context.

283 M.S.E.S.M. Master of Science in Engineering Science and

Mechanics See glossary

284 M.S.H.E.S.,

M.S.Hu.Env.Sci.

Master of Science in Human Environmental

Sciences See glossary

285 M.S.I.E. Master of Science in Industrial Engineering See glossary

286 M.S.I.S. Master of Science in Information Science See glossary

287 M.S.J. Master of Science in Journalism See glossary

288 M.S.L.S. Master of Science in Library Science See glossary

289 M.S.M. Master of Sacred Music See glossary

290 M.S.Marine Sc.,

M.S.M.Sci. Master of Science in Marine Science See glossary

291 M.S.M.E. Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering See glossary

292 M.S.Mh. Master of Science in Engineering Mechanics See glossary

293 M.S.Micro. Master of Science in Microbiology See glossary

294 M.S.Min.E. Master of Science in Mineral Engineering See glossary

42

295 M.S.Mt.E. Master of Science in Metallurgical

Engineering See glossary

296 M.S.N. Master of Science in Nursing See glossary

297 M.S.O.T. Master of Science in Occupational Therapy See glossary

298 M.S.P. Master of Science in Planning See glossary

299 M.S.P.H. Master of Science in Public Health See glossary

300 M.S.Sc. Master of Social Science

A Master of Social Science is a taught

Master's degree in the United Kingdom.

M.S.Sc. degrees are unusual, and are almost

always postgraduate in nature. Common

subjects that would lead to the award of

M.S.Sc. include, but are not limited to, social

work, criminology, politics and sociology.

301 M.S.S.W. Master of Science in Social Work See glossary

302 M.S.T. Master of Science Technology

Master of Science in Taxation

The Master of Science in Taxation is a

professional graduate degree (Master's degree)

specifically designed for Certified Public

Accountants (CPAs) and other tax

professionals.

See glossary

303 M.T.A. Master of Tax Accounting See glossary

304 M.T.S. Master of Theological Studies

A Master of Theological Studies is a two-year

first theological degree offered by several

seminaries and divinity schools. The degree is

generally equivalent to a Master of Arts degree

in religious studies. Unlike the Master of

Divinity, the Master of Theological Studies is

an academic degree, and its goal is not to

prepare one for ordination. As such, it does not

necessarily include field education or

coursework in ministry studies. It usually

requires the completion of a scholarly thesis.

305 M.S.W. Master of Social Work

The Master of Social Work is a type of

master's degree in the field of social work

which is received from a graduate school that

has been approved by the Council on Social

Work Education. The M.S.W. requires two

years of postgraduate study, in combination

with field experience. While some people get a

Bachelor of Social Work (B.S.W.) before

pursuing a Master's, most M.S.W. programs

43

accept applicants with undergraduate degrees in

broad range of liberal arts degrees.

306 M.Th. Master of Theology

In North America, the Master of Theology (Th.

M. or M.Th.) is a postgraduate master’s degree

which is sometimes earned after (or instead of)

a Master of Divinity (M.Div.) or a Master of

Theological Studies. This is generally a one or

two year specialized advanced degree in

theological research that many theology

students undertake in order to better prepare for

Th.D., D.Min. or Ph.D. programs. A

comparable degree, the Master of Sacred

Theology (S.T.M.), is offered at some

seminaries.

307 M.T.S. Master of Theological Studies

A Master of Theological Studies is a two-year

first theological degree offered by several

seminaries and divinity schools. The degree is

generally equivalent to a Master of Arts degree

in religious studies. Unlike the Master of

Divinity, the Master of Theological Studies is

an academic degree, and its goal is not to

prepare one for ordination. As such, it does not

necessarily include field education or

coursework in ministry studies. It usually

requires the completion of a scholarly thesis.

The Association of Theological Schools in the

United States and Canada accredits many such

programs.

308 M.U.P. Master of Urban Planning

The Master of Urban Planning is a two-year

academic/professional Master's degree that

qualifies graduates to work as urban planners.

Some schools offer the degree as a Master of

City Planning (M.C.P.), Master of Regional

Planning (M.R.P.), Master of Planning

(M.Plan.), or in some combination of the

aforementioned (e.g., Master of Urban and

Regional Planning), depending on the

program's specific focus. Yet other schools

offer a Master of Arts or Master of Science in

planning. Regardless of the name, the degree

remains generally the same.

309 Mus.B. Bachelor of Music A Bachelor of Music (B.M., B.Mus. or

44

Mus.B) is an undergraduate academic degree

awarded by a college, university, or

conservatory upon completion of program of

study in music. In the United States, the

Bachelor of Music is a professional degree; the

majority of work consists of prescribed music

courses and study in applied music, usually

requiring a proficiency performing an

instrument. Such a program lasts three to four

and a half years.

310 Mus.D. Doctor of Music

The Doctor of Music degree (D.Mus., Mus.D.

or Mus.Doc.), like other doctorates, is an

academic degree of the highest level. The

D.Mus. is intended for musicians and

composers who wish to combine the highest

attainments in their area of specialization with

doctoral-level academic study in music.

311 Mus.M. Master of Music

The Master of Music (M.M. or M.Mus.) is the

first graduate degree in Music. It is usually

earned after one or two years of further study

following the achievement of a first degree.

Some universities in the UK (e.g. Sheffield

University) utilise it as a special research

degree. Normal components includes a

dissertation, recital, portfolio and composition.

The degree often includes research training in

preparation for doctoral research.

312 Nuc.E. Nuclear Engineer

Nuclear engineering is the practical

application of the atomic nucleus gleaned from

principles of nuclear physics and the interaction

between radiation and matter. This field of

engineering includes the design, analysis,

development, testing, operation and

maintenance of nuclear fission systems and

components, specifically, nuclear reactors,

nuclear power plants and/or nuclear weapons.

The field can also include the study of nuclear

fusion, medical applications of radiation,

nuclear safety, heat transport, nuclear fuels

technology, nuclear proliferation, and the effect

of radioactive waste or radioactivity in the

environment.

45

313 O.D. Doctor of Optometry See glossary

314 Ph.B. Philosophiae Baccalaureus

(Bachelor of Philosophy)

Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.; occasionally

B.Ph. or Ph.B.) is the title of an academic

degree. Despite its name, in many universities –

for example, the University of Oxford – it is a

graduate degree.

315 Ph.D. Philosophiae Doctor (Doctor of Philosophy)

Doctor is person holding one of the highest

titles given by a university;

PhD is an advanced university degree

The preferred form for Ph.D. is to say a person

holds a doctorate in (name their field of

specialty). Second best is to say Doctor's

degree.

Doctor of Philosophy, alternatively, "Doctor

philosophiæ", D.Phil. (meaning "Teacher of

Philosophy"), is a doctoral degree granted upon

completion of extensive academic work in a

field of study. In medieval times, any research

outside the fields of theology or medicine was

called "philosophy", hence the Ph.D. degree

covers a wide range of subjects. Contemporary

Ph.D. degrees are awarded in nearly every field

of the sciences and the humanities. In most

countries Ph.D. students traverse phases; in the

first phase, students typically complete required

courses and a comprehensive examination, the

successful completion of which marks the

beginning of the second phase, and entitles the

student to refer to him or herself as a Ph.D.

candidate. The principal task of the doctoral

candidate is writing and defending a major,

original contribution to his or her academic

discipline—usually a written dissertation

ranging in length, per the discipline, from 50 to

800 pages (10,000–200,000 words).

Dissertations typically consist of (i) a

comprehensive literature review, (ii) an outline

of methodology, and (iii) several chapters of

scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or

literary analysis.

316 Ph.G. Graduate in Pharmacy –

317 Pharm.D. Doctor of Pharmacy In the United States the Pharm.D. (Doctor of

46

Pharmacy) degree is a first-professional degree

or professional doctorate that prepares the

graduate for pharmacy practice. The

multidisciplinary curriculum may focus on

pharmacy-biomedical sciences, pharmaceutical

sciences, social and administrative sciences,

pharmacy law and policy, clinical sciences and

experiential training. Entrance into a Pharm.D.

program generally does not require prior

completion of a college degree, although the

majority of accepted applicants hold one.

Typically, it takes a minimum of six academic

years after high school graduation to complete

the Pharm.D. program. Traditionally in the

United States, the bachelor's degree in

pharmacy was the first-professional degree for

pharmacy practice. However, in 1990, the

American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy

(AACP) mandated that a doctorate in pharmacy

would be the new first-professional degree. As

of the year 2000, all pharmacy schools in the

U.S. have discontinued the B.S.Pharm.

(Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy) degree

program.

318 P.M.O. Principal Medical Officer See glossary

319 Pod.D. Doctor of Podiatry See glossary

320 Prof. Professor

Professor is a faculty member of the highest

academic rank at an institution of higher

education

321 Psy.D. Doctor of Psychology

The Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degree is a

professional doctorate, which is earned through

one of two established training models for

Clinical Psychology. In the United States, the

other doctorate-level degree in Clinical

Psychology is the PhD.

322 S.B. Scientiae Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Science)

A Bachelor of Science (B.S., B.Sc. or less

commonly, S.B. or Sc.B. from the Latin

Scientiae Baccalaureus) is an undergraduate

academic degree awarded for completed

courses that generally last three years in

Australia, Austria, Croatia, Denmark, England,

Germany, Hong Kong, India, the Republic of

47

Ireland, Israel, Latvia, The Netherlands, New

Zealand, Northern Ireland, Poland, Quebec,

Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland,

Wales and South Africa; or four years in North

America, Iceland, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, the

Philippines, Scotland and Brazil. In North

America, a Bachelor of Science degree may be

a more specialized version of B.A., with more

focus on the subject and less on a broad liberal

arts background; for example, a B.S. in

economics may require several more advanced

economics courses than a B.A. in economics,

and possibly more support courses (such as

statistics). The B.S. is also frequently used for

professional areas of study such as engineering,

journalism, and advertising.

323 S.D. Doctor of Science

In the United Kingdom and Ireland and certain

other European countries, the degree of Doctor

of Science is one of the Higher Doctorates,

typically having precedence after Divinity,

Laws or Civil Law, Medicine, and Letters, and

above Music. The degree is conferred on a

member of the university who has a proven

record of internationally recognised

scholarship. A candidate for the degree will

usually be required to submit a selection of

their publications to the board of the

appropriate faculty, which will decide if the

candidate merits this accolade. The degree will

only exceptionally be awarded to a scholar

under the age of forty. The status of the degree

has declined because it is not widely

understood, but in former times the doctorate in

science was regarded as a greater distinction

than a professorial chair and hence a professor

who was also a DSc would be known as

Doctor. The introduction of the Ph.D. in the

twentieth century of course devalued the title

Doctor, and this practice is now defunct.

324 S.J.D. Doctor of Juridical Science;

Doctor of the Science of Law See doctor of laws

325 S.M. Scientiae Magister (Master of Science) See master's degree

48

326 S.M.D. Doctor of Sacred Music See glossary

327 S.Sc.D. Doctor of Social Science See glossary

328 S.T.B. Sacrae Theologiae Baccalaureus

(Bachelor of Sacred Theology) See glossary

329 S.T.M. Sacrae Theologiae Magister

(Master of Sacred Theology)

The Master of Sacred Theology (S.T.M.) is a

second level professional degree conferred by

seminaries and theological colleges. One must

normally have an M.Div. or an M.A. in a

religious or theological field before being

admitted to study for the S.T.M. The S.T.M.

typically is designed to enhance a student’s

academic credentials for entrance to a doctoral

program or as a way of furthering theological

education for ordained ministers. S.T.M.

degrees are typically awarded after having

completed thirty hours of study at the Master’s

level beyond that required for the first

professional degree. While the degree may be

awarded solely on the basis of taught academic

courses, most programs have the option for the

student to write a thesis. The thesis option is

especially helpful for those individuals who

wish to use the S.T.M. to further their

qualifications for doctoral study and who did

not complete a thesis or major research project

as a part of the first professional degree. Some

seminaries will also credit part of the work

done for the S.T.M. towards a student moving

on to the D.Min. degree once the S.T.M. has

been awarded.

330 Th.B. Theologicae Baccalaureus

(Bachelor of Theology)

The Bachelor of Theology (B.Th.; Th.B. or

Btheol) is a three to five year undergraduate

degree in theological disciplines. Candidates

for this degree typically must complete course

work in Greek or Hebrew, as well as systematic

theology, biblical theology, ethics, homiletics

and Christian ministry. It does not require a

thesis but is often a year longer than a Bachelor

of Religious Education or Bachelor of Arts. In

some denominations, notably the Church of

England, it is considered sufficient for formal

ordination.

49

331 Th.D. Theologicae Doctor

(Doctor of Theology)

Doctor of Theology (in Latin Theologiae

Doctor) is a terminal academic degree in

theology. It is a research degree and is

considered to be equivalent to a Doctor of

Philosophy. Traditionally, the Th.D. is

designed for Christian theological scholarship,

whereas Ph.D. is for the study of Christianity in

a secular context. Clear distinction between

Th.D. and Ph.D. are indicated in the

prerequisites of both programs at Harvard

Divinity School and Boston University School

of Theology (that is, both require a professional

degree in divinity such as the MDiv). However,

in recent decades there has been a trend in

some institutions (e.g., Princeton Theological

Seminary and Dallas Theological Seminary) to

replace Th.D with Ph.D programs in the same

fields.

332 Th.M. Theologicae Magister

(Master of Theology)

In North America, the Master of Theology

(Th. M. or M.Th.) is a postgraduate Masters

degree which is sometimes earned after (or

instead of) a Master of Divinity (M.Div.) or a

Master of Theological Studies. This is

generally a one or two year specialized

advanced degree in theological research that

many theology students undertake in order to

better prepare for Th.D., D.Min. or Ph.D.

programs. A comparable degree, the Master of

Sacred Theology (S.T.M.), is offered at some

seminaries.

50

Glossary

An actuary is a business professional who deals with the financial impact of risk and uncertainty.

Aerospace engineering is the branch of engineering that concerns aircraft, spacecraft, and related topics. Originally

called aeronautical engineering and dealing solely with aircraft, the broader term "aerospace engineering" has

replaced the former in most usage, as flight technology advanced to include craft operating outside the Earth's

atmosphere. In analogy with "aeronautical engineering", the branch is sometimes referred to as astronautical

engineering, although this term usually only concerns craft which operate in outer space.

Agricultural economics applies the principles of economics to the production of crops and livestock.

Agricultural engineers develop engineering science and technology in the context of agricultural production and

processing and for the management of natural resources. They apply their engineering knowledge and skills to solve

problems relating to sustainable agricultural production.

Agricultural extension was once known as the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural

practices through farmer education. The field of extension now encompasses a range of communication and learning

activities organised for rural people by professionals from different disciplines, including agriculture, health, and

business studies.

Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic, and

social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture.

Applied arts refers to the application of design and aesthetics to objects of function and everyday use. Whereas fine

arts serve as intellectual stimulation to the viewer or academic sensibilities, the applied arts incorporate design and

creative ideals to objects of utility, such as a cup, magazine or decorative park bench. The fields of industrial design,

graphic design, fashion design, interior design, decorative art and functional art are considered applied arts.

Arts 1. a branch of learning or university study especially one in the fine Arts or the humanities;

Art education is the area of learning that, in the United States of America, is based upon the visual, tangible arts—

drawing, painting, sculpture, and design in jewelry, pottery, weaving, fabrics, etc and design applied to more

practical fields such as commercial graphics and home furnishings. The term "arts education" implies many things,

but is definable as: Instruction and programming in any arts area — including the performing arts (dance, music,

theater) and visual arts, creative writing, media arts, history, criticism, and aesthetics. Within the schools "visual arts

education" encompasses all the visual and performing arts delivered in a standards-based, sequential approach by a

qualified instructor as part of the core curriculum.

Asian studies is a field in Cultural studies that is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life among

Asian peoples. Within the Asian sphere, Asian studies combines aspects of sociology, and cultural anthropology to

study cultural phenomena in Asian traditional and industrial societies. Asian studies forms a field of post-graduate

study in many universities.

Associate degree - An associate degree is an academic degree awarded by community colleges, junior colleges and

some bachelor's degree-granting colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study usually lasting two

years. Common abbreviations are A.A. (Associate of Arts), A.S. (Associate of Science), A.A.S. (Associate of

Applied Science; or in some cases, Associate of Arts and Sciences), A.O.S. (Associate of Occupational Studies),

A.B.A. (Associate of Business Administration), and A.G.S. (Associate of General Studies). In the United States and,

more rarely, Canada, an associate degree is equivalent to the first two years of a four-year college or university. It is

the lowest in the hierarchy of postsecondary academic degrees offered in these countries. It is also equivalent to the

UK's foundation degree. In 2000, Hong Kong introduced associate's degrees, as an equivalence to higher diplomas.

These programmes are mainly provided through affiliated colleges at universities. In 2004, Australia added

51

"associate degree" to the Australian Qualifications Framework. This title was given to more academically focused

advanced diploma courses. However, very few courses yet use the new title.

An avian veterinarian is a veterinarian who has undertaken additional training to treat birds. Birds are very

different in anatomy and physiology to dogs and cats, and to specialize in their treatment, a veterinary student must

seek out coursework and residencies that are beyond the scope of standard veterinary school.

A bachelor's degree (Artium Baccalaureus, A.B. or B.A.) is usually an undergraduate academic degree awarded for

a course or major that generally lasts for three, four, or in some cases and countries, five or six years. It may also be

the name of a postgraduate degree, such as a Bachelor of Civil Law (granted by the University of Oxford.)

Behavioral neuroscience is a field that relates behavior to bodily processes such as the inner workings of the brain.

The field is often referred to as biological psychology and psychobiology. Behavioral neuroscience is often

considered a subdiscipline within psychology or neuroscience. The main goal of behavioral neuroscience is the

understanding of behavior and experience in terms of their biological substrates.

Biological engineering (also biosystems engineering and bioengineering) deals with engineering biological

processes in general. It is a broad-based engineering discipline that also may involve product design, sustainability

and analysis of biological systems.

Building indoor environment covers the environmental aspects in the design, analysis, and operation of energy-

efficient, healthy, and comfortable buildings. Fields of specialization include architecture, HVAC design, thermal

comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ), lighting, acoustics, and control systems. In total, the indoor experience is known

as the indoor environmental quality (IEQ).

Canon law is the term used for the internal ecclesiastical law which governs various churches, most notably the

Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Anglican Communion of churches. The way that

such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of

churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a council (From Greek kanon / κανών, for

rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law.

Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the application of physical science, e.g.

chemistry, physics, and mathematics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or

valuable forms. As well as producing useful materials, chemical engineering is also concerned with pioneering

valuable new materials and techniques; an important form of research and development. A person employed in this

field is called a chemical engineer.

Chemical pathology (also known as clinical biochemistry or clinical chemistry) is the area of pathology that is

generally concerned with analysis of bodily fluids. The discipline originated in the late 19th century with the use of

simple chemical tests for various components of blood and urine. Subsequently other techniques were applied

including the use and measurement of enzyme activities, spectrophotometry, electrophoresis and immunoassay.

In modern usage, civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and

maintenance of fixed structures, or public works, as they are related to earth, water, or civilization and their

processes. Most civil engineering today deals with power plants, bridges, roads, railways, structures, water supply,

irrigation, the natural environment, sewer, flood control, transportation and traffic.

Child health nursing is an area of nursing and medical practice with a focus on providing holistic care to infants,

children and adolescents. It differs from paediatrics, in that the emphasis in paediatrics is ill-health and the

alleviation of symptoms or disease.

Church music or Christian music is music created by or adapted for the Christian church. It also includes

Contemporary Christian music, in which the music explores Christian themes but is designed to be played in places

52

other than churches. Music during service for many churches is a big part of the worship. Hymns are sung, psalms

are vocalized and spiritual songs are uplifted to praise God. Sometimes, musical instruments are played while

singing is implemented in the service. On the other hand, some times churches use just a cappella to worship God.

At times, just musical instruments are only used to express praise towards God. All of these ways are used by one

church or another in this period of time.

Child health nursing is an area of nursing and medical practice with a focus on providing holistic care to infants,

children and adolescents. It differs from paediatrics, in that the emphasis in paediatrics is ill-health and the

alleviation of symptoms or disease.

Chiropractic is a complementary and alternative health care profession which focuses on diagnosing, treating, and

preventing mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, their effects on the nervous system, and on general

health. Chiropractic's premise is that spinal joint misalignments, which chiropractors call vertebral subluxations, can

interfere with the nervous system and result in many different conditions of diminished health.[1] Their treatments

consist of a variety of techniques and methods which chiropractors refer to as spinal adjustments. In contrast, the

term subluxation, as used in conventional medicine, is usually associated with specific conditions which are a direct

consequence of injury to joints or associated nerves.

Civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and maintenance of

fixed structures, or public works, as they are related to earth, water, or civilization and their processes. Most civil

engineering today deals with power plants, bridges, roads, railways, structures, water supply, irrigation, the natural

environment, sewer, flood control, transportation and traffic. In essence, civil engineering may be regarded as the

profession that makes the world a more agreeable place in which to live.

Communication is not only the process of sharing information. Communication processes are in most cases sign-

mediated interactions which are governed by three levels of semiotic rules: Syntactic, pragmatic and semantic.

Therefore, communication is a kind of social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of

signs and a common set of semiotic rules. In a simplistic form, information is sent from a sender or encoder to a

receiver or decoder. In a more complex form feedback links a sender to a receiver. This requires a symbolic activity,

sometimes via a language. Communication development is the development of processes enabling one to understand

what others say(or sign, or write) and speak(or sign, or write), translate sounds and symbols into meaning and learn

the syntax of the language. Communication is based on the idea of respect, promises and the want for social

improvement.

Communications management is the systematic planning, implementing, monitoring, and revision of all the

channels of communication within an organization, and between organizations; it also includes the organization and

dissemination of new communication directives connected with an organization, network, or communications

technology. Aspects of communications management include developing corporate communication strategies,

designing internal and external communications directives, and managing the flow of information, including online

communication. New technology forces constant innovation on the part of communications managers.

Comparative law is the study of differences and similarities between the law of different countries. More

specifically, it involves study of the different legal systems in existence in the world, including the common law, the

civil law, socialist law, Islamic law, Hindu law, and Asian law. It includes the description and analysis of foreign

legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken. The importance of comparative law has increased

enormously in the present age of internationalism, economic globalisation and democratisation.

Computer science, or computing science, is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and

computation and their implementation and application in computer systems.[1][2][3] Computer science has many sub-

53

fields; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as computer graphics), while others (such as

computational complexity theory) relate to properties of computational problems. Still others focus on the

challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to

describing computations, while computer programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific

computational problems.

Creative Arts is the term used to describe multi-disciplinary forms of expression. It is generally used as an umbrella

for Dramaturgy, Music (Music theory, Music history, Musicology), Graphic Arts/Cartooning,

Mathematics/Egglepple, and the Visual arts.

Criminal justice refers to the system used by government to maintain social control, prevent crime, enforce laws,

and administer justice. Law enforcement (police), courts, and corrections are the primary agencies charged with

these responsibilities. When processing the accused through the criminal justice system, government must keep

within the framework of laws that protect individual rights. The pursuit of criminal justice is, like all forms of

"justice", "fairness" or "process", essentially the pursuit of an ideal.

Dental medicine or Dentistry is the art and science of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of conditions, diseases,

and disorders of the oral cavity, the maxillofacial region, and its associated structures as it relates to human beings.

A dentist is qualified to practice dentistry. In most countries, several years of training in a university (usually 4-8)

and some practical experience working with actual patients' dentition are required to become a qualified dentist. The

patron saint of dentists is Saint Apollonia, martyred in Alexandria by having all her teeth violently extracted.

Economics, as a social science, studies the production, distribution, and consumption of resources.

Electrical engineering (sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering) is a professional engineering

discipline that deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. The field first

became an identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century with the commercialization of the electric telegraph

and electrical power supply. The field now covers a range of sub-disciplines including those that deal with power,

optoelectronics, digital electronics, analog electronics, computer science, artificial intelligence, control systems,

electronics, signal processing and telecommunications.

Engineering is the application of scientific or mathematical principles to develop economical solutions to technical

problems, creating products, facilities, and structures that are useful to people.[1][2] One who practices engineering is

called an engineer, and those licensed to do so have formal designations such as Professional Engineer. Engineers

use imagination, judgment, and reasoning to apply science, technology, mathematics, and practical experience. The

result is the design, production, and operation of useful objects or processes. The broad discipline of engineering

encompasses a range of specialized subdisciplines that focus on the issues associated with developing a specific kind

of product, or using a specific type of technology.

Environmental health comprises those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that are determined by

physical, chemical, biological, social, and psychosocial factors in the natural environment. It also refers to the theory

and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling, and preventing those factors in the environment that can

potentially affect adversely the health of present and future generations.

Environmental planning is a relatively new field of study that aims to merge the practice of urban planning with

the concerns of environmentalism. Essentially speaking, while urban planners have traditionally factored in

economic development, transportation, sanitation, and other services into their decisions, environmental planners

add environmental (social, ecological & economic) outcomes as important factors in the decision-making process.

What exactly constitutes the "environment", however, is somewhat open to debate among these practitioners, as is

the exact scope of the intended environmental benefits. Chief concerns among environmental planners include the

54

encouragement of sustainable development, green building technologies, and the preservation of environmentally

sensitive areas.

Family and consumer sciences, human sciences, human ecology or home economics, is an academic discipline

which combines aspects of consumer science, nutrition, cooking, parenting and human development, interior

decoration, textiles, family economics, housing, apparel design and resource management as well as other related

subjects. Family and consumer sciences combines social science, including its emphasis on the well-being of

families, individuals, and communities, and natural science with its emphasis on nutrition and textile science. The

field as it is today originated from home economics; in the U.S. the discipline developed at Kansas State University

in 1882 and spread quickly to other land grant universities after women appealed to have their own niche while the

men studied subjects such as agriculture or shop.

Forest Resources - "The Forestry major prepares you for a broad range of career opportunities involving the

management, utilization or study of forest resources."

The Geological Society of London is a learned society based in England with the aim of "investigating the mineral

structure of the Earth". It is the oldest national geological society in the world and the largest in Europe with over

9000 Fellows entitled to the postnominal FGS - over 2000 of whom are Chartered Geologists (CGeol). The Society

is a Registered Charity, No 210161. The Society was founded in 1807. It was partly the outcome of a previous club

known as the Askesian Society, and among the more prominent founders were William Babington, Humphry Davy

and George Bellas Greenough. It received its Royal Charter in 1825 from George IV.

Health science is the discipline of applied science which deals with human and animal health. There are two parts to

health science: the study, research, and knowledge of health and the application of that knowledge to improve

health, cure diseases, and understanding how humans and animals function. Research builds primarily on the pure

sciences of biology, chemistry, and physics as well as social sciences (for example medical sociology). Other fields

which made an exceptionally significant contribution to the health sciences include biochemistry, biotechnology,

engineering, epidemiology, genetics, nursing, pharmacology, pharmacy, public health, and medicine. The health

sciences industry, a multi-billion dollar business, is a subset of the life sciences, medical care, and diagnosis

industries.

Historic preservation or Heritage management is the theory and practice of creatively maintaining the historic

built environment and controlling the landscape component of which it is an integral part. The Secretary of the

Interior of the U.S. government defines the historic environment as districts, sites, buildings, structures, objects, and

landscapes which are significant in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture.

Home Economics – Consumer Economics, as a field of research and an acamedic major, is a branch of both

Consumer Science and Economics. It is a broad field, principally concerned with microeconomic analysis behavior

in units of consumers, families, or individuals (in contrast to traditional economics, which primarily government or

business units). It sometimes also encompasses family financial planning and policy analysis. The term largely

describes what was more commonly called "Home Economics" in the past.

Hygiene and Good Habits are commonly understood as preventing infection through cleanliness. In broader call,

scientific terms hygiene is the maintenance of health and healthy living. Hygiene ranges from personal hygiene,

through domestic up to occupational hygiene and public health; and involves healthy diet, cleanliness, and mental

health.

Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering that concerns the development, improvement, implementation

and evaluation of integrated systems of people, knowledge, equipment, energy, material and process. Industrial

engineering draws upon the principles and methods of engineering analysis and synthesis, as well as mathematical,

55

physical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design to specify,

predict and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems. Industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of

time, money, materials, energy and other resources.

Information science (a.k.a. information studies) is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the

collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.[1] Information science

studies the application and usage of knowledge in organizations, and the interaction between people, organizations

and information systems. It is often, though not exclusively, studied as a branch of computer science or informatics

and is closely related to the cognitive and social sciences.

Information Technology (IT ) known as Information and Communication(s) Technology (ICT ) and Infocomm

in Asia is concerned with the use of technology in managing and processing information, especially in large

organizations. In particular, IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store,

protect, process, transmit, and retrieve information. For that reason, computer professionals are often called IT

specialists or Business Process Consultants, and the division of a company or university that deals with software

technology is often called the IT department. Other names for the latter are information services (IS) or management

information services (MIS), managed service providers (MSP).

The Institute of Actuaries is one of the two professional bodies representing actuaries in the United Kingdom. The

Institute is based in England, while the other body, the Faculty of Actuaries, is based in Scotland. While the Institute

and Faculty of actuaries are separate institutions, they work very closely together, and the professional qualifications

and professional standards for actuaries are identical in each of them.

The Institute of Biology (IoB) is a professional body for biologists, primarily those working in the United

Kingdom. Membership currently stands around 14,000. It was founded in 1950, received a Royal Charter in 1979

and holds charitable status. The headquarters of the Institue is located in Kensington, London, near to the Natural

History Museum and Imperial College London. The IoB is not a trade union, nor does it have regulatory power over

its membership, like the General Medical Council.

The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England & Wales (ICAEW) is the largest English and Welsh

accountancy body for chartered accountants and auditors, with over 128,000 members. There is, however, no legal

requirement for an accountant to be a member of one of the many Institutes as the term accountant does not have the

same legal protection in the United Kingdom as that given to, say, doctors and lawyers. There are, though, certain

legal rights and duties which are available to professionally qualified accountants. For example, individuals who

operate in the areas of audit and insolvency must be registered and only members of certain chartered accountancy

bodies (such as the ICAEW) are eligible for such registration. Likewise individuals who describe themselves as

"chartered accountants" must be a member of an accountancy body which holds a 'Royal Charter' and if working in

public practice these chartered accountants must comply with additional regulations such as holding indemnity

insurance and submitting to regular and independent inspections.

Journalism is a discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying, and presenting news regarding current events, trends,

issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists. Since the beginning of the 20th Century,

most journalists have traditionally been paid professionals holding a degree in this field. However, since the late

1990s, the Internet has given birth to a new form of citizen journalists.

Landscape architecture is the art, planning, design, management, preservation and rehabilitation of the land and

the design of human-made constructs. The scope of the profession includes architectural design, site planning,

housing estate development, environmental restoration, town or urban planning, urban design, parks and recreation

56

planning, regional planning, and historic preservation. A practitioner in the field of landscape architecture is called a

landscape architect.

Library science or library and information science (abbreviated LIS) is the study of issues related to libraries and

the information fields. This includes academic studies regarding how library resources are used and how people

interact with library systems. These studies tend to be specific to certain libraries at certain times. The organization

of knowledge for efficient retrieval of relevant information is also a major research goal of LIS. Basic topics in LIS

include the acquisition, cataloging, classification, and preservation of library materials. In a more present-day view,

a fervent outgrowth of LIS is information architecture. LIS should not be confused with information theory, the

mathematical study of the concept of information, or information science, a field related to computer science and

cognitive science.

Licentiate is the title of a person who holds an academic degree called a license. It exists in various African,

European and Latin American countries and represents different educational levels.

The term "management" characterizes the process of and/or the personnel leading and directing all or part of an

organization (often a business) through the deployment and manipulation of resources (human, financial, material,

intellectual or intangible).

Maritime Studies - Seamanship is the art of operating a ship or boat.

Marine science is a multidisciplinary field of study and research of ocean life and physics. Overlap areas between

the different marine science disciplines are increasingly targeted as it seems necessary to investigate these areas in

order to fully understand the workings of the marine environment.

Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of various means by which individuals and

entities relay information to large segments of the population all at once through mass media. In the United States,

many university journalism departments evolved into schools or colleges of mass communication or "journalism and

mass communication," as reflected in the names of two major academic organizations. In addition to studying

practical skills of journalism, public relations or advertising, students also may major in "mass communication" or

"mass communication research." The latter is often the title given to doctoral studies in such schools, whether the

focus of the student's research is journalism practice, history, law or media effects. Departmental structures within

such colleges may separate research and instruction in professional or technical aspects of newspaper and magazine

publishing, radio, television, and film. Mass communication research includes media institutions and processes, such

as diffusion of information, and media effects, such as persuasion or manipulation of public opinion.

Mechanical engineering is a professional engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of

physics for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It requires a solid

understanding of key concepts including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics and energy. Practitioners of

mechanical engineering, known as mechanical engineers, use these principles and others in the design and analysis

of automobiles, aircraft, heating & cooling systems, buildings and bridges, industrial equipment and machinery, and

more.

The chief medical officer is an official in the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom who regularly advises

their respective government on health related matters. Such a person is the most senior advisor on health matters in

both systems of government, and the term has also found some usage in non-government circles such as policing. In

England, the CMO is a member of the board of the National Health Service (NHS), a civil servant in the Department

of Health, and head of the medical civil service.

Medical Science or Medicine is a branch of health science and the sector of public life concerned with maintaining

or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, treatment and possible prevention of disease and injury. It is

57

both an area of knowledge – a science of body systems, their diseases and treatment – and the applied practice of

that knowledge.

Medical technology refers to the diagnostic or therapeutic application of science and technology to improve the

management of health conditions. Technologies may encompass any means of identifying the nature of conditions

and intervening with devices, pharmacological, biological or other methods to increase life span and/or improve the

quality of life.

Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical

behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys.

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. This

includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes such as bacteria and certain algaes. Viruses, though

not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied.

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, usually (but not always)

from an ore body, vein, or (coal) seam. Materials recovered by mining include bauxite, coal, copper, gold, silver,

diamonds, iron, precious metals, lead, limestone, nickel, phosphate, oil shale, rock salt, tin, uranium, and

molybdenum. Any material that cannot be grown from agricultural processes must be mined. Mining in a wider

sense can also include extraction of petroleum, natural gas, and even water.

Missiology, or mission science, is the area of practical theology which investigates the mandate, message and work

of the Christian missionary. Missiology is a multidisciplinary and crosscultural reflection on all aspects of the

propagation of the Christian faith, embracing theology, anthropology, history, geography, theories and methods of

communication, comparative religion, Christian apologetics, methodology, and interdenominational relations.

Music education comprises the application of education methods in teaching music. Music education encompasses

many areas of teaching, including music history, music theory, instrumental proficiency, singing skills, and general

music skills.

Nursing is a profession focused on assisting individuals, families, and communities in attaining, re-attaining, and

maintaining optimal health and functioning. Modern definitions of nursing define it as a science and an art that

focuses on promoting quality of life as defined by persons and families, throughout their life experiences from birth

to care at the end of life.

Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the safety, health

and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. As a secondary effect OSH may also protect employers,

customers, suppliers, and members of the public who may experience an impact from the workplace environment.

Occupational therapy (OT) is an applied science and health profession that provides skilled treatment to help

individuals develop, regain or maintain the skills necessary to participate in all facets of their lives. OT gives people

the "skills for the job of living" necessary for living meaningful and satisfying lives.

Optometry (Greek: optos meaning seen or visible and metria meaning measurement) is the health care profession

concerned with examination, diagnosis, and treatment of the eyes and related structures and with determination and

correction of vision problems using lenses and other optical aids

Osteopathy is a theory of disease and method of cure founded on the assumption that deformation of some part of

the skeleton and consequent interference with the adjacent nerves and blood-vessels are the cause of most diseases.

(Oxford English Dictionary). Practitioners of osteopathy, called osteopaths (or osteopathic physicians in the US),

have a holistic approach; osteopathic philosophy requires addressing the whole person in diagnosis, prevention and

treatment of illness, disease and injury, using manual and physical therapies (Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine, or

OMM).

58

Pest control refers to the regulation or management of another species defined as a pest, usually because it is

believed to be detrimental to a person's health, the ecology or the economy.

Pharmacy (from the Egyptian φάρµακον = drug) is a transitional field between health sciences and chemical

sciences and a profession charged with ensuring the safe use of medication. Traditionally, pharmacists have

compounded and dispensed medications on the orders of physicians. More recently, pharmacy has come to include

other services related to patient care including clinical practice, medication review, and drug information. Some of

these new pharmaceutical roles are now mandated by law in various legislatures. Pharmacists, therefore, are drug

therapy experts, and the primary health professionals who optimise medication management to produce positive

health-outcomes.

A physician is a person who practices biological medicine. In the United States, the term physician is commonly

used to describe all medical doctors. In Britain, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Africa, India,

Indonesia, Republic of China (Taiwan), Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Zimbabwe and Hong Kong, the term

doctor is prevalent (and in formal/legal contexts, medical practitioner as well), as physician refers to specialists in

internal medicine.

Podiatry or "Podiatric Medicine" is a field of healthcare devoted to the study and treatment of disorders of the foot,

ankle, and sometimes knee, leg and hip (collectively known as the lower extremity). The terms podiatry and

chiropody are not interchangeable, with the word chiropody being most used in the UK, and podiatry in the US.

Public administration can be broadly described as the study and implementation of policy. As a moral endeavor,

public administration is linked to pursuing the public good through the creation of civil society and social justice.

The adjective 'public' often denotes 'government', though it increasingly encompasses Non-governmental

organizations such as those of civil society or any entity and its management not specifically acting in self-interest.

Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis.

Health is defined and promoted differently by many organizations. The World Health Organization, the United

Nations body that sets standards and provides global surveillance of disease, defines health as: "A state of complete

physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." Public health experts

agree this definition is incomplete. Other components included in an individual's health are nutritional, spiritual, and

intellectual.

The Royal Academy of Music (sometimes abbreviated to RAM) is a music school in London, England and one of

the leading music institutions in the world. It was founded by Lord Burghersh in 1822 and in 1830 was granted a

Royal Charter by King George IV 'to promote the cultivation of the science of music and to afford facilities for

attaining perfection in it by assisting with general instruction all persons desirous of acquiring knowledge thereof'.

One of the most revered musical education establishments in the world, many important musicians have studied at

the Academy since then.

Founded in 1866 The Royal Aeronautical Society, also known as the RAeS, is a multidisciplinary professional

institution dedicated to the global aerospace community. The objectives of The Royal Aeronautical Society include;

to support and maintain the highest professional standards in all aerospace disciplines; to provide a unique source of

specialist information and a local forum for the exchange of ideas; and to exert influence in the interests of

aerospace in both the public and industrial arenas.

The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (RAS) was, according to its Royal Charter of August 11,

1824, established to further "the investigation of subjects connected with and for the encouragement of science

literature and the arts in relation to Asia." From its incorporation the Society has been a forum, through lectures, its

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journal, and other publications, for scholarship relating to Asian culture and society of the highest level. It is the

United Kingdom's senior learned society in the field of Asian studies.

A Royal Charter is a charter given by a monarch to legitimize an incorporated body, such as a city, company,

university or such. In medieval Europe, cities were the only place where it was legal to conduct commerce, and

Royal Charters were the only way to establish a city. The year a city was chartered is considered the year the city

was "founded", irrespective of whether there was settlement there before.

A Royal College in some Commonwealth of Nations countries is technically a college which has received a Royal

Charter to add the prefix Royal to its name. The charter normally confers a constitution with perpetual succession

and the right to sue or be sued independently of the members from time to time, and rights of recourse to the Queen

in Council. Although incorporation is now cheaply and easily obtainable by registration, the distinction of a Royal

Charter means that such charters are still sought by and granted to institutions considered to be in the public interest,

typically learned professional societies.

The Royal College of Art (RCA) is a university in London, England, housed in the Darwin Building in Kensington

Gore, South Kensington. It is the world’s only wholly postgraduate art and design institution, offering the degrees of

M.A., M.Phil. and Ph.D. The college was founded in 1837, and was then known as the Government School of

Design. It became the National Art Training School in 1853, and in 1896 received the name The Royal College of

Art. After 130 years in operation, the RCA was granted a Royal Charter in 1967, which gave it the status of an

independent university with the power to grant its own degrees.

The Royal College of Chemistry (RCC) was a college originally based on Oxford Street in central London,

England. It existed between 1845 and 1872.The college was set up to teach practical chemistry. Many politicians

donated funds to establish the college, including Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone and Robert Peel. It was also

supported by Prince Albert.

The Royal College of Music is a prestigious music school located in Kensington, London.

Founded in 1882 as a successor to the National Training School for Music by the then-Prince of Wales (later

Edward VII), the school opened in 1883 with George Grove as its director. It moved to its present location in the

Albertopolis cultural quarter, next to Imperial College London and opposite the Royal Albert Hall in 1894. In the

same year Hubert Parry became director, remaining until 1918. The college teaches all aspects of western classical

music from undergraduate to doctorate level. There is a Junior Department, where 300 children aged 8 to 18 are

educated on Saturdays. It also has an extensive museum of musical instruments which is open to the public.

The Royal College of Organists or RCO, is an educational body of the United Kingdom. Its role is to promote

organ and choral music and it offers musical education and training for organists and choral directors. The College

maintains the British Organ Library and provides examinations in organ-playing, choral directing and organ-

teaching. These exams are legendary for their exhausting standards and tiny pass rates. They have been criticised by

many distinguished organists for their 19th-century austerity and elitist approach.

The Royal College of Physicians of London is the oldest medical institution in England was founded in 1518 and

is one of the most active of all medical professional organisations. Since the College's creation as the College of

Physicians (it acquired the "Royal" prefix in 1674) by royal charter of King Henry VIII in 1518, it has engaged in a

wide range of activities dedicated to its overall aim of upholding and improving standards of medical practice. Its

membership (and the MRCP(UK) title) is obtained by doctors who have completed the Membership of the Royal

College of Physicians exams. Fellows (the FRCP title) are elected. The Licentiate of the Royal College of

Physicians (LRCP) is no longer awarded.

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The Royal College of Science was a higher education institution located in South Kensington; it was a constituent

college of Imperial College London from 1907 until it was wholly absorbed by Imperial in 2002. Alumni include H.

G. Wells and Brian May and are distinguishable by the letters ARCS (Associate of the Royal College of Science)

after their name. Organisations linked with the college include the Royal College of Science Union and the Royal

College of Science Association. The Royal College of Science originated in classes run by the Science and Art

Department. Like the South Kensington Museum, the Science and Art Department benefited from land acquired for

"educational purposes" by the commissioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851. The South Kensington classes

became increasingly well-regarded under the influence of T.H. Huxley.

The Royal College of Surgeons of England is an independent professional body committed to promoting and

advancing the highest standards of surgical care for patients, regulating surgery, including dentistry, in England and

Wales. The College is located at Lincoln's Inn Fields in London.

The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons is the regulatory body for veterinary surgeons in the United Kingdom.

Established in 1844 by Royal Charter, its statutory duties are laid out in the 1966 Veterinary Surgeons Act.

The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) is a professional body for architects in the United Kingdom.

Originally named the Institute of British Architects in London, it was formed in 1834 by several prominent

architects, including Philip Hardwick, Thomas Allom, William Donthorne, Thomas Leverton Donaldson and John

Buonarotti Papworth. It was awarded a Royal Charter in 1837, becoming the Royal Institute of British Architects in

London, eventually dropping the reference to London in 1892. The RIBA is a member organisation, with 30,000

members. Chartered Members are entitled to append the letters RIBA after their name; Student Members are not

permitted to do so. A fellow of the institute may add FRIBA.

The Royal Photographic Society was founded in the United Kingdom in 1853 "to promote the Art and Science of

Photography". It offers various levels of qualifications in photographic skills and runs an extensive programme of

lectures and events throughout the United Kingdom and abroad, through local groups and special interest groups.

The Society owns a major historic collection of photographs, photographic equipment and books which was

deposited with the National Media Museum in Bradford.

Royal School of Mines comprises the departments of Earth Science and Engineering, and Materials at Imperial

College London. The Royal School of Mines was established in 1851, as the Government School of Mines and

Science Applied to the Arts. The Royal College of Chemistry was merged into it in 1853. The School developed

from the Museum of Economic Geology, a collection of minerals, maps and mining equipment made by Sir Henry

De la Beche, and opened in 1841. The Museum also provided some student places for the study of mineralogy and

metallurgy. Sir Henry was the director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and when the collections outgrew

the premises the Museum and the Survey were placed on an official footing, with Government assistance. The

Museum of Practical Geology and the Government School of Mines Applied to the Arts opened in a purpose

designed building in Jermyn Street in 1851. The officers of the Geological Survey became the lecturers and

professors of the School of Mines. The name was changed in 1863 to the Royal School of Mines, and was moved to

South Kensington in 1872, leaving the Museum of Practical Geology behind in Jermyn Street. In 1907, the RSM

was incorporated into Imperial College of Science and Technology, but remains a "Constituent College" of Imperial.

The current Dean of the Royal School of Mines is Professor John Monhemius.

The Royal Scottish Academy is Scotland’s premier organisation promoting contemporary Scottish art. Founded in

1826, the RSA maintains a unique position in Scotland as an independently funded institution lead by eminent artists

and architects whose purpose is to promote and support the creation, understanding and enjoyment of the visual arts

through exhibitions and related educational events.

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The Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland is a learned society based in Ireland, whose aims are 'to preserve,

examine and illustrate all ancient monuments and memorials of the arts, manners and customs of the past, as

connected with the antiquities, language, literature and history of Ireland'. Founded in 1849, it has a countrywide

membership from all four provinces of Ireland. The affairs of the Society are conducted by the President, Officers

and Council, whose services are entirely voluntary. Anyone subscribing to the aims of the Society, subject to

approval by Council, may be elected to membership. Current and past members have included historians,

archaeologists and linguists, but the Society firmly believes in the importance of encouraging an informed general

public, and many members are non-professionals.

The Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (RSA) is a British multi-

disciplinary institution, based in London. The name Royal Society of Arts is frequently used by others for brevity,

but the Society itself uses either its full name or the initials RSA (not least in the letters Fellows of the Society use

after their name – FRSA). It was founded in 1754 and was granted a Royal Charter in 1847. Notable members have

included Benjamin Franklin, Karl Marx, Adam Smith, William Hogarth, Charles Dickens and Guglielmo Marconi.

The Royal Society of Literature is the "senior literary organisation in Britain." It was founded in 1820 by George

IV, with the aim to "reward literary merit and excite literary talent." The Society has an annual magazine, RSL, and

administers a number of literary prizes and awards, including the Ondaatje Prize, the Jerwood Awards and the V. S.

Pritchett Memorial Prize. It can confer the honour of Companion of Literature for writers of particular note. It also

awards the Benson Medal for lifetime service in the field of literature.

Sacred music is the common Anglicized term for music related to religious rituals.

The social sciences are a group of academic disciplines that study human aspects of the world. They diverge from

the arts and humanities in that the social sciences tend to emphasize the use of the scientific method in the study of

humanity, including quantitative and qualitative methods. The social sciences, in studying subjective, inter-

subjective and objective or structural aspects of society, are sometimes referred to as soft sciences. This is in contrast

to hard sciences, which may focus exclusively on objective aspects of nature. Social scientists engage in research

and theorize about both group and individual behaviors.

A social welfare provision refers to any government program which seeks to provide a minimum level of income,

service or other support for disadvantaged groups such as the poor, elderly, disabled and students. Social welfare

payments and services are typically provided free of charge or at a nominal fee, and are funded by the state, or by

compulsory enrollment of the poor themselves.

Social workers are concerned with social problems, their causes, their solutions and their human impacts. Social

workers work with individuals, families, groups, organizations and communities, as members of a profession which

is committed to social justice and human rights.

Surgery (from the Greek cheirourgia meaning "hand work") is the medical specialty that treats diseases or injuries

by operative manual and instrumental treatment. Surgeons may be physicians, dentists, or veterinarians who

specialize in surgery. A surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a

physician, dentist, or veterinarian.

Technology is a word with origins in the Greek word technologia (τεχνολογία), techne (τέχνη) "craft" and logia

(λογία) "saying." It is a broad term dealing with the use and knowledge of humanity's tools and crafts.

Urban, city, or town planning is the discipline of land use planning which explores several aspects of the built and

social environments of municipalities and communities. Other professions deal in more detail with a smaller scale of

development, namely architecture, landscape architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still

larger environment, at a less detailed level.