dietary fat intakes in irish adults in 2011: how much has ......dietary fat intakes in irish adults...

Dietary fat intakes in Irish adults in 2011: how much has changed in 10 years?

Kaifeng Li1, Breige A. McNulty1, Ann M. Tiernery1, Niamh F. C. Devlin1, Triona Joyce1, Joao C. Leite1,Albert Flynn2, Janette Walton2, Lorraine Brennan1, Michael J. Gibney1 and Anne P. Nugent1*1School of Agriculture and Food Science, Institute of Food and Health, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland2School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland

(Submitted 9 June 2015 – Final revision received 1 February 2016 – Accepted 11 February 2016 – First published online 21 March 2016)

AbstractImbalances in dietary fat intakes are linked to several chronic diseases. This study describes dietary intakes and food sources of fat and fattyacids in 1051 Irish adults (aged 18–90 years), using data from the 2011 national food consumption survey, the National Adult Nutrition Survey.It also compares current intakes for 18–64-year-olds with those reported in the last such survey in 2001, the North/South Ireland FoodConsumption Survey. Dietary fat intakes were estimated using data from 4-d semi-weighed (2011) and 7-d estimated (2001) food diaries.In 2011, intakes for 18–64-year-olds were as follows: total fat, 34·1 (SD 6·1)% total energy (%TE); SFA, 13·3 (SD 3·3)%TE; MUFA, 12·5 (SD 2·6)%TE; PUFA, 6·1 (SD 2·2)%TE; and trans-fat, 0·511 (SD 0·282)%TE. Apart from MUFA, intakes decreased (P< 0·001) compared with 2001.There was no statistically significant difference in intakes of EPA and DHA by 18–64-year-olds in 2011 (269·0 (SD 515·0)mg/d) and 2001(279·1 (SD 497·5)mg/d). In 2011, adults aged >65 years had the highest intakes of SFA; however, intakes were typically higher thanUK-recommended values for all groups. In contrast, intakes of long-chain n-3 fatty acids were lowest in younger age groups. Intakes oftrans-fat were well within UK-recommended levels. Although there have been some improvements in the profile of intakes since 2001,imbalances persist in the quantity and quality of dietary fat consumed by Irish adults, most notably for total and SFA and for younger agegroups for long-chain n-3 fatty acids.

Key words: Dietary fats: Fatty acid intakes: n-3 Fatty acids: SFA: Trans-fat

The macronutrient fat is an important source of energy in thediet in addition to being an essential component of cell mem-branes and precursor to signalling molecules(1). In 1950s, Keyset al. reported that a high-fat diet may lead to CHD and ather-osclerosis(2,3). Subsequent research has identified that imbal-ances in dietary fat intake are related to risk factors for a numberof chronic diseases – for example, elevated intakes of SFAincrease circulating LDL-cholesterol concentrations and risk ofCVD(4), whereas long-chain n-3 PUFA confer benefits tometabolic health(5) and age-related functional decline(6).On the basis of such evidence, global, regional and national

competent organisations or authorities have formulated dietaryreference values (DRV) or recommendations to guide publichealth policy relating to total fat and each of fat type. Globally,the World Health Organization(7) established recommendationsfor total fat intake of 15–35% total energy (%TE), SFA of

reported in 2001 to characterise any changes that may haveoccurred in fat intakes in the intervening 10-year period.

Methods

Study populations

The analysis for this paper is based on data from twocross-sectional national food surveys of Irish adults: NANS andNSIFCS(24,26). The NANS (2011) and the NSIFCS (2001)examined the habitual food and beverage consumption ofrepresentative samples of Irish adults during the periods2008–2010 and 1997–1999, respectively (2011: n 1500, 740 menand 760 women aged 18–90 years; 2001: n 1379, 662 men and717 women aged 18–64 years). The response rates were 60 and63% in 2011 and 2001, respectively, with the high level ofresearcher–participant interaction helping maintain responserates and compliance in both surveys (three to four visits perparticipant over the survey periods). The sample sizes(1500 and 1379) were chosen to represent a population of overfour million people and to deliver at least 100 individuals in theleast populated age and sex subgroups. There were fewexclusion criteria, other than pregnancy/lactation and inabilityto complete the survey because of disability. Analysis of bothsamples has shown them to be representative of the Irish adultpopulation with respect to age, sex, social class and urban/rurallocation when compared with the relevant Irish censuses, asdescribed by Irish Universities Nutrition Alliance in 2001 and2011(24,26). Both studies were conducted according to theguidelines laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki, withinformed consent obtained from all subjects. All proceduresinvolving human subjects were approved by relevant commit-tees, with full details of the sampling procedures and studyprotocols described elsewhere(27,28).

Food intake assessment

In 2011, food, beverage and supplement intake was determinedusing a 4-d semi-weighed food record recorded at brand levelwhere possible. Participants were also asked to retain thepackaging of all foods, beverages and supplements consumed.After quantification(26), initial energy and nutrient analysis wasconducted using the Weighed Intake Software Program version3.0 (Tinuviel Software), which uses data from McCance andWiddowson’s The Composition of Foods, fifth and sixth editionsplus all nine supplemental volumes to generate nutrient intakedata, as described elsewhere(26). If necessary, adjustments weremade to account for recipes, nutritional supplements, com-monly consumed generic Irish foods and new foods to themarket. The final food consumption database was initiallyexamined to identify those foods/drinks containing fat.Accompanying databases were created for recipes and for foodsupplements at brand level. In contrast, the 2001 surveyassessed food and nutrient intake using a 7-d estimated foodrecord(24). Although the recording methods differed slightly,similar protocols were followed regarding quantification andassessment of nutrient intakes(24), with a description ofintakes of dietary fatty acids over the 7-d period described

elsewhere(25,29). The current paper aimed to compare intakes ofdietary fat between 2001 and 2011. However, as the dietaryrecords of 2001 were based on a 7-d estimated food record, the2001 data were re-allocated from 7-d food record to 4-d foodrecord, and the bootstrap method was used to enable a moredirect comparison with the data from 2011(21,30). This wascarried out by re-sampling 100 independent randomisationsusing the bootstrap method, and parameter estimates wereaveraged over 100 bootstrap samples.

Estimation of dietary fat composition of foods

Methodologies used to calculate the dietary fat composition offoods and recipes consumed in 2001 have previously beendescribed(25,29). A similar protocol was followed for foods andrecipes consumed in 2011. First, an SPSS database was createdcontaining all of the foods consumed, including recipes. Eachfood item in this database was linked to the original con-sumption database using a unique food code. Each food codewas then examined and assigned a fatty acid concentration fortotal fat, SFA, MUFA, PUFA, α-linolenic acid (ALA), EPA, DHAand trans-fat (g/100 g) based on published food compositiontables(31–33), published papers(25,29), the packaging informationcollected during NANS and with updated industry data includedwhere available. Published values were used for EPA and DHAcontents of milk and milk products and some meats, as valuesare typically absent from food composition tables despite beingpresent in low concentrations in these commonly consumedfoods(29). A similar approach was adopted for the recipedatabase whereby the fatty acid composition was obtained foreach ingredient as described above and the values wereaggregated before re-introduction into main databases.

Calculating fatty acid intakes of Irish adults

The total fat, SFA, MUFA, PUFA, EPA, DHA and trans-fat con-tents (g/100 g product) were available for n 2552 foods andrecipes in 2011 and 2938 in 2001. ALA intakes were estimatedonly in 2011; they were not available for 2001. All entries weredouble-checked by the researcher, and a random sample waschecked by another researcher in-house to minimise the chanceof error. To represent the actual amount of fatty acid consumed,each fatty acid concentration in the database was converted fromg/100 g food to grams per actual weight of food consumed.Information from this database was then used to calculate themean daily intake of each fatty acid per person per day.

Data analysis

Under-reporters of energy intake (20–30% of total populations)were identified as having a ratio of energy intake:BMR of

compliance levels for trans-fat, intakes were expressed aspercentage contribution to food energy (%FE; energy contentfrom alcohol was excluded as per relevant recommendation).When examined, the data for individual fatty acid intakes areskewed, but because of the large sample size parametric testsare allowed to be applied (based on the central limit theorem).Differences in fat intake accounting for age, survey and sexwere detected either using independent t tests, one-wayANOVA (age group) or a two-way ANOVA (age and survey)as appropriate. P values are presented uncorrected for multipletesting, because of the high expected correlation of the tests.We encourage readers to examine the effect sizes presented,and furthermore we note which results would survive aconservative Bonferroni correction. Foods consumed in 2011and 2001 were aggregated into twenty-two different foodcategories, and the percentage contribution from each foodgroup to total fatty acid intake was calculated as populationproportions(35). As there are no national dietary guidelines forIreland, compliance with the dietary guidelines from theUK(9,36) and EFSA(8) (for EPA +DHA) was assessed by estimat-ing the maximal size of subgroup of ‘compliers’ who met thepopulation target(37). Briefly, this method involves rankingindividual mean daily intakes from lowest to highest. For the %TE from total fat and SFA recommendations, the mean intake ofthe compliers group was calculated by starting with theindividual with the lowest mean %TE from fat (or SFA) andincluding successive individuals until the addition of one moresubject led to the average intake of the group to exceed theDRV(37). The same approach was used for MUFA, PUFA andEPA+DHA, except that mean daily intakes for each individualwere ranked in descending order from highest to lowest andsuccessive individuals added until the addition of the nextindividual caused the group mean to fall below the populationtarget. The percentage of adults who were ‘compliers’ with eachrecommendation was then calculated.

Results

The final NANS sample comprised 49·8% men and 50·2%women and included 65·2, 19·4 and 15·4% in the age groups18–50, 51–64 and ≥65 years, respectively. The majority of thesample comprised individuals from an urban location (68·9%),and almost half (46·1%) of them were classified as professionalsor in technical or managerial occupations. The final sample wasrepresentative of the Irish population in terms of age, sex,education level and location(38). The demographic character-istics of the NSIFCS have been described in detail elsewhereand were also representative of the Irish population at thattime(39). The mean energy intakes were 9347 (SD 2623) kJ (2234(SD 627) kcal) and 10 192 (SD 2987) kJ (2436 (SD 714) kcal) in2010 and 2001, respectively.

Mean daily intake of dietary fat in 2011 and 2001by age and sex

Tables 1–4 present the mean daily intakes of dietary fat in g/dand as %TE in Irish adults, by age and sex in 2011 with

comparison with 2001 as relevant. In 2011, intake of total fat(%TE) was 34·1 (SD 6·1)% for adults aged 18–64 years and 34·9(SD 6·9)% for those aged more than 65 years (P= 0·136), withintakes higher (P< 0·001) in women aged 18–64 years (34·9(SD 5·9)%) than in men (33·3 (SD 6·2)%). Compared with 2001(35·7 (SD 5·9)%TE), lower intakes of total fat were observed in2011 for 18–64-year-olds and for men and women of all agecategories (P< 0·001) (Tables 3 and 4). In 2011, dietary intakes(%TE) of SFA in the total population were 13·3 (SD 3·3)% for18–64-year-olds, with higher (P= 0·003) intakes for those agedmore than 65 years (14·3 (SD 4·1)%). A similar pattern emergedwhereby higher intakes of SFA (%TE) were recorded in 2001than in 2011 for the total population aged 18–64 years (13·9(SD 3·4) v. 13·3 (SD 3·3)%, P< 0·001) and for men and women ofall ages, except men aged 51–64 years where a slight increasewas observed. However, after Bonferroni correction (for four-teen to sixteen tests), only significant differences in SFA intakes(%TE) between 2011 and 2001 for the total population and forwomen aged 18–64 years remained significant at a family-wisetype I error rate of 5%. In 2011, intakes (%TE) of MUFA were12·5 (SD 2·6) and 12·2 (SD 2·9)% for adults aged 18–64 years andover 65 years, respectively. Higher (P= 0·017) intakes wereobserved for women (12·7 (SD 2·6)%) aged 18–64 yearscompared with men (12·3 (SD 2·7)%), but intakes were higher(P≤ 0·002) in all population groups in 2011 than in 2001.In 2011, intakes of PUFA (%TE) were 6·1 (SD 2·2)% for 18–64years and 5·9 (SD 2·5)% for over 65 years in the total population.Intakes of PUFA were higher in women than in men (P≤ 0·027),but with lower intakes in 2011 than 2001 for all population groups(P< 0·001). After Bonferroni correction (for sixteen tests), onlydifferences in PUFA intakes between the 2 time points remainedsignificant at a family-wise type I error rate of 5%.

In 2011, ALA intakes (%TE) were 0·60 (SD 0·39)% for thoseaged 18–64 years and 0·59 (SD 0·76)% for those aged more than65 years in the total population, with intakes significantly higherin women than in men in both age categories (P< 0·027). In2011, the mean daily intakes of EPA and DHA from food andsupplements (mg/d) were 113 (SD 244·3) and 156 (SD 284·3)mg/dfor adults aged 18–64 years, respectively, with significantlyhigher (P< 0·001) intakes observed in adults aged over 65 years(187·9 (SD 261·1) and 247·7 (SD 300·5)mg/d, respectively). Therewas no difference in intakes between the surveys; however, inboth instances the lowest intakes were observed for men andwomen aged 18–35 years. In 2011, combined intakes of EPA andDHA for men and women aged 18–35 years were 160·3(SD 240·4) and 201·8 (SD 299·3)mg/d. Significantly (P< 0·001)higher intakes were reported for supplement users thannon-users in 2011, but not in 2001 (P> 0·001, see onlineSupplementary Table S1). The contribution (%) of trans-fatintake to total energy intake was 0·51 (SD 0·28)% for adults aged18–64 years and 0·56 (SD 0·36)% for adults aged more than65 years. Intakes of trans-fat (%TE) were slightly higher in menthan in women aged 18–64 years (0·53 (SD 0·30) v. 0·49(SD 0·26)%, P= 0·039) and in 2001 than in 2011 (0·69 (SD 0·25) v.0·51 (SD 0·28)%, P< 0·001). After Bonferroni correction (forsixteen tests), only differences in trans-fat intakes betweenthe 2 time points remained significant at a family-wise type I errorrate of 5%.

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Table 1. Intakes of total fat (g/d and percentage of total energy (%TE)) and its constituent fatty acids in Irish adults in 2011(Mean values and standard deviations)

2011

Total population Male Female Male Female

18–64 years(n 889)

≥65 years(n 162)

18–64 years(n 448)

18–64 years(n 441) ≥65 years (n 75) ≥65 years (n 87)

Mean SD Mean SD P * Mean SD Mean SD P † Mean SD Mean SD P ‡

Total fat (g/d) 86·8 27·9 74·3 29·3

The percentage of Irish adults adhering to different dietaryfat recommendations

The percentage of Irish adults adhering to dietary recommen-dations of the UK Department of Health(9) for total fat, SFA andMUFA, EFSA recommendations for ALA, EPA and DHA(8), andUK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN)(36)

recommendations for trans-fat in 2011 is presented in Table 5.

High levels of compliance were noted for adults aged 18–64years and those aged over 65 years for total fat (94, 86%),MUFA (100, 100%), PUFA (100, 98%), ALA (100, 100%) andtrans-fat (100, 100%). By examining intakes from supplementsand foods, high levels of compliance were observed for adultsaged 18–64 and >65 years for EPA and DHA (100, 100%).Lower rates of compliance were observed when intakes fromfood only were assessed, with the lowest levels of compliance

Table 2. Intakes of total fat (g/d and percentage of total energy (%TE)) and its constituent fatty acids in Irish adults in 2001(Mean values and standard deviations)

2001

Total population Male Female

18–64 years (n 1097) 18–64 years (n 555) 18–64 years (n 542)

Mean SD P * Mean SD P † Mean SD P ‡

Total fat (g/d) 96·7 32·8

for men (58%) and women (47%) aged 18–35 years. Relativelylow levels of compliance persisted for SFA (36 and 30%TE in18–64-year-olds and >65-year-olds, respectively), with thelowest levels of compliance observed for men and women aged36–50 years (27 and 30%) and men aged >65 years (27%). Bycomparison, the proportions of adults aged 18–64 yearsmeeting the recommendations were higher in 2011 than in 2001for all dietary fats and for all population groups, except for EPAand DHA (see online Supplementary Table S2).

Percentage contribution of food groups to dietary fat in2011 and 2001

The percentage contribution of food groups to dietary fat in2011 and 2001 are presented in Tables 6 and 7. ‘Fresh meat’made the greatest contribution to total fat, SFA and MUFA inboth 2011 and 2001, followed by ‘meat products’, ‘biscuits,cakes, pastries and buns’ and ‘spreading fats and oils’. Wholemilk featured more strongly as a contributor to SFA intakes in2001 than in 2011. In 2011, the main contributors to PUFA were‘meat products’ and ‘potatoes chipped, fried and roasted’,whereas in 2001 the major contributors were ‘spreading fats andoils’ and ‘potatoes chipped, fried and roasted’. ‘Meat dishes’ and‘spreading fats and oils’ were the greatest contributors to ALAintake in 2011 (Table 7). The major food sources of EPA andDHA were ‘fish, fish products and fish dishes’ and ‘fresh meat’in both 2011 and 2001. Unsurprisingly, ‘nutritional supplements’featured as a contributor to EPA and DHA when intakes fromfood supplements were included in the estimation of intakes.The main contributors to trans-fat were ‘cheeses’, ‘fresh meat’,‘meat dishes’ and ‘whole milk’ in 2011, whereas in 2001 theywere ‘cheeses’, ‘fresh meat’ and ‘butter’.

Discussion

Over the decade 2001–2011, improvements in the profile ofdietary fats consumed by Irish adults have been observed.However, imbalances in dietary fat quality remain wherebyintakes of SFA were higher for all population groups thanrecommended and with the lowest intakes of long-chain n-3PUFA for young men and women. Population intakes oftrans-fat were within recommended levels. This analysis showsthat in 2011 population intakes of total fat (both g/d and %TE),SFA (both g/d and %TE), PUFA (both g/d and %TE) andtrans-fat (both g/d and %TE) decreased compared with theprevious national food survey in 2001; intakes of MUFA (%TE)increased, whereas no change was evident for EPA and DHA.

Intakes of SFA (13%TE) by Irish adults in 2011 agree withthose reported in other EU countries such as France, Finland orthe UK (12–15%TE)(8,40), albeit higher compared with otherglobal regions such as North and South America, Asia and Africawhere intakes can lie ≤10%TE(14,15,41). Although a slightreduction of 0·6% (P< 0·001) in mean daily intakes hasoccurred in Ireland since 2001, average intakes of SFA inIreland continue to deviate from such numerical guidelines ofabout 10%TE(9) and from the EFSA guideline of ‘as low aspossible’(8). This poses challenges, as despite public healtheducation campaigns and initiatives by the food industry andregulators all population groups were affected, with the lowestlevels of compliance (

contributions of whole milk and butter to SFA intakes in adultsaged 18–64 years (by approximately −6% from 2001) mayreflect public health messages(23,43) to choose lower-fat options;however, butter remains a greater contributor for older (8·4%)than younger (5·3%) adults. Hence, intakes of SFA continue todeviate from current guidance in Ireland. However, this com-bination of foods contributing to SFA intakes is noteworthy (e.g.milks, meats, biscuits and cakes). Consideration of these dif-fering foods may now be merited in any future dietary guide-lines given the growing body of evidence, which suggestsdifferential effects of SFA on health depending on the food formin which they occur(44).

In this study, intakes of trans-fat have decreased byapproximately 0·2% energy in the decade from 2001 to 2011and, at 0·5%TE (0·5%FE), are well below the UK SACN(36)

recommendation of ≤2%FE, similar to that reported for Finland(0·4%TE)(20), albeit slightly lower than that reported for the UK(0·8%FE)(21). The major dietary sources of trans-fat in the Irishadult diet are now ruminant animal products such as meat,cheese and whole milk (42% contribution), with decreasesobserved for foods such as ‘spreading fats and oils’ (from 5·9 to1·4% intakes). This is significant given that intakes of trans-fatsfrom animal sources have not been related to CHD events(41) incontrast to those from industrial sources(42). It also suggests thatcommercial foods containing artificial trans-fats are no longeron sale, or at least are no longer consumed to a significantdegree, in Ireland.

In general, mean daily intakes of EPA and DHA (269mg/d) inIrish adults from food and supplements met the EFSA-recommended adequate intake (AI) of ≥250mg/d(8). Meandaily intakes from food and supplements reported here were inline with mean values published for a sample of Belgian women(276mg/d)(45), with median values (range 71–228mg/d)broadly comparable with published median intakes for arepresentative sample of Belgian adults(46). However, medianvalues were higher than those observed for the Dutch NationalFood Survey depending on age and sex(47). Intakes from foodalone were marginally higher in Irish adults; this is perhapsbecause of the methodology used here, which factored for n-3content of milks and some meats(29). Nevertheless, a distributionof intakes was evident in Irish adults, whereby the highest meandaily intakes from all sources were recorded for adults aged >65years (436 (SD 542)mg/d) and the lowest intakes for men (202(SD 299)mg/d) and women (161 (SD 240)mg/d) aged 18–35years. Given the beneficial role of these fatty acids for cardio-vascular health and particularly during pregnancy and lactation(where EFSA recommend increasing intakes of DHA by anadditional 100–200mg/d(8)), such low intakes by younger sub-groups may have implications for longer-term health. Amongconsumers, supplements contributed up to 55% of total EPA+DHA intake. Furthermore, the use of n-3 supplements washigher in 2011 (12·5%) than in 2001 (7·5%) for all (see onlineSupplementary Table S2). Upon exclusion of supplement users,levels of compliance with the recommended AI of ≥250mg/d(8)

dropped to 85% of the total population, with lowest compliance(47%) for female non-supplement users aged 18–35 years.Unsurprisingly, ‘fish, fish products and fish dishes’ and ‘freshmeat’ were the main food contributors in the population, whichTa

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%TE*

94·2

88·0

90·2

91·3

85·8

100·0

93·0

94·9

98·2

89·3

80·0

83·0

84·9

82·8

82·8

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≤10

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41·4

28·2

35·3

35·5

30·2

48·3

26·6

31·6

38·2

26·7

32·4

29·7

37·7

32·9

32·2

MUFA

≥12

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100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

PUFA

≥6%TE*

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

97·5

90·3

86·7

91·8

90·0

78·7

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

ALA

0·5%TE†

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

81·3

100·0

100·0

100·0

100·0

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99·8

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53·6

95·4

100·0

85·1

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57·7

88·4

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88·8

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100·0

81·3

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100·0

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100·0

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100·0

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100·0

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Table 6. Percentage contribution of food groups to total fat, SFA, MUFA and PUFA in Irish adults in 2011 and 2001 (excluding contribution from supplements)

Total fat SFA MUFA PUFA

2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001

18–64 years(n 889)

≥65 years(n 162)

18–64 years(n 1097)

18–64 years(n 889)

≥65 years(n 162)

18–64 years(n 1097)

18–64 years(n 889)

≥65 years(n 162)

18–64 years(n 1097)

18–64 years(n 889)

≥65 years(n 162)

18–64 years(n 1097)

Fresh meat 9·1 13·0 9·9 8·7 12·3 9·7 10·7 15·6 12·6 7·5 11·2 6·8Meat products 8·4 6·1 7·2 7·5 5·6 7·0 10·2 7·6 8·8 8·2 6·2 5·4Meat dishes 4·7 4·3 4·9 4·9 4·7 4·3 5·0 3·7 5·4 3·6 3·7 4·3Fish, fish products and fish dishes 3·0 5·1 3·1 1·6 2·7 1·7 3·3 5·9 3·6 4·7 8·3 4·7Egg and egg dishes 2·9 3·1 2·6 2·5 2·4 2·1 3·3 3·8 3·1 2·2 2·6 1·9Spreading fats and oils 8·4 12·1 11·5 8·1 10·0 8·8 8·9 12·8 9·7 10·1 17·1 20·8Butter 3·4 6·2 5·2 5·3 8·4 7·8 2·4 4·8 4·0 0·8 2·1 1·3Potatoes chipped, fried and roasted 5·4 2·6 5·9 3·3 1·5 3·5 6·3 3·2 6·8 8·1 3·8 10·1Potato products 1·0 0·5 0·8 0·5 0·2 0·5 0·7 0·4 0·6 2·4 1·6 1·9Potatoes 0·8 1·2 1·2 1·1 1·5 1·2 0·5 0·8 0·7 0·9 1·3 2·2Breads and rolls 5·3 5·8 4·9 4·8 4·7 3·7 3·5 4·1 3·8 5·8 7·5 7·0Biscuits, cakes, pastries and buns 7·1 7·4 7·1 8·3 8·3 8·2 7·3 7·8 7·5 5·5 6·1 4·3Sugars, confectionery and

preserves4·1 1·6 3·6 5·9 2·3 4·9 4·1 1·6 3·8 1·5 0·7 1·1

Puddings and chilled desserts 2·1 3·3 3·0 3·1 4·8 3·8 1·8 2·9 2·9 1·0 1·5 1·4Ice cream and cream 1·3 1·8 1·7 2·2 2·8 2·7 0·9 1·2 1·4 0·3 0·3 0·4Cheeses 5·1 4·2 4·3 8·0 6·2 6·8 4·0 3·5 3·7 1·5 1·3 1·0Whole milk 4·6 4·3 6·5 7·0 6·3 10·2 3·3 3·3 5·8 0·8 0·8 1·0Low-fat, skimmed and fortified milk 1·7 2·7 1·6 2·7 4·2 2·7 1·5 2·5 1·5 0·0 0·0 0·0Savouries (e.g. pizza, quiche) 3·8 1·2 2·7 3·9 1·1 2·4 3·9 1·3 3·1 3·5 1·3 3·3Savoury snacks (e.g. crisps) 2·6 0·3 2·2 1·0 0·1 2·2 3·1 0·3 2·6 5·9 0·7 2·0Vegetable and pulse dishes 2·8 1·9 2·5 1·5 1·2 1·2 2·5 1·9 2·0 5·9 3·1 5·8Nuts and seeds, herbs and spices 1·9 1·1 0·7 0·9 0·4 0·3 2·2 1·0 0·9 3·4 2·4 1·2Soups, sauces and miscellaneous

foods4·9 3·2 3·6 2·6 2·2 2·2 6·0 3·7 3·1 7·6 5·4 6·4

RTEBC 1·0 0·8 0·7 0·6 0·5 0·4 1·0 0·8 0·5 1·7 1·5 1·2Others* 4·7 6·2 2·5 4·0 5·4 1·6 3·5 4·7 1·9 7·3 9·1 4·4

n, Number of participants; RTEBC, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals.* Other food groups include rice, pasta, flours, grains, other breakfast cereals, non-alcoholic beverages, nuts and seeds, herbs and spices, fruit, vegetables, other milk and milk-based beverages.

Dietary

fatintakes

inIrish

adults

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Table 7. Percentage contribution of food groups to α-linolenic acid (ALA), EPA, DHA and trans-fat intakes in Irish adults in 2011 and 2001 (excluding contribution from supplements)

ALA EPA DHA Trans-fat

2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001

18–64 years(n 889)

≥65 years(n 162)

18–64 years(n 1097)

18–64 years(n 889)

≥65 years(n 162)

18–64 years(n 1097)

18–64 years(n 889)

≥65 years(n 162)

18–64 years(n 1097)

18–64 years(n 889)

≥65 years(n 162)

18–64 years(n 1097)

Fresh meat 6·8 7·1 – 25·2 23·4 21·3 20·1 17·2 26·1 14·4 18·4 10·2Meat products 1·4 1·3 – 2·7 2·3 3·8 0·0 0·0 6·2 5·1 4·0 7·3Meat dishes 11·0 10·0 – 0·1 0·0 7·2 0·1 0·2 6·0 11·3 7·9 6·1Fish, fish products and fish dishes 3·4 5·1 – 33·6 47·7 31·3 38·5 52·4 35·9 0·3 0·5 1·1Egg and egg dishes 1·9 1·8 – 1·4 1·6 0·3 15·9 9·7 9·3 0·8 1·4 2·6Spreading fats and oils 11·5 12·8 – 3·6 3·3 12·2 0·0 0·0 0·3 1·4 1·6 5·9Butter 8·0 6·9 – 9·2 8·1 5·5 2·4 2·0 2·8 5·6 6·1 10·7Potatoes chipped, fried and roasted 2·1 2·1 – 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·6 0·6 2·3Potato products 8·1 5·8 – 1·9 1·5 0·1 6·4 5·9 0·1 0·5 0·6 0·7Potatoes 0·0 0·0 – 4·0 2·2 0·2 0·0 0·0 0·0 1·1 0·9 2·1Breads and rolls 0·8 1·1 – 0·0 0·0 0·3 0·0 0·0 0·7 1·1 1·0 4·0Biscuits, cakes, pastries and buns 2·0 1·9 – 0·1 0·0 0·6 0·6 0·3 1·6 5·8 5·1 8·6Sugars, confectionery and

preserves1·5 1·2 – 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 5·1 5·0 1·7

Puddings and chilled desserts 1·5 2·1 – 1·6 1·1 1·3 1·5 1·7 1·2 5·7 7·1 3·6Ice cream and cream 0·6 0·5 – 1·4 0·2 0·7 0·1 0·0 0·4 2·6 2·7 2·3Cheeses 1·0 0·8 – 8·7 5·4 4·4 11·0 8·8 2·7 16·9 17·2 10·8Whole milk 5·2 5·2 – 1·9 1·2 6·8 0·3 0·1 3·8 11·1 8·6 6·6Low-fat, skimmed and fortified milk 1·0 0·7 – 0·0 0·0 1·8 0·1 0·0 0·6 5·4 6·2 3·8Savouries (e.g. pizza, quiche) 2·7 3·4 – 1·2 0·5 0·6 0·9 0·5 1·4 2·6 2·3 2·0Savoury snacks (e.g. crisps) 2·0 1·9 – 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·1 0·1 0·5Vegetable and pulse dishes 4·9 6·1 – 0·7 1·1 0·5 0·3 0·6 0·6 0·6 0·9 1·3Nuts and seeds, herbs and spices 2·6 0·7 – 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0Soups, sauces and miscellaneous

foods9·0 8·6 – 1·4 0·3 0·4 0·7 0·5 0·3 0·8 1·1 4·6

RTEBC 1·5 2·0 – 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·0 0·1Others* 8·9 10·4 – 0·6 0·1 0·3 0·4 0·1 0·3 1·0 0·6 0·7Nutritional supplements† 0·7 0·6 – 5·7 10·6 4·2 4·0 6·6 3·6 – – –

n, Number of participants; RTEBC, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals.* Other food groups include rice, pasta, flours, grains, other breakfast cereals, non-alcoholic beverages, nuts and seeds, herbs and spices, fruit, vegetables, other milk and milk-based beverages.† Dietary intakes from food and food supplements were included in the analysis of the contribution of food supplements to total population ALA, EPA and DHA intakes.

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Dietary fat intakes in Irish adults 1809

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https://www.healthpromotion.ie/hp-files/docs/HPM00796.pdfhttps://www.healthpromotion.ie/hp-files/docs/HPM00796.pdfhttps://www.cambridge.org/corehttps://www.cambridge.org/core/termshttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114516000787

Dietary fat intakes in Irish adults in 2011: how much has changed in 10years?MethodsStudy populationsFood intake assessmentEstimation of dietary fat composition of foodsCalculating fatty acid intakes of Irish adultsData analysis

ResultsMean daily intake of dietary fat in 2011 and 2001 by age and sex

Table 1Intakes of total fat (g/d and percentage of total energy (%TE)) and its constituent fatty acids in Irish adults in 2011(Mean values and standard deviations)The percentage of Irish adults adhering to different dietary fat recommendations

Table 2Intakes of total fat (g/d and percentage of total energy (%TE)) and its constituent fatty acids in Irish adults in 2001(Mean values and standard deviations)Table 3Intakes of total fat (g/d and percentage of total energy (%TE)) and its constituent fatty acids in Irish men in 2011 and 2001 by age group(Mean values and standard deviations)Percentage contribution of food groups to dietary fat in 2011 and 2001

DiscussionTable 4Intakes of total fat (g/d and percentage of total energy (%TE)) and its constituent fatty acids in Irish women in 2011 and 2001 by age group(Mean values and standard deviations)Table 5Percentage of Irish adults adhering to current UK, European Food Safety Authority and WHO/FAO dietary recommendation for total fat and fatty acids by age group and sex in2011Table 6Percentage contribution of food groups to total fat, SFA, MUFA and PUFA in Irish adults in 2011 and 2001 (excluding contribution from supplements)Table 7Percentage contribution of food groups to α-linolenic acid (ALA), EPA, DHA and trans-fat intakes in Irish adults in 2011 and 2001 (excluding contribution from supplements)AcknowledgementsACKNOWLEDGEMENTSSupplementary materialReferences

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