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Dimensions of Learning

2nd Edition

T r a i n e r ’s M A N U A L

Robert J. Marzano

and

Debra J. Pickering

with

Daisy E. Arredondo

Guy J. Blackburn

Ronald S. Brandt

Cerylle A. Moffett

Diane E. Paynter

Jane E. Pollock

Jo Sue Whisler


Robert J. MarzanoandDebra J. PickeringwithDaisy E. ArredondoGuy J. BlackburnRonald S. BrandtCerylle A. MoffettDiane E. PaynterJane E. PollockJo Sue Whisler

2nd Edition

T r a i n e r ’s M A N U A L

Alexandria, Virginia USA

Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory

Aurora, Colorado USA

Dimensions Trainer TP 9/13/07 10:37 AM Page 1

www.ascd.org

Copyright © 1997 McREL (Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory), 2550 S. Parker Road,Suite 500, Aurora, Colorado 80014, (303) 337-0990, fax (303) 337-3005. All rights reserved. No partof this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic ormechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, withoutpermission in writing from McREL.

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ASCD publications present a variety of viewpoints. The views expressed or implied in this book should not be interpreted as official positions of the Association.

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Dimensions of LearningTrainer’s Manual

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Introduction for Trainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

How Dimensions of Learning Was Developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

How To Use This Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Modeling the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Suggested Training Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Dimensions of Learning Study Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Tips for Trainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Dimension 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Dimension 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Dimension 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Dimension 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Dimension 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Wrap-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

CHAPTER 1. DIMENSION 1: ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONSTo the Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Exploring Dimension 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Classroom Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Classroom Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Planning for Dimension 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

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CHAPTER 2. DIMENSION 2: ACQUIRE AND INTEGRATE KNOWLEDGETo the Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71


Declarative Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Construct Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Organize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Planning for Dimension 2, Declarative Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Procedural Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Construct Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Internalize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Planning for Dimension 2, Procedural Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

CHAPTER 3. DIMENSION 3: EXTEND AND REFINE KNOWLEDGETo the Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111


Comparing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Classifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Abstracting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Inductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Deductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Constructing Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Analyzing Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Analyzing Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153


CHAPTER 4. DIMENSION 4: USE KNOWLEDGE MEANINGFULLYTo the Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163


Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Experimental Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192


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CHAPTER 5. DIMENSION 5: HABITS OF MINDTo the Trainer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203



CHAPTER 6. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Appendix A: Other Examples of Modeling the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Appendix B: Structured Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Overheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

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viii Trainer’s Manual

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our sincere appreciation to those individuals from the following schooldistricts who contributed ideas and suggestions to this second edition of the Dimensions of LearningTrainer’s Manual:

Ashwaubenon School District, Green Bay, WisconsinBerryessa Union School District, San Jose, CaliforniaBrisbane Grammar School, Queensland, AustraliaBrockport Central School District, Brockport, New YorkBrooklyn School District, Brooklyn, OhioBroome-Tioga Boces, Binghamton, New YorkCherry Creek Public Schools, Aurora, ColoradoColegio International de Caracas, Caracas, VenezuelaDouglas County Schools, Douglas County, ColoradoGeorge School District, George, IowaGreen Bay Area Public Schools, Green Bay, WisconsinIngham Intermediate School District, Mason, MichiganKenosha Unified School District #1, Kenosha, WisconsinKingsport City Schools, Kingsport, TennesseeLakeland Area Education Agency #3, Cylinder, IowaLakeview Public Schools, St. Clair Shores, MichiganLoess Hills AEA #13, Council Bluffs, IowaLonoke School District, Lonoke, ArkansasLove Elementary School, Houston, TexasMaccray School, Clara City, MinnesotaMonroe County ISD, Monroe, MichiganNicolet Area Consortium, Glendale, WisconsinNorthern Trails AEA #2, Clear Lake, IowaNorth Syracuse Central School District, North Syracuse, New YorkPrince Alfred College, Kent Town, South AustraliaRedwood Elementary School, Avon Lake, OhioRegional School District #13, Durham, ConnecticutRichland School District, Richland, WashingtonSt. Charles Parish Public Schools, Luling, LouisianaSchool District of Howard-Suamico, Green Bay, WisconsinSouth Washington County Schools, Cottage Grove, MinnesotaWebster City Schools, Webster City, IowaWest Morris Regional High School District, Chester, New Jersey

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ixTrainer’s Manual

The following members of the Dimensions of Learning Research and Development Consortium workedtogether from 1989 to 1991 to advise, consult, and pilot portions of the model as part of thedevelopment of Dimensions of Learning.

ALABAMAAuburn UniversityTerrance Rucinski

CALIFORNIALos Angeles County Office of EducationRichard SholsethDiane Watanabe

Napa Valley Unified School DistrictMary Ellen BoyetLaurie RuckerDaniel Wolter

COLORADOAurora Public SchoolsKent EppersonPhyllis A. HenningLois KellenbenzLindy LindnerRita PerronJanie PollockNora Redding

Cherry Creek Public SchoolsMaria FoseidPatricia LozierNancy MacIsaacsMark RietemaDeena Tarleton

ILLINOISMaine Township High School WestBetty DuffeyMary GienkoBetty HeratyPaul LeathemMary Kay Walsh

IOWADike Community SchoolsJanice AlbrechtRoberta BodensteinerKen CuttsJean RichardsonStan Van Hauen

Mason City Community SchoolsDudley L. Humphrey

MASSACHUSETTSConcord-Carlisle Regional School DistrictDenis ClearyDiana MacLean

Concord Public SchoolsVirginia BarkerLaura CooperStephen GreeneJoe LeoneSusan Whitten

MICHIGANFarmington Public SchoolsMarilyn CarlsenKatherine NybergJames ShawJoyce Tomlinson

Lakeview Public SchoolsJoette Kunse

Oakland SchoolsRoxanne Reschke

Waterford School DistrictLinda BlustJulie CasteelBill GesamanMary Lynn KraftAl MonettaTheodora M. SailerDick Williams

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x Trainer’s Manual

NEBRASKAFremont Public Schools, District 001Mike AerniTrudy Jo KluverFred Robertson

NEW MEXICOGallup-McKinley County SchoolsClara EsparzaEthyl FoxMartyn StoweLinda ValentineChantal Irvin

NEW YORKFrontier Central SchoolsJanet BrooksBarbara Broomell

PENNSYLVANIACentral Bucks School DistrictJeanann KahleyN. Robert LawsHolly LomasRosemarie MontgomeryCheryl Winn RoyerJim Williams

Philadelphia School DistrictPaul AdornoShelly BermanRonald JenkinsJohn KrauseJudy LechnerBetty Richardson

SOUTH CAROLINASchool District of Greenville CountySharon BenstonDale DicksKeith RussellJane SatterfieldEllen WeinbergMildred Young

State Department of EducationSusan Smith White

TEXASFort Worth Independent School DistrictCarolyne CreelSherry HarrisMidge RachNancy Timmons

UTAHSalt Lake City SchoolsCorrine Hill

MEXICOITESO UniversityAna Christina AmanteLaura Figueroa BarbaAntonio Ray BazanLuis Felipe GomezPatricia Rios de Lopez

PROGRAM EVALUATORCharles Fisher

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I n t r o d u c t i o n f o r T r a i n e r s

DoL Trainers Div 4/29/10 2:08 PM Page 1

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1Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

Introduction for Trainers

When the first edition of the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual waspublished in 1991, the authors, led by Dr. Robert Marzano of the Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory (McREL), hoped that it wouldprovide a tool that educators could use as they pursued restructuring andreform efforts in their schools and districts. Specifically, the Dimensions ofLearning model was offered as a tool to help educators focus their effortsmore on student learning than on the implementation of specific programsand strategies. Since 1991, Dimensions has been used by teachers andadministrators in this way. The model has helped them to maintain thisfocus on learning both as they plan curriculum, instruction, and assessmentand as they evaluate the impact of their efforts on student learning.

One of the reasons that the vision for Dimensions is being realized is thatdistricts and schools have taken ownership of the model by developing thecapacity to offer training and support within their own systems. We hopethat the Trainer’s Manual that accompanied the first edition contributed tothis local approach to implementation. In order to continue to support thistrend, we have revised and updated the Trainer’s Manual so that it is nowaligned with the second edition of the Teacher’s Manual. The training scriptsand overheads have been significantly modified, and new training activitiesand overheads have been added. We have maintained elements from the firstedition that have been used successfully but also have enhanced the trainingwith additions and modifications. This manual should continue to be avaluable resource for trainers and for other district and school leaders as theywork with people who are interested in using the Dimensions of Learningmodel.

Before you read the remainder of this section, we recommend that you turnto the Teacher’s Manual and read (or reread) the Introduction on pages 1-12.Reading this chapter should help to refresh your memory about someimportant points related to the assumptions from which the Dimensions of


2 Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

Learning model was developed, the resources available to you as you studythe model, and the ways in which the model has been used in districts,schools, and classrooms.

The second edition of the Teacher’s Manual incorporates much of what wascontained in the first edition, but those familiar with the first edition willnotice significant revisions, deletions, and additions that have been made. Ifyou are providing training for people who are familiar with the first edition,you might want to review these changes with them, which are describedbriefly below.

1. “Systems analysis” has been added to the list of reasoning processesin Dimension 4. This addition provides a way of helping studentsuse their understanding of systems (e.g., ecosystems, systems ofgovernment, and number systems) to engage in tasks that requirethem to analyze the interactions among parts of a system or topredict what might happen when the parts of a system are altered insome way. Like the other reasoning processes in Dimension 4 (i.e.,decision making, problem solving, invention, investigation, andexperimental inquiry), systems analysis can be applied across contentareas and at any developmental level.

2. There is an increased emphasis on the importance of clearlyidentifying declarative and procedural knowledge during unitplanning. The chapter covering Dimension 2, “Acquire and IntegrateKnowledge,” provides direction for identifying and organizingdeclarative knowledge using common organizational patterns:descriptions (organizing very specific facts and organizinginformation important to identified vocabulary terms), timesequences, process/cause-effect relationships, episodes,generalizations/principles, and concepts. Although most of thesepatterns were identified in the first edition of the manual, in thesecond edition they are used to organize declarative knowledge in theunit planning process.

In the planning section for procedural knowledge, we recommendthat attention be given to making sure that knowledge is identifiedclearly during planning and that if very general processes (ormacroprocesses) are targeted, that the specific skills that arecomponents of that process be articulated.

3. In addition to the increased emphasis on clearly identifying andorganizing knowledge, the planning process for Dimension 2includes examples of planning both with and without standards andbenchmarks. These examples are offered because most states and


3Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

many districts are actively engaged in identifying standards andbenchmarks, that is, the knowledge that all students should have anopportunity to learn. Thus, teachers should use these standards andbenchmarks as they identify the declarative and proceduralknowledge that students should be acquiring and integrating,extending and refining, and using meaningfully.

4. Those educators who have used Dimensions of Learning to plancurriculum have been fairly consistent in their feedback about theneed for additional suggestions and recommendations for addressingDimension 5, habits of mind. In the second edition, the chapter onthis dimension has been reorganized and expanded. We offer veryspecific recommendations for

• helping students understand the habits of mind,

• helping students identify and develop strategies related tothe habits of mind,

• creating a culture in the classroom and school that encouragesthe development and use of the habits of mind, and

• providing positive reinforcement to students who exhibit thehabits of mind.

An additional section has been added that serves as a resource forteachers who are using the specific habits of mind included in theDimensions of Learning model. For each of the 15 habits, there is abrief explanation, examples of situations in which the habit could beimportant, and sample strategies used by people who exemplify thehabit.

5. Those who use the Dimensions of Learning model have consistentlyrequested additional resources for the reasoning processes inDimensions 3 and 4. To this end, the new manual includes, for eachreasoning process, an expanded explanation, key points to keep inmind when using the process in the classroom, and sample tasks thatcould be used in K-12 classrooms.

6. At the end of the manual, a chapter entitled “Putting It AllTogether” (similar to the section in the first edition bearing thistitle) reviews planning questions for each dimension, explains modelsfor different planning sequences, and reviews the entire sample unit.In this edition there also is an additional assessment section in thechapter, which provides explanations and recommendations related toassessment.



Introduction

Instead of adding assessment forms at the end of each dimension, aswas done in the first edition, this assessment section walks the readerthrough the decisions that need to be made about assessment duringthe planning process. Issues are discussed that are related to the useof conventional and performance assessments, and recommendationsfor the use of rubrics are provided. Also included is a sample pagefrom a grade book, which has been filled in with grades forhypothetical students in a classroom implementing the sample unitthat is developed throughout the manual. This assessment sectionshould be more useful to the reader than the forms provided in thefirst edition. It synthesizes many of the issues related to assessmentand provides a more comprehensive approach to assessment.

7. Although anyone familiar with the first edition of the Teacher’sManual will notice a number of changes in the format of the secondedition, the most obvious is the addition of marginalia, informationprovided in the outside margins of each page. When appropriate, thetext of the manual is supplemented with various types of informationin the margins, including

• references for books, articles, additional readings, orclassroom materials relevant to the topic;

• quotes from teachers who have been using Dimensions ofLearning in their classrooms;

• brief descriptions of school-wide or district-wide efforts toimplement various aspects of the model;

• relevant “quotable quotes” from well-known people; and

• visual representations of important information explained inthe text.

The second edition of the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual attempts topreserve everything that made the first edition useful and to provideadditional strategies, ideas, and examples that will help the experienced useras well as the novice. As always, we appreciate feedback from educators inthe field and look forward to hearing from those who are using this secondgeneration of Dimensions of Learning materials to enhance student learning.


5Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

How Dimensions of Learning Was Developed

As stated in the Teacher’s Manual, Dimensions of Learning is an extension ofthe comprehensive research-based framework on cognition and learningdescribed in Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum andInstruction (Marzano et al., 1988), published by the Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Following thepublication of Dimensions of Thinking, an initial team of Dimensions ofLearning project developers (Robert J. Marzano, Daisy E. Arredondo, Guy J.Blackburn, Robert Ewy, Debra J. Pickering, and Deena Tarleton) beganidentifying and developing teaching and learning strategies based on theconceptual framework presented in that publication. As that teamconsciously used the thinking skills, processes, and dispositions described inDimensions of Thinking in their work with teachers and students, they beganto see how a focus on the overall learning process could provide a powerful,integrative model.

An underlying premise of this early work was that all learning is thinking. Forexample, as students first read over a writing assignment or a list ofvocabulary words, certain cognitive processes are called into play. Thewriting assignment may be similar to one that students completed last weekor last year, and its similarity may prompt them to immediately beginrecalling the procedures they used to generate ideas, find new information,or organize their ideas for that previous assignment. They may focus onplanning, generating interest in the task, or even coming up with reasons todelay their work—all of which are types of thinking. This perspective oflearning as thinking allowed the initial development team to operationallydefine the conceptual model first presented in Dimensions of Thinking so thatit rigorously described the different types of thinking involved in thelearning process and to then categorize the many research-based teachingstrategies that foster these types of thinking.

Willow Creek Elementary School in Englewood, Colorado, under theleadership of Principal Deena Tarleton agreed to begin developmental testingof the Dimensions of Learning model and strategies. At the same time, ASCDand McREL cosponsored a Dimensions of Learning Research and DevelopmentConsortium composed of nearly 90 members representing various schools,districts, institutions of higher education, and state departments of educationacross the United States and Mexico. (See pages ix-x for a complete list ofconsortium members.) During 1989 and 1990, consortium members learnedthe Dimensions of Learning strategies, field-tested them in classrooms,reported results, and suggested revisions to the author team.



Introduction

Charles Fisher, the project evaluator, then examined sample uses of themodel and compiled formative evaluation data for the first year of theproject. The descriptive data in his assessment report include generalcomments on the model as well as information about the effects of thestrategies on teachers and students. Participants’ comments wereoverwhelmingly positive, with reports of improved student performance,motivation, interest in class work, social behavior, and use of thinkingprocesses. Teacher participants reported that they noticed improvement intheir own thinking, a need to slow down and teach “more in-depth,” arebirth of excitement about teaching, improved interactions with students,and a shift in their role as teachers toward that of “facilitators of learning”and away from “transmitters of information.”

During 1990 and 1991, consortium members continued to use theDimensions of Learning strategies and met in subgroups to assist the authorteam with the final development of training materials by responding toproposed text, developing examples, writing vignettes, and suggestingvarious revisions. Dimensions of Learning is undoubtedly stronger and more“classroom friendly” because of the three years of intensive work with themany talented educators involved in the project.

Since the introduction of the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual, theoriginal authors plus the other members of the McREL training team—Diane Paynter, Janie Pollock, and Jo Sue Whisler—have worked withteachers and in classrooms using the Dimensions of Learning model andcollecting feedback on ways to update and strengthen the materials. Theresult is this revision of the original manual. Again, its strength is the resultof the contributions of the many dedicated and talented educators who haveworked with the model.

How To Use This Manual

This Dimensions of Learning Trainer’s Manual contains very detailed resourcesfor anyone who is conducting training in the Dimensions of Learning model.Following this introduction you will find these resources:

• seven, separate, detailed scripts, one containing a script for theOverview of the entire model plus six scripts that are aligned withthe six chapters of the Teacher’s Manual for the training;

• handouts to be used during the training (included in this section areblank planning guides for each dimension as well as a two-pagePlanning Reference Guide, which summarizes the key strategies andplanning questions related to each dimension);


7Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

• appendices that supplement information presented in thisintroduction;

• bibliographic references; and

• overhead transparency masters to use with each of the seven scripts.

A brief explanation of certain aspects of the numbering of the overheads is inorder. First, each of the chapters that cover Dimensions 1 through 5 has asection that deals with unit planning. The overheads for these sections arekeyed with the letter P (e.g., the first planning overhead for Dimension 3 is3.P1 (see page 158, where the trainer is cued to put up this overhead).Second, in Dimensions 3 and 4, the overheads are numbered to correspondto the order of the reasoning processes in each dimension; each overhead isthen followed by a letter. For example, the first overhead introduced in thesection on classifying (the second reasoning process covered in Dimension 3)is 3.2A. Similarly, the first overhead introduced in the section oninvestigation (the fifth reasoning process covered in Dimension 4) is 4.5A.

The section of the manual that contains the training scripts has a number ofcharacteristics that also might need some explanation. Before reading aboutthese characteristics, keep in mind the following recommendations:

• The training scripts are meant to provide a clear idea of what shouldtake place in the training session. They are not meant to be readaloud word for word. We encourage you to assimilate the substanceof the information and create personal scripts that maintain theintegrity of the model.

• Because the best trainers are those who have used the model, weencourage you to include your own examples and anecdotes so thatworkshop participants will understand that you have used the partsof the model in the classroom.

• It should be noted that the scripts include suggestions for trainingfor virtually all parts of the Teacher’s Manual, more than can becovered in an initial training. You will need to determine whichsections of the manual to cover explicitly and which to simplymention during any specific training session. This is especially truefor Dimensions 3 and 4. Some subset of the 14 complex reasoningprocesses should be selected to cover in-depth. We elected to providein-depth scripts for all of the material in order to allow you to makeyour own decisions about what to include.

With these suggestions in mind, turn to the scripts and leaf through a fewpages to get a sense of the content and format. You will notice the following:



Introduction

Italicized Text. Interspersed throughout the script are notes to the trainerthat are set in italicized type and enclosed in brackets like these: < >. Thesenotes include cues, directions, and suggestions for activities. For instance,they may cue the trainer to use an overhead or explain how to set up a specificsmall group activity. Other cues appear in the outside margins of the script.These are explained below under “Sidebars.”

Sidebars. The main body of the Trainer’s Manual is supported by cues to thetrainer in the margin, or sidebar. These cues are designed to alert the trainerto a variety of important elements of the training. One primary sidebar is anicon (e.g., ) that alerts the trainer to the use of a particular overhead.Specific cues for various training activities are explained below. We suggestthat you become very familiar with them as you prepare to train.

Individual Task. This cue indicates a brief assignment, such as areading or writing task, at a strategic point in the training. Individualtasks can be used to set up a paired or small group activity or a largegroup discussion.

Think/Pair/Share. This cue signals a quick technique designed to helpparticipants reflect on the information they are receiving by thinkingabout various issues and then talking through their thoughts. Thetrainer first asks participants to think about a specified issue and then to share their thoughts on the issue with a partner. He or she mightthen ask participants to share with the entire group.

Small Group Activity. This cue indicates a small group assignment inwhich two or more participants work together to discuss or clarify anissue or to engage in a structured or unstructured task. Often the resultsare shared in a large group discussion.

Jigsaw. This is a specific type of small group technique borrowed fromcooperative learning. Each group member is assigned a section ofmaterial and asked to be responsible for teaching it to the small group.The strategy can be strengthened by having participants from thedifferent small groups who are responsible for the same section ofmaterial meet together to talk over the material and then go back totheir original small groups. This is an efficient and effective way forparticipants to learn substantial amounts of material that cannot becovered in detail by the trainer.

Large Group Discussion. This cue indicates a discussion that is led bythe trainer, which is commonly preceded by a question posed by thetrainer. You will notice that sometimes these questions are followed by

5.3Overhead


9Trainer’s Manual

Introduction

notes to the trainer that either provide examples of answers thatparticipants often give to this question or that include a “targetanswer.” This target answer cues the trainer to an important point thatneeds to be made during the discussion.

Planning Activity. This cue appears at the end of the section on eachdimension and signals an activity in which participants practice planninga unit. This activity can be done individually or in small groups.

Closure. At the end of major training segments, the trainer is cued toselect a method of closure for that segment. Closure gives participantsan opportunity to reflect on what they have learned during the trainingactivities. You will notice that in the script we suggest that the trainerselect from three different styles of closure: table talk, pause and reflect,or learning logs. However, as with any portion of this training, weencourage the trainer to develop his or her own style. Each of thesuggested styles of closure might be structured (by providing a specificquestion or assignment for participants) or unstructured (by givingparticipants the freedom to talk, think, or write about what they wish).Briefly, the three suggested styles are

Table Talk. Encourage participants to verbalize to a partner, orwithin a small group, specific things that they have learnedduring the training segment and what those things mean to them.

Pause and Reflect. Ask participants to sit quietly for a fewminutes to reflect on their experiences in the training. They maywant to skim over their notes, review pages of the Teacher’sManual, or simply sit and think.

Learning Logs. Ask participants to dedicate several pages of theirnotes to a learning log (or provide them with prepared forms).Provide time for them to write down their thoughts about theideas in the training or about possible uses of the material.

Trainers and other decision makers who are planning training shouldremember an important principle of staff development: Training should bedelivered and supported over an extended period of time and not be treated asa one-shot workshop. There are unlimited variations to offering this training.We have provided a brief description of one format: the four-day initialtraining followed by study team support. Study teams will be explainedfurther in the next section, but we want to highlight that even a four-daytraining is not sufficient for full implementation of the ideas in this model.



Introduction

Modeling the Model

During training, it is important that the trainer’s behavior reflect theassumptions about learning and the instructional processes presented in theDimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual and in A Different Kind of Classroom:Teaching with Dimensions of Learning (Marzano, 1992). There are at least threereasons that modeling the model is important. First, by “practicing whatthey preach,” trainers demonstrate the very teaching techniques that theyadvocate. Teachers frequently report that they become disenchanted whentrainers propose innovative teaching methods and then violate these methodsby spending the majority of their time lecturing. In addition to avoidingnegative participant attitudes, modeling the model provides participantswith first-hand experiences that give them insight into using Dimensions of Learning strategies in the classroom. Dimensions of Learning is as valid a model for adult learning as it is for student learning. Thus, it follows thatan effective adult learning experience must be structured around the fivetypes of thinking inherent in the model.

Although the scripts in this manual are designed to help the trainer model themodel throughout the training, a number of experiences and practices that werecommend are not described in the scripts. We describe these below asoptions the trainer might consider while planning the training. (For additionalexamples of modeling the model, see Appendix A.) These experiences andpractices should not be considered inclusive; there are many other things thatcan be included in a training that will model what is recommended. Of course,the sequencing, timing, and emphasis placed on these experiences may varyaccording to the disposition and preferences of the trainer.

1. Participants might be encouraged to reflect on their learningby keeping learning logs.

Throughout the training, not just during closure, participants mightperiodically be asked to make entries in personal learning logs toencourage them to reflect on what they are learning. These entriesmight be both free responses and structured responses.

Free responses are unrestricted and unguided comments related toany aspect of the training or the model. A trainer might cue a freeresponse in the learning log by simply saying to participants, “Take afew moments now and write in your learning logs your reactions towhat we just did or anything we have done.” Or she might ask,“What insights have you had so far that you would like to record inyour learning logs?” Participants can be asked to generate free


11Trainer’s Manual

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responses at any time during the training. Immediately before lunchor at the end of the day are good times for such summary activities.

Structured responses are cued by probes, which are specific questionsthe trainer asks participants to answer in their learning logs.Throughout the training, the trainer might present at least threetypes of probes.

Probes about content: These probes ask participants tocomment on some aspect of the content they are currentlyexperiencing or have experienced, for example, “What interestsyou most about what we just covered?” or “How could you usewhat we just did?” Content probes can be used after participantshave completed any module.

Probes about habits of mind: These probes ask participants to reflect on the extent to which they are using the 15 habits of mind as they learn the Dimensions of Learning model, forexample, “What have you noticed about your ability to stayengaged in this training as you experience things that aredifficult or as you experience things for which answers andsolutions are not immediately apparent?” or “During thistraining, how have you tried to be accurate and seek accuracy?”Probes about habits of mind are best used after participants haveexperienced particularly difficult content. They also are fitting orappropriate when participants are solving structured problems(see suggestion 2 below).

Probes about tasks requiring the meaningful use ofknowledge (projects): These probes ask participants to reflecton the processes involved in the Dimension 4 tasks or thecontent used in those tasks, for example, “What makes the taskshere different from those in Dimension 2?” or “WhichDimension 4 processes would facilitate students’ meaningful useof the identified important knowledge?” Probes related to themeaningful use of knowledge might be used as participantsengage in planning activities. They can also be used afterparticipants have participated in one of the small group activitiesfor Dimension 4.

2. Participants might engage in structured problem-solvingactivities periodically throughout the training.

Throughout the training, participants could be given structuredproblems (e.g., after returning from a break or whenever participants’


energy starts to wane). These activities can then be pointed to asmodels of how structured problem solving can be used to helpdevelop the habits of creative thinking. (See Appendix B for samplesof structured problems.) As participants work on these problems,notice and explicitly reinforce any demonstration of the habits ofmind, such as persevering or generating new ways of viewing asituation that are outside the boundaries of standard conventions.

3. Participants should be acknowledged for their use of the habitsof mind.

Any time participants discuss difficult or complex issues, the trainershould note specific examples of participants’ use of the habits ofmind. These illustrations can then be used as a practicaldemonstration of the many classroom situations that lend themselvesto reinforcing these same mental habits in students.

4. Process observers could be appointed.

When participants are engaged in any long-term small group activity,a process observer could be appointed for each group and directed tolook for and report on examples of participants exhibiting habits ofmind or any of the strategies from the model. The mental habitsdescribed in Dimension 5 might be explicitly targeted; for example,the trainer might say, “While working in your groups, I’d like you tolook for examples of people trying to be accurate or seek accuracy, andthen be prepared to share these examples with the large group.”

Suggested Training Formats

Although there are several ways to organize the training for the Dimensionsof Learning model, we strongly recommend that the initial training beintensive. We realize that local conditions and resources play an importantpart in decisions about scheduling. However, we urge those in charge ofimplementing Dimensions of Learning to carefully consider the long-rangepotential effects of the model and then to organize training to increase thelikelihood that those effects will be realized.

The Four-Day-Plus-Study-Teams FormatThis format requires an initial four-day immersion training with extendedfollow-up in study team meetings and periodic reinforcement training


Introduction


sessions. The recommended sequence for the four-day training is describedbelow. Ideally, these four days should be split into two 2-day segments. Thisprovides opportunities for participants to reflect on the ideas presented andto try some things in their classrooms. Keep in mind that you may need tomodify this recommended sequence, depending on the level of skill andexperience present in your training groups and on your participants’ uniquelearning needs.

Day 1

Participants are presented with an overview of the Dimensions of Learningmodel. Note that the script included in the Overview can be used either as astand-alone one- to two-hour presentation or as a shorter introduction toextended training.

Participants gain an understanding of and practice using

• theoretical foundations for the entire Dimensions model,

• teaching strategies and planning guidelines for Dimension 1, and

• teaching strategies and planning guidelines for Dimension 5.

Day 2


• important information in the introduction to Dimension 2, and

• teaching strategies and planning guidelines for Dimension 2.

Day 3


• several of the reasoning processes from Dimension 3 (processesselected will vary depending on the grade levels and content areasrepresented by participants), and

• the planning guidelines for Dimension 3.

Day 4

Participants gain an understanding of and/or practice using

• several of the reasoning processes for Dimension 4 (processes selectedwill vary depending on the grade levels and content areas representedby participants),

• the planning guidelines for Dimension 4, and

• the information in Chapter 6, “Putting It All Together” (e.g.,conferencing, assessment, record keeping, sequencing instruction).


Introduction


By this point, participants will have walked through the planning of ahypothetical unit on Colorado. They might, at this point, be ready to plananother unit on a topic they select. The trainer might model planning a unitwith the participants’ input on a topic selected by the group.

Four One-Day SessionsIn some situations, it is not possible to conduct an initial immersiontraining. In such cases, four full days of training spaced at fairly equalintervals might be used if participants have the teaching skills andexperience to master the concepts and to practice unit planningindependently between training sessions.

No matter what format is used, the initial training is only the beginning.The following section discusses one way of providing follow-up experiencesfor participants in the training.

Dimensions of Learning Study Teams

Research on staff development, reinforced by our experience in schools thatare using Dimensions of Learning, tells us that the use of study teams is oneof the most promising ways for teachers to assimilate Dimensions ofLearning into their own practice. Dimensions of Learning study teamsprovide essential follow-up activities to Dimensions of Learning workshoptraining: collaborative planning of instructional units with peers,experimentation with new teaching strategies, feedback on teaching, andcontinued study and discussion of the Teacher’s Manual. Participation instudy teams can provide the following benefits:

• A place for teachers to assess the extent to which they are alreadyaddressing the five dimensions of learning in lesson and unitplanning.

• An opportunity for teachers to use the Dimensions of Learningmodel and unit planning guides to design new units of study orrefine existing ones.

• Structured peer support for teachers as they develop newinstructional units and methods of assessment.

• An opportunity to explore additional teaching strategies in theTeacher’s Manual and examine learning concepts in A Different Kind ofClassroom.


Introduction


Educators often ask whether study teams are possible within the presentstructure of schools. They also wonder how study teams can possibly engagein substantive work, given the present structure of the school day. Althoughit’s true that in many schools the notion of study teams will run counter tothe traditional norm of teachers working alone, in others this picture isslowly changing. The experiences of several schools reveal that the use ofstudy teams can lead to mastery of skills learned in training, thedevelopment of a common professional language, the birth of norms ofprofessional interaction, experimentation with new practices, reflection onclassroom decisions, and creative problem solving about instruction. Inaddition, the collaborative work among teachers encouraged by study teamscontributes to improved student performance.

To help you visualize what a study team structure might look like in aDimensions of Learning school, we have created a scenario drawn fromexperiences in several districts that have used study teams.

A Study Team ScenarioThe faculty of Hillsdale Elementary School participated in four days of intensivetraining. During the training, they explored the Dimensions of Learning model,looked at how to plan using unit planning guides, and reviewed guidelines fororganizing study teams.

Following the training, teachers volunteered to work in study teams of four to sixindividuals to extend and refine their understanding and use of the Dimensions ofLearning model. They decided to meet for three hours once every other week duringboth semesters of the year. Some teams met during the school day on released time, andothers met after contract hours.

The principal became a member of one of the study teams and participated actively asa learner. He also arranged the school schedule to allow teachers with similar intereststo meet during their planning periods. In addition, the district arranged for teammembers to receive recertification credit upon each member’s successful completion of apaper outlining what he or she had learned by the end of the semester.

Team Organization

Topics, meeting dates, times, and locations were selected in advance. A team leaderwas chosen to make sure the meetings began and ended on time; to arrange for meetingrooms, refreshments, and materials; and to complete a summary sheet at the end ofeach meeting outlining what had been discussed, the goals for the next meeting, and aroster of attendees. This summary sheet was given to the principal and forwarded tothe district staff development office. The team leaders from each study group in the


Introduction


building had monthly meetings with the principal to exchange information andresources and to coordinate their efforts.

The team leaders were teachers who had volunteered or had been selected by the groupto handle logistical arrangements and accountability procedures. They were viewedfirst and foremost as peers, learning together with the team. The district paid the teamleaders a stipend in return for the additional responsibilities they assumed. Althoughteam leaders were responsible for logistics and for liaison work between the team andthe district, they did not always act as individual meeting facilitators. The groupdecided in the beginning that the roles of facilitator, recorder, and timekeeper shouldrotate each meeting. All members received training in meeting management skills fromthe district staff developer, who had also been trained and done advanced work in theDimensions of Learning model.

The district staff developer analyzed each summary sheet that the team leadersproduced, looking for common themes. She provided technical assistance and resourcematerials, and she sometimes taught demonstration lessons based on the informationshe read in the summary sheets regarding team members’ questions and concerns. Inaddition, she periodically met with the teams to present additional concepts from theDimensions of Learning model and to facilitate the process of teachers’ becoming morefamiliar with all five dimensions and creating instructional units.

Team Focus and Norms

Most of the teams selected one or two of the dimensions for in-depth study over severalsessions. One team spent four sessions looking at the habits of mind and thenintegrated the concepts into unit plans. Each team established a set of norms for itsmeetings that incorporated the habits of mind. For instance, the team members askedthemselves, “Are we being clear and seeking clarity? Are we open-minded whenconsidering new ideas? Are we responding appropriately to the feelings and level ofknowledge of others?” Other team norms focused on active listening, open andsupportive communication, beginning and ending meetings on time, staying focused oneach meeting’s objectives, and completing assignments on schedule.

Team Activities

Teams were encouraged to begin experimenting with the unit planning guidesimmediately following the initial workshop. Members first tried developing a mock unittogether and then began to work in smaller teams and individually following the stepsoutlined in the planning sections of each dimension. The process they followed included

• writing a new curriculum unit or revising an existing one using theDimensions of Learning unit planning guides;

• implementing the unit plans in their classrooms;


Introduction


• evaluating as a team how each plan was working and identifying wherechanges were needed to meet students’ needs;

• revising plans, or expanding them, using additional instructional strategiesfrom the Teacher’s Manual;

• implementing, reflecting on, evaluating, and revising lessons on a continuingbasis;

• assessing the effect of their work on students; and

• celebrating successes.

As the interest and need for a broader repertoire arose, teams also opted to learnadditional teaching strategies from the Teacher’s Manual and A Different Kind ofClassroom. As trust and rapport developed among the members of each study team,they invited one another to observe their classes. At the suggestion of the Dimensions ofLearning trainers and the district staff developer, peer observations were not mandatedby the district nor forced on team members by administrators or team leaders.

Progress Evaluation

Periodically and at the end of the year, each study team evaluated its progress inimplementing various aspects of the Dimensions of Learning model. Benefits citedincluded the opportunity to learn and interact with peers, time to address commoninstructional problems, and the chance to identify common learning objectives andstudents’ needs across disciplines. A number of teachers said that their students weremore engaged in learning and that discipline problems seemed to be decreasing. Theyalso noted that having the principal involved in the learning process with the teamsgave them the sense that their work had high priority and was valued.

There were also comments about the downside of the experience. Teachers mentioned thefrustration involved in “not being able to learn the Dimensions of Learningframework fast enough,” the extra time it took to consciously plan using the fivedimensions, the competing demands on their time, the pressure to “cover thecurriculum,” the sense of awkwardness they still felt with various parts of theDimensions of Learning model, and a general feeling of frustration at “how long ittakes to learn something new.”

Despite these factors, most teachers believed the benefits of the experience outweighed thecosts, and a sense of commitment to the process prevailed. Ten of the twelve teachersinvolved in study teams volunteered to continue in their study teams the next year.During the summer, they had an opportunity for three days of review and follow-uptraining that focused on clearing up confusions they had encountered during theirstudy sessions, refining units of study, and developing classroom-based assessment tasksusing the Dimensions of Learning model. The district staff developer also addressed


Introduction


the teams’ concerns about managing change. She provided time for teams to explorecommon instructional problems and offered strategies for overcoming some of thedifficulties that they faced as they worked to integrate the dimensions of learning intotheir instructional practices.

Guidelines for Study Team Success In analyzing the experience of the study teams in the pilot school above, wehave identified a set of guidelines that can help you form study teams. Tofunction effectively, study teams need

• autonomy and accountability;

• attention to relationships and attention to task;

• designated leadership and shared leadership;

• a focus on the joint analysis by study team members of the effects ofinstructional decisions on students’ work;

• group norms;

• administrative support;

• communication mechanisms within the group and between thegroup, the school, and the district at large; and

• a way to transfer their learning to the classroom.

Many staff developers responsible for working with study teams emphasizethe importance of bringing classroom “artifacts” to study group meetings.They view artifacts as any form of data that captures the immediacy of theclassroom moment—for instance, samples of student work, teacher journalentries describing actual classroom events, observation notes, case studies ofindividual students or critical incidents, and lesson plans. Artifacts helpstudy team discussions stay focused on real events, rather than on vaguegeneralizations or unsupported inferences about the effect of a planned lessonon students. Barrie Bennett and associates (Bennett, Rolheiser-Bennett, andStevahn, 1991) have constructed a form that teachers can use to documentand analyze the relationship between intended and actual effects of lessonplans on students (see Figure 1). By examining classroom artifacts anddiscussing the results of lesson plans, participants can turn study teammeetings into a valuable forum for structured problem solving and whatnoted educators Art Costa and Robert Garmston (1991) call “cognitivecoaching”—that is, enhancing metacognition and promoting the Dimensionof Learning habits of mind.


Introduction


FIGURE 1

TEACHING FOLLOW-UP ANALYSIS


Introduction

Name: ____________________________ School: ______________________

Lesson/Subject: ______________________ Date: ______________________

1. Successes experienced 2. Problems encountered

3. Possible revisions

4. Critical or interesting incidents

5. I shared this lesson with . . .

Source: Bennett, Rolheiser-Bennett, and Stevahn (1991)


Why Are Study Teams Essential? Research on training, as well as plain common sense, suggests that to fullymaster the information and skills learned in training, individuals must seehow the information relates to real-life situations and must use the skillsimmediately in the workplace—with ongoing support and coaching—or theskills will be lost. Additional support for this perspective can be found inChapter 2 of the Teacher’s Manual, which discusses Dimension 2 anddescribes how declarative knowledge is stored (see pages 73-80) and howprocedural knowledge is internalized (see pages 101-103).

We believe that the best way for teachers initially to practice the skills in theDimensions of Learning model is to use them to develop instructional unitsin planning sessions with peers. Through interaction with peers in studyteams, participants can extend and refine their declarative knowledge aboutDimensions of Learning; construct models for, shape, and practice their skillof writing units; and use all of this knowledge in meaningful, self-directedways, while further developing their skills in critical, creative, and self-regulated thinking.

We recommend that school districts consider the guidelines for study teamorganization we have offered above and then adapt them to the general needsof their setting and to their specific objectives. We strongly believe that astudy team structure bridges the gap between learning skills in the trainingsession and actually implementing and integrating those skills into theclassroom.

It is also our conviction that any long-term staff development effortinvolving Dimensions of Learning must model the model; that is, if we wantour students to become self-directed learners and critical, creative, and self-regulated thinkers and if we believe that the learning process is mostpowerful when learners are engaged in using knowledge meaningfully, thenit is only reasonable to assume that teachers who are learning theDimensions of Learning model should structure their own learning as theywould their students’. Collegial, professional study teams provide the settingin which this type of adult learning can take place. In using study teams toextend and refine their knowledge of the Dimensions of Learning model andto create integrated units of instruction that stimulate students to useknowledge actively and meaningfully, educators can internalize forthemselves the skills they hope will one day transform classrooms.


Introduction


Tips for Trainers

The following suggestions are presented in the spirit of an ongoing dialogueamong trainers. Although there is certainly no list of sure-fire or fail-safetips or techniques to guarantee success in training, the following practiceshave been found to be successful in a variety of training situations.

Dealing with Compulsory vs. Volunteer Groups The attitude of participants is often affected by how they were selected toparticipate in the training. If a group is made up largely of teachers andadministrators who are required to attend, there is often a high degree ofskepticism about the value of what is being offered in the training. This isbest dealt with in a nondefensive manner. We suggest that a trainer note theattitude of the group, perhaps by using humor (e.g., by lightly asking howmany people are excited to be in the workshop and how many would ratherbe anywhere but in the workshop). Be sure to then move quickly into thesubstance of the training.

We have found that the Dimensions of Learning model is sufficientlypowerful and engaging to overcome mild skepticism and resistance. If alarge segment of the group seems unyielding, however, we suggest that afterthe introduction to Dimension 1, the trainer use an activity that requiresparticipants to examine their own and the group’s attitude toward thetraining. Candor and adult-to-adult discussions usually go over better thandefensive or power-based statements. There is a delicate balance betweenoverreacting and ignoring an attitude that might be a serious obstacle in atraining session. Skilled Dimensions of Learning trainers artfully use themodel to help participants overcome such obstacles.

Preparing for Training Sessions 1. Suggest to hosts of the training that they communicate pertinent

information about the training in writing to each participant. Eachparticipant should feel respected and welcome. The nature and details ofthe training times, dates, and places should be explained as shouldexpectations of punctuality and participation. Possible workshopactivities also should be communicated.

2. Plan activities to ensure variety. Trainer talk should be balanced withtasks for participants and opportunities for small group activities andlarge group discussions.

3. Content should be carefully selected and logically organized, andpractical application activities should be structured into the training.


Introduction


Handling Logistics1. Have starting times posted or communicated. If coffee or refreshments

are to be served, have notice given that this occurs before the startingtime. Model punctuality by starting on time.

2. Make sure you have sufficient materials available for participants.Whenever you conduct a training, participants should receive name tagsand an agenda for the training sessions. If you are doing more than abrief overview of the model, participants might also need the following:

• The second edition of the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual.

• Handouts. In addition to the handouts provided in the back ofthis manual, these might include copies of selected overheads, atyour discretion, and, if participants are going to engage inplanning activities, a copy of selected pages from the ColoradoUnit, which can be found in the back of the Teacher’s Manual.

Collating materials beforehand saves time and models good materialsmanagement. You may want to color-code handouts to help people locatespecific items more quickly.

At various points in a training session that includes all dimensions,participants might also need the following:

• 8 1/2” x 11” paper• Paper clips• Rubber bands• Transparent tape• Markers• Notepads or notebooks

In addition to the Dimensions of Learning Trainer’s Manual and Teacher’sManual, the trainer will need the following:

• Overhead transparencies• Markers for overheads• A large flipchart• Copies of any handouts that will be given to participants (e.g.,

blank unit planning guides)

3. Carefully plan table and seating arrangements. If tables are long, seven oreight participants can be seated at each. If round tables are used, removeany chairs that are not facing the screen. The seating arrangement shouldmake it possible for everyone to see the screen and the trainer.

4. Place paper and extra pencils for taking notes in the center of each table.


Introduction


5. Post a schedule of starting times, ending times, breaks, and lunch. Alsolist the agenda items, either on the schedule or separately. Many trainershave found that listing agenda items separately allows them to respondmore flexibly to participants’ interests.

6. Check the overhead projector for clarity and intensity, and have materialsorganized for each segment of the presentation.

7. Large wall charts showing the major components of the training arehelpful and provide a visual framework for the conceptual structure ofthe workshop.

Managing the Minutes Before Training Begins 1. Greet and chat with as many people as possible. Strive to establish

interpersonal rapport and to associate names with faces.

2. Mentally take note of people’s attitudes toward being at the trainingsession, but do not act prematurely on your inferences about individuals;some people appear negative early on and later become enthusiastic—orat least more open-minded. Having a sense of the group will help youdetermine the pace to set and which areas to emphasize first.

Creating a Professional Appearance 1. Clothing should be clean and attractive but not distractingly flashy. Of

course, some trainers can get away with more extravagant styles becausethey feel most comfortable dressed that way. Don’t risk it unless it trulyreflects your style. Even in informal settings, it is more effective for thetrainer to be dressed professionally. A professional appearance sets thetrainer a bit apart and subtly communicates that he or she is in charge.

2. Knowing your emotional tendencies and level of anxiety is the key toeffectively controlling your behavior. Some important elements tomonitor include tone of voice, pace of speech, eye contact, smoothness ofhand gestures, and overall variety of presentation. The appropriateamount of anxiety will help keep you moving and energized. Too muchwill cause you to block your thoughts. Shaking hands and a tremblingvoice reduce participants’ confidence in the trainer.

Talking to yourself and doing silent or oral cognitive rehearsals will helpyou control your behavior. If you are in the midst of a presentation andfeel you are “losing it,” think of a question or a quick discussion activitythat will engage the group and give you time to recoup.


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It is generally not a good idea to share your feelings of anxiety ornervousness with the group. Some groups may be very sympathetic, butif participants focus on concern for the trainer (either positively ornegatively), they often will miss the point of the training segment. Attimes trainers just have to take a deep breath and go on.

3. It pays to help every person believe that he or she is an important part ofthe training. The trainer can accomplish this through informal personalcontact, eye contact, use of names, references to participants’ ideas andcomments, and by allowing time for verbal participation by everyone.

4. As a trainer, you should give yourself credit when you deserve it. If youhave prepared and delivered a training segment to the best of yourability, you can leave the session with your integrity intact. Negativeparticipants have the right to disagree with or reject the content, butthey do not have the right to impugn your personal or professionalintegrity.

5. At the same time, you should engage in constructive self-criticism basedon your sense of the effectiveness of a presentation, combined withformal and informal feedback from participants.

6. General deportment of oneself as a trainer is difficult to assess, butholding yourself up against the following list of descriptors of successfultrainers may provide some insight. Successful trainers

• are generally positive about and supportive of participantswithout being gushy;

• are enthusiastic and energetic without being hyperactive;

• are reasonably assertive without being overbearing or hostile;

• acknowledge when they are expressing beliefs or biases asopposed to when they are communicating information;

• use humor as an instrument, not as a detractor or filler; are ableto laugh at themselves; avoid sarcasm and put-downs;

• are genuine;

• are well prepared;

• listen to participants;

• make eye contact with all participants; and

• frequently assess participants’ nonverbal cues.


Introduction


7. Occasionally viewing your performance on videotape will help providesubstantive feedback on your presence as a trainer. Most people’s firstreaction to video playback is so overwhelming that they must view thetape several times before they can really see pertinent information. Anote of caution, then, is not to overreact to the first self-viewing. Spendtime analyzing not just how you looked and sounded but how the groupresponded and how effectively the content was presented.

8. Model the teaching skills you are presenting. Nothing is moredisturbing to participants than watching trainers violate the veryconcepts they are advocating.

Dealing with Difficult Participant Behavior We preface this section with the statement that we have the highest regardfor the thousands of teachers with whom we have worked over the years andthat our goal is to have all participants leave Dimensions of Learningtraining sessions feeling renewed, refreshed, and respected. From time totime, however, a participant will exhibit untoward behavior, and you willhave to find a way to deal with that behavior. Here are a few of the “problemparticipants” you may encounter and some solutions for dealing with them.

The passive-aggressive resister is clearly not involved in the training. Heis usually engaged in silent nontask behavior, such as reading outsidematerial, checking papers, or writing for other purposes (doodling may ormay not be an example). The message being sent is, “I’m not going to dothis ‘stuff’, but you can’t ‘get’ me because I’m not doing anything wrong.”

The solution? First, don’t overreact. Give the person a chance to getinvolved. This can be facilitated by a small group activity or discussion. Ifthe passive resistance persists, you might try moving in the participant’sdirection. At times, close proximity is enough to trigger attention andengagement. If the problem persists, a quick and quiet counseling sessionmay be necessary and useful. For example, during a break you might say, “Inoticed that you don’t seem involved in what we are doing. Is there aproblem I should know about?” Conversely, it sometimes may be expedient,for the sake of the group, to ignore the passive-aggressive participant. Adultsare responsible for their own behavior, and we do not encourage the trainerto take on the role of enforcer.

The hostile resister is rare but is immediately recognizable when she ispresent. She usually translates her hostility into verbal challenges or overtrefusals to participate in specific tasks. Sometimes there is more than onehostile participant, and they join together and conspire to undermine thetraining. Dealing with active aggression and hostility requires an ability to


Introduction


remain detached from the apparent attacks directed toward you and react tothe situation in a reasonable manner. Often the simple act of not getting“hooked” by the hostile resister gradually defuses the situation.

The dominator talks incessantly to the whole group. He often wantsattention and has little sense of himself in a group context. If the dominatoris impulsive and not mean spirited, a trainer can allow for the neededattention until it distracts from the presentation or overwhelms others in thegroup. Some techniques for dealing with the dominator include not callingon him or saying quickly after an assertion he has made, “Good point, but Ihave to move on,” or “Thank you. Now let’s hear from someone else.” If thesesuggestions don’t work, it may be time for quick counseling at the break.

The I-know-more-than-you-do participant seems to want to take overthe group. Actually, she is a type of dominator who needs recognition forwhat she knows. Giving a reasonable amount of recognition may beeffective, but at times trainers must use some of the techniques suggested fordealing with dominators. Small group discussion is one way to let peoplehave their say and get recognition without taking over the group.

The I-gotcha questioner asks rhetorical questions or questions designed to“trap” the trainer. This participant often simply transforms statements intoquestions in an effort to undermine a point in the training. Obviously,genuine questions should be encouraged, but when someone asks, “Isn’t ittrue that. . . ?” he is actually saying, “I believe it is true that. . . .” One ofthe quickest ways to handle such challenges is to say, “It sounds like yourquestion is really a statement of ______. Let’s talk about the issue youraised.” This response is effective because the trainer remains in control anddemonstrates careful listening and responding.

The bulldog with a tiny bone focuses on a minute point and won’t let go.A trainer can easily be drawn into a tedious debate with this one participant,while most of the group mentally withdraws. It is best to say somethinglike, “I can see this is important to you, so perhaps we can discuss it duringthe break. Right now we really must move on.” Of course, be sure to followup during the break.

The joker uses wit or sarcasm to interrupt and to draw attention to herself.A playful joker can sometimes be a delightful addition to a group, even ifshe pokes fun at the trainer. Here again, it’s a matter of balance; it’s only aproblem if the joking gets out of hand. Moving on quickly and ignoringjokes will often extinguish the behavior. If not, catch the person at break andask her to restrain herself a bit.


Introduction


On the other hand, a sarcastic joker who throws many hurtful comments ateither the trainer or others in the group should not be ignored. The trainershould either publicly or privately tell this person that her comments are nothelpful and that she should keep her sarcasm to herself and let the groupproceed. The trainer should be careful not to engage in sarcastic repartee infront of the whole group. Such behavior merely reinforces the participant’ssarcastic behavior.

The chatterbox just can’t stop talking to his neighbors. All trainers have attimes ignored such behavior, thinking it will go away, only to have otherparticipants request that something be done. If moving closer to the talkerdoesn’t succeed in stopping the chatter, falling silent and looking in thedirection of the talker usually will. If that doesn’t work, talk to the personduring the break. Try to avoid a public reprimand, if possible.

The I’m-with-you-200-percent participant is overly enthusiastic anddistracts the trainer and the group with an excessive number of commentsand examples. Obviously, it is not desirable to thwart genuine enthusiasm.Accepting such support and moving on is usually sufficient, but a trainermust be careful not to continually play to the one or two visibly supportiveparticipants. Participants who support the concepts less obviously can be putoff by what appears to be trainer favoritism.

The late arriver-early leaver has so many “important” issues to deal withoutside of the training that she is distracted and often distracts others withher comings and goings. Commonly, the late arriver-early leaver does notrealize that her actions are disruptive. Again, the best way to handle thisproblem is one-to-one. The trainer’s first action should be to find out thefacts. There may be a health problem or some other emergency for whichallowances should be made. At other times, the trainer may need to insistthat the person either go or stay but not continue the in-and-out behavior.Remember that administrators are frequently called out of sessions. The bestway to solve this problem is to acknowledge to the group that some peoplemay be called out of the session periodically and to request that this be doneas unobtrusively as possible.

There are no sure-fire or pat solutions that will take care of all of thedifficulties listed above. One very general way of avoiding problems is toavoid compulsory participation. When compulsory participation is aproblem, however, it should be dealt with in a direct manner. This can bedone by announcing, “We are aware that all or some of you feeluncomfortable or upset about being required to be here. We are notresponsible for the decisions that led to this workshop, but we areresponsible for doing the best we can as we work with you. If anyone wishesto express feelings about this at this time, please do so; then we will moveon.” Allow some discussion, and then move on to the next topic.


Introduction


Setting Up Groups Grouping for activities in Dimensions of Learning training sessions shouldbe driven by the training objectives. Both quickly formed unstructuredgroups for brief discussions and carefully structured groups for morecomplex tasks should be used. The following advice is offered to assisttrainers in forming groups.

Unstructured Groups

We suggest that the trainer periodically pause during the presentation ofinformation to allow time for reflection and discussion. Discussion can betriggered by asking participants to simply turn to a neighbor and talk abouta particular point or issue.

Structured Groups

Two types of relatively formal, structured groups are useful. The first is agroup or team of people who came to the session together and who will beworking together to implement Dimensions of Learning. The trainingexperience can be seen as a team-building experience for them. Sometimesthese groups are referred to as “home teams.”

The second structured type of group is the “training task group,” which isformed to work on a specific small group activity. These groups encourageparticipants to share with others who are not part of their home team. Byrandomly selecting members for these groups, diversity is increased. Beloware some suggestions for putting people into training task groups.

Count off: Determine the size of the groups you want, and divide thatnumber into the number of participants. Then count off repeatedly usingthat number. For instance, if there are 32 people in the large group and youwant 4 people in each small group, start at one side of the room and numberoff through 8 until everyone has a number. Next, designate a spot for eachnumbered group to meet and work. This can also be done with letters.

Another approach is to number name tags or handouts. The advantage tothis approach is that the trainer can structure the composition of each groupto represent a cross section of the workshop. The trainer can ensure gender,ethnic, and racial balance or even make sure there is a mix of administratorsand teachers in each group, if that is desired.

Self-selection: Another less-structured approach is to ask participants tofind three or four people with whom they have not worked and form a smallgroup. This takes a little more time but varies the forming of groups.


Introduction


O v e r v i e w


Overview chapter 9/10/07 3:02 PM Page 1

Overview


Overview

This section of the training is an overview of the Dimensions of Learningmodel. This Overview can be a stand-alone presentation or an introductionto an extended training. In either case, participants are gaining a familiaritywith each of the five dimensions as they develop an initial understanding ofthe theoretical foundations of the model, examine sample classroomactivities, and consider potential uses of Dimensions of Learning.

<As explained in the introduction to this Trainer’s Manual, throughout the trainingsession, every effort should be made to “model the model.” In other words, it isimportant to attend to each dimension as you plan and present the training. Forexample, try to encourage positive attitudes from participants by establishing a positivesocial and psychological climate. This might be done, for example, by making personalcontact with as many participants as possible before the training begins, helpingparticipants get to know one another, and demonstrating respect for participants byacknowledging that they already know a great deal about the learning process as aresult of their experiences in the classroom. You can refer to these behaviors later asexamples of attending to Dimension 1.>

<After formal introductions, start with a warm-up activity like the one below.>

Before we get started on the specifics of the Dimensions of Learning model,let’s try a little warm-up activity.

<Write the following question on a blank overhead: “If the day before the day beforeyesterday was Tuesday, what is the day after the day after tomorrow?” Or, you mayuse another problem or puzzle.>

Take a minute to see if you can come up with the answer to this puzzle.

<Allow a couple of minutes for participants to work on their solutions. Walk aroundand find someone who has come up with the correct answer (Monday), and ask if heor she is willing to share his or her thinking in coming up with the answer. Adiagram such as the following might be shared by one of the participants.>

Individual Task


Overview


DB = day before

DA = day after

Given that Dimensions of Learning is about thinking, I wanted you to getinto the proper mode for this workshop by engaging in a specific type ofthinking that was needed to solve this little problem. Notice that as peopleshared how they got their answers, they used strategies. Some drewdiagrams, some talked through their answers, some simply thought abouttheir answers for a couple of minutes. The point is that when we engage inany particular type of thinking—problem solving, decision making,comprehending, etc.—we commonly use strategies. The ability to engage insuch thinking is not magical or doled out randomly to people at birth. Thisability results from developing strategies, some of which we are unaware thatwe use. As we explore the Dimensions of Learning model, you should gainan understanding of the type of thinking represented in each dimension andbecome familiar with strategies that people use who have developed theability to engage in that type of thinking.

How does Dimensions of Learning relate to thinking? Dimensions ofLearning is a comprehensive model of learning, based on research incognitive psychology, that identifies the kinds of thinking involved in thelearning process. People sometimes ask if Dimensions is another thinkingskills model. The answer is that any time we discuss learning, we mustdiscuss thinking. All aspects of learning involve thinking. In this way, Isuppose the answer to the question is that because Dimensions is aboutlearning, it certainly is a thinking skills model.

Before we look at the model, think for a minute about your students. Formgroups of three or four with those immediately around you. In your groups,discuss these questions: What kind of thinking do you wish you would seeevidence of more frequently in students? In other words, what thinkingabilities do your students lack, and why does this concern you? Be ready toreport back on some of the things that you have identified.

<Allow time for participants to discuss these questions, and then ask the small groupsto report to the large group. Listen carefully to participants’ concerns. You will be ableto refer to them later when you discuss each dimension. Frequently, participants giveideas that you can use while presenting each of the dimensions.>

Small Group Activity

Tuesday

DB DBYesterday

Wednesday

DBYesterday

Thursday

Yesterday

Friday

Today

Saturday

Tomorrow

Sunday

DATomorrow

Monday

DA DATomorrow


Overview


We are going to be talking about teaching students strategies for the differenttypes of thinking represented in the dimensions. Before we do, in your smallgroups consider another question that looks at the issue from the other side:“What are some good reasons for not teaching thinking?” After all, somewould argue, “Nobody taught us how to think when we were in school, andwe did just fine.” Consider for a few moments why we should not teachstudents various types of thinking. Be ready to report back to the large group.

<Participants’ answers usually include, “There really isn’t time to teach thinking,”“Standardized tests don’t evaluate thinking,” “Our job is not to teach students tothink,” and “We need to teach content.”>

The reason I asked you to discuss the first question—“What kind ofthinking do you wish you would see evidence of more frequently instudents?”—is to emphasize the broad range of needs in any studentpopulation. One motivation for the development of Dimensions of Learningwas to help people clarify what they mean when they say, “We want ourstudents to improve their thinking skills.” The diversity in your answers tothe first question highlights the fact that when discussing “thinking skills,”different people refer to very different behaviors. Dimensions of Learningclearly puts the emphasis on thinking that facilitates learning. As we beginto better understand the relationship between thinking and learning, we canset clearer goals for improving both.

The second question—“What are some good reasons for not teachingthinking?”—was designed to emphasize some important issues that willnaturally arise as we get further into the model. The Dimensions of Learningmodel has strong implications for curriculum planning, instruction, teacher-student interactions, classroom structures, and assessment. Many educatorswould agree that these areas can always be improved. Change comes with aprice, however. Improving how we teach the types of thinking that areidentified in this model might require changing how we use resources suchas time, money, and people. If it becomes necessary to significantly changehow we are presently using these resources, the challenges that come withtrying to effect these changes will quickly provide us with additional reasonsfor not teaching these types of thinking. We have to ask ourselves if we areready to commit to overcoming these challenges.

Actually, it is an exciting time to be in education because there are manyeffective and useful innovations available to us. Some of these innovations area result of using the research in cognition and learning and translating itinto practical classroom strategies.



Overview


In your small groups, identify some of the programs, techniques, andstrategies that you have experienced as participants in training sessions or asworkshop leaders. See how many innovations you can list in the next fewminutes.

<Allow time for participants to make their lists, and then have several groups share.>

Innovations like those you have listed make it exciting to be in education.But what is the downside of having so much available?

<Elicit answers. Some common answers include, “There is too much to choose from” and“People jump on bandwagons; that is, they embrace an innovation, but before theyimplement that idea they are attracted to the next innovation that becomes available.”>

The many diverse innovations and programs you have listed are oftenperceived as being quite separate and sometimes even pitted against oneanother. For example, teachers might say that they can’t implementcooperative learning because their schools are focused on standards. Or,teachers sometimes feel pressured to use specific strategies, even when thosestrategies do not fit well with their style of teaching or with what they aretrying to accomplish.

Although it is probably an unintentional outcome, sometimes teaching isevaluated as to whether particular instructional strategies and programsexist, rather than on the effect that these strategies and programs have onstudents’ thinking and learning. If we were to graphically depict educationwhen it has this emphasis, it might look like this.

<Put up Overhead O.1. As you talk, use a marker to turn each spoke into an arrowthat points to the Students’ Thinking and Learning circles, as shown below.>


Large Group Discussion

O.1Overhead

Students’Thinking and Learning


Stud

ents

’Th

inki

ng a

nd L

earn

ing


InstructionalStrategies

and Programs



Overview

In the center, or the target, of this graphic are instructional strategies andprograms. Students’ thinking and learning sometimes gets lost or exists onlyon the periphery. Of course, the goal of the strategies and programs is toinfluence students’ thinking and learning, but sometimes students get lostor deemphasized.

Ideally, instructional strategies and programs should not be in the center.They are not the end; they are the means to the end. The success of anystrategy or program should be measured only in terms of the effect it has onstudents’ thinking and learning. When education is focused on students, wemight depict it like this.

<Put up Overhead O.2. As you talk, use a marker to turn each spoke into an arrowthat points to the center.>

As stated earlier, the success of any innovation in education should bemeasured in terms of its influence on students’ learning. When a newinnovation is explored, this should not mean that a successful technique isdropped. For example, teachers should not stop using cooperative learningwhen a district pursues the implementation of standards. In fact, manybelieve that using cooperative learning in the classroom will enhancestudents’ attitudes and, therefore, help more students achieve high standards.

In order to achieve the goal of maintaining an emphasis on students’learning, we recommend that educators in a school or district share acommon understanding and language related to learning. As you will see,Dimensions of Learning is a model that can help provide this commonunderstanding and language.

Dimensions is a model of learning that identifies five interrelated types ofthinking. As we examine this model, keep in mind that it is a model thatwas invented, not discovered. It is offered not as truth, but as a useful tool.Models are valuable because they help us to organize and study complextopics. Dimensions of Learning is way of organizing and studying the vastamount of information related to human learning.

<Put up Overhead O.3.>

The five types of thinking—the five dimensions—identified in theDimensions of Learning model are

• Attitudes and Perceptions• Acquire and Integrate Knowledge• Extend and Refine Knowledge• Use Knowledge Meaningfully• Habits of Mind

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Overview


Thus, if we are interested in promoting successful learning on the part of ourstudents, it makes good sense to elicit, address, and teach to the thinkingrelated to each of these five dimensions.

<If the Dimensions of Learning videotapes are available, play the Introductory tape,which lasts about eight minutes. Afterwards, briefly review the five dimensions onOverhead O.3.>

The relationship among these five dimensions of learning is not linear andsequential. This is illustrated in the graphic representation shown on thisoverhead. As we discuss each of the dimensions, it should become clear thatthey interact and overlap. This model does not set up a hierarchy.Specifically, there is no implication that one dimension is on a higher levelthan another. It is also not a taxonomy, creating neat categories into whicheach part of the learning process fits. It is a model that represents thelearning process. As we examine the dimensions, you will see that each ofthem has distinctive characteristics but that the boundaries among thedimensions are blurred.

Again, although there really is not a sequence to the dimensions, they arenumbered, primarily because it makes it easier to discuss them. Let’s beginour exploration, then, with Dimension 1, Attitudes and Perceptions.

Dimension 1


Dimension 1 is based on the principle that students’ attitudes andperceptions influence learning. This is not a surprise to anyone. What aresome of the attitudes that affect students’ thinking and learning? In otherwords, what might students be saying to themselves that will influence howmuch they learn?

<Elicit a few responses.>

When you think about some of these attitudes, you might say that in anylearning situation, learners are asking themselves a number of questions:


• Do I feel accepted?

• Am I comfortable?

• Am I safe?


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Overview


• Is this information useful or interesting to me?

• Can I do this?

• Do I know what is expected?

If the answer to any of these questions is “no,” students probably will turnmuch of their attention to the issue implied by the question. As a result,learning is interrupted because learners are now expending much of theirmental energy trying to resolve the issue.

Try to think of a situation when you were a learner and your attitudes andperceptions influenced your learning, either positively or negatively. Shareyour experience with a partner.

<Give participants time to discuss their experiences, and then ask a couple of people toshare their experiences. Then put up Overhead O.6, and categorize some of theirexperiences as examples of parts of the outline. For example, if someone shares ananecdote about a teacher who was rude to him or her, point out that it is an exampleof not feeling accepted by teachers.>

Notice that this dimension has been divided into two general categories:attitudes and perceptions about classroom climate and attitudes andperceptions about classroom tasks. As we have seen, your personal anecdotesexemplify parts of this outline. If you were given enough time, you probablycould think of personal anecdotes for each part of this outline. In otherwords, you could think of times that your learning was influenced by yourpositive or negative attitudes and perceptions related to teachers, peers,comfort and order, your interest in the topic, your belief in your ability, andhow clear you were about what you were learning.

Given that these attitudes and perceptions influence learning, what does thisimply about instruction?

<Target answer: Teachers who want to enhance learning need to use strategies thathelp students develop positive attitudes and perceptions in these areas. Participantsmight also mention the point that students must also take some responsibility for theirown attitudes.>

Although teachers should help students to develop positive attitudes andperceptions, it is also important for students to take responsibility for theirown attitudes and perceptions. The Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manualincludes many strategies that will help teachers influence students’ thinkingrelated to attitudes and perception. It also includes strategies to share withstudents so that they can increasingly take responsibility for their ownattitudes and perceptions.

Think/Pair/Share


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Overview


You will notice as you explore the model that whenever possible andappropriate, there is an emphasis on students increasingly takingresponsibility for the types of thinking related to each of the dimensions.

<Put up Overhead O.5 again.>

Before we move on, stop for a few moments and think about how you, as aparticipant in this training, would answer one or more of the questions relatedto Dimension 1. Then turn to someone near you and share your thoughts.

<If time permits, elicit large-group responses.>

<If this is an introduction to a longer training, go on to the discussion ofDimension 2.>

<If you are doing a stand-alone overview, create a unit planning handout bycopying the Colorado Unit from the back of the Teacher’s Manual. It is not necessaryto include all of the pages related to planning for declarative knowledge. Emphasizethat Dimensions of Learning is designed to be a curriculum planning model. If thetypes of thinking specified in the Dimensions of Learning model are not attended toduring planning, they are not very likely to occur in the classroom.

Refer participants to the handout, specifically to the page showing the Dimension 1Planning Guide, and ask them to read the decisions a hypothetical teacher made for aunit on Colorado. Point out that teachers do not have to plan activities for everydimension in every unit but that they should consider each area during planning.Explain that for purposes of this presentation, the sample planning guides includeactivities in all five dimensions.

Then go on to the discussion of Dimension 2.>

Some people would say that the best way to influence attitudes andperceptions is to work on helping students acquire knowledge. Studentsbecome more confident and interested learners, these people would argue, ifthey are actually gaining knowledge. Although the Dimensions of Learningmodel does not contradict this perspective, it does imply that sometimes youhave to do things that directly influence attitudes and perceptions. Othertimes, however, attitudes are dramatically affected by what happens inDimension 2, Acquire and Integrate Knowledge.

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Think/Pair/Share



Overview

Dimension 2


Dimension 2 focuses on the thinking needed to acquire and integrateknowledge. Before considering the processes involved in acquiring andintegrating new knowledge, it is necessary to make an important distinctionbetween the two primary types of knowledge.

How many of you drive a car? <Ask for a show of hands.>

How many of you hold a valid driver’s license? <Ask for a show of hands.>

How many of you have never had a traffic ticket? Never mind. Just joking(although I have decided who I’m going to ask for a ride).

What specific knowledge did you need in order to get your driver’s license?

<Have participants call out examples as you write them on a blank overhead. As youwrite, create two columns: one for declarative knowledge and one for proceduralknowledge. Typically, in the declarative column you will have things like “laws,”“rules of the road,” “braking distances,” and “the shapes of signs.” On the proceduralside, you probably will have “parallel parking,” “turning,” “backing up,” and“starting the car.” As soon as you have several examples, ask the following question.>

What are the attributes of the kinds of knowledge in each of the twocolumns that I created?

<As participants generate attributes, write them at the bottom of the appropriatecolumn. They should see that one list contains facts, or discrete pieces of information;the other contains processes, or things you have to know how to do.>

You have identified the attributes of the two basic types of knowledge thatwe teach every day: declarative and procedural knowledge. Declarativeknowledge includes what we want students to know or understand: facts,concepts, and principles. Procedural knowledge is what we want students tobe able to do: processes and skills.


It is important to understand these two types of knowledge because we learnthem differently. The process of acquiring and integrating declarativeknowledge involves constructing meaning for, organizing, and storing thefacts, concepts, and principles. Acquiring procedural knowledge requireslearners to construct models for, shape, and internalize the skills andprocesses. Because we learn these two types of knowledge differently,


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Overview


educators should select different instructional strategies for each. Let’s lookat these two types of knowledge a little more closely.

As stated earlier, acquiring declarative knowledge involves constructingmeaning, organizing, and storing. Although there is much more to eachphase, briefly, constructing meaning involves linking new informationwith prior knowledge; organizing is seeing the patterns of relationshipswithin information; and storing is a process of consciously and deliberatelyplacing information into memory.

<If time is limited, you may want to skip the details related to acquiring andintegrating declarative knowledge and go on to the discussion of procedural knowledgeon page 42.>

The first phase highlights the fact that learning declarative knowledge is aconstructive process in that learners must “make meaning” from theinformation they are receiving. This is what you quite naturally do when youreceive information—when you pick up the newspaper in the morning oreven as you sit and attend to what I am saying right now. To illustrate, readthis passage, and be ready to summarize it for your partner. Be aware of whatyou are doing to construct meaning.

<Put up Overhead O.9 (“Doing Laundry” passage with no title). Give participantsenough time to discover that they are having trouble constructing meaning.>

You probably notice that you are having trouble. Before you discuss thepassage, I want you to read it again. This time, however, I am going to giveit a title. Notice what is happening inside your head as you read this time.

<Write “Doing Laundry” at the top of the passage, and allow time for participantsto read it again. Ask a couple of people to describe the difference between reading it thefirst time and reading it the second time. Have them identify what exactly was goingon inside their head each time.>

This passage was written to highlight what happens when the process ofconstructing meaning breaks down. You could decode the passage—that is,you could read the words—but it was difficult for you to elicit any priorknowledge, and, therefore, it was difficult for you to understand. Byproviding a title for the passage, I was able to help you elicit the appropriateprior knowledge. As a result, you could understand the information.

Good teachers, even if they are not familiar with this process of constructingmeaning, use strategies to help students understand the information they arereceiving. They know that if students don’t make connections in theinformation, they will not understand what they are reading or hearing. If

Think/Pair/Share


O.9Overhead


Overview


students are reading a chapter in a biology book, for example, and they havean experience like the one you had as you read the “Doing Laundry” passagewithout the title, they might become frustrated and confused and mighteven give up trying to understand the information. Although textbooks arenot written to intentionally break down the process of constructingmeaning, students still might only decode the words and fail to constructmeaning. Therefore, we should consciously and intentionally use strategiesthat help students to construct meaning.

Has anyone used or seen someone use the strategy called K-W-L or atechnique that requires students to create mental images? These arestrategies that are particularly powerful in helping students to constructmeaning. The Teacher’s Manual includes these strategies as well as a numberof other suggested strategies for helping students to construct meaning fordeclarative knowledge.


Another important phase in acquiring and integrating declarative knowledgeis organizing information. This is the phase in which learners see patterns ofrelationships among pieces of information. It is critical that students seeinformation in patterns, as opposed to seeing pieces of information inisolation, sometimes referred to as “infobits.” If students see the informationin patterns, they are more likely to retain and use that information.

Keep in mind, however, that different learners working with the same pieceof information will organize or put ideas together very differently. Thispicture may help you better understand this idea.

<Put up Overhead O.10. Ask participants if they can see the old lady and the younglady.>

Some of you probably can see the old lady very easily but have trouble seeingthe young lady; others probably have the opposite problem. The same is truewhen learning information: Some students can clearly see certain key ideasand will therefore see different patterns of relationships than others will. Itcan be frustrating when students don’t see patterns that you think areobvious. For example, students might read a passage that you believe clearlyexplains the causes of the American Revolution. Some students however, donot see a cause-effect pattern at all. To your dismay, they simply see factsabout Paul Revere.

However, it does no good to become dismayed when students don’t seepatterns that are clear to you. Remember, some of you can see the pattern ofthe old lady and the pattern of the young lady in this picture; some of you

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Overview

cannot see either of them. The message is that if we want students to seepatterns in information, we should use strategies that help them. Many ofyou are familiar with strategies that help students organize information,strategies like graphic organizers or graphs and charts. Again, the Teacher’sManual offers explanations of these and other strategies to help students inthis critical phase of acquiring declarative knowledge.


Once you have constructed meaning for and organized your knowledge, youstill have one more step to consider. Do you need to use storing strategies toensure that you will remember any specific pieces of knowledge?

Some educators become uncomfortable when this topic is raised. They mightbe thinking, “Surely, you are not emphasizing memorizing in this model. Itis important for students to learn to access information, not memorize it.”

The Dimensions of Learning model highlights the importance ofremembering what you have learned. Certainly, accessing information iscritical, but in classrooms and in the workplace it is also important to have agreat deal of information “in your head” ready to use at any time. The goodnews is that by attending to constructing meaning for and organizinginformation, you have already influenced what will be remembered.However, there are times when there is a need to commit to memory veryspecific pieces of information. This is when storing strategies should be used.

Prior to the invention of the printing press, the mark of scholars was theirability to recall information by chapter and verse (e.g., from The Iliad, TheOdyssey, or the Bible). Current education practice sometimes does not makeuse of strategies that have been around for hundreds of years. As with theother phases, you can provide students with strategies that, when usedefficiently, can reduce the amount of time needed for storing information.Let’s try one strategy right now.

Create a picture in your head of a Jersey cow (which is brown). Name thisJersey cow “Georgette.” See her standing up on one hind leg, balancing ontop of the Empire State Building. She is wearing yellow underwear. She issinging Christmas carols. Hear them.

<Go back and review. Ask, “What kind of cow?”, “What was she wearing?”,“What’s her name?”, etc.>

Under what is now her right arm is a Virginia ham. Smell and taste it. Inher left hand is a pen. With this pen she is connecting dots in the air.


Individual Task

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<Go back and review again.>

Now the picture formed by the dots is becoming clear. It’s a long windingroad. On the road is Marilyn Monroe going to Mass, so see a big cathedral atthe end of the road.

<Go back and quickly review once more.>

Here is the situation. You are my fifth graders. We are studying the 13original colonies. I want you to be able to list them, but I don’t want you tospend a lot of time memorizing them. What we just did was use a memorystrategy to achieve this goal. Remember that with actual fifth graders, theywould know what they are memorizing. I didn’t tell you at the beginningbecause it is kind of fun to find out after you have done it. The strategy I usedis called the link strategy. You simply generate a symbol or substitute (a wordthat sounds like the target word) for each item you are memorizing and thenlink them together. Let’s check to see what symbols and substitutes I used.

<Provide the first few colonies for participants so that they understand how symbols,substitutes, and the link strategy work. Then ask them to identify the rest of thestates. Jersey cow=New Jersey; Georgette=Georgia; Empire State Building=NewYork; Christmas carols=North and South Carolina; yellow underwear=Delaware;Virginia ham=Virginia and New Hampshire; pen=Pennsylvania; connectingdots=Connecticut; road=Rhode Island; Marilyn=Maryland; andMass=Massachusetts.>

Some people might say that this is just a gimmick or a trick. Actually it is avery powerful strategy that is used effectively by students to remember lists.Because memory strategies are highly engaging, they can convince studentsthat other kinds of thinking—such as comprehension and problemsolving—also involve strategies that they can use.

To see if I have been clear, before we move on, take a few minutes to jotdown the key ideas we just covered in our discussion of acquiring andintegrating declarative knowledge.

<Allow time for participants to write.>

Based on what you wrote down, are there any questions you would like toask? Is there any information that needs to be clarified before we move on?

<Allow several seconds of “wait time.” Respond to questions. Then, if it is notalready up, put up Overhead O.8 again.>

To review, acquiring and integrating declarative knowledge involves threephases: constructing meaning, organizing, and storing. Acquiring and


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integrating procedural knowledge also involves three phases: constructingmodels, shaping, and internalizing. Constructing a model meansidentifying the steps involved in the procedure. The learner should have asense of each step and actually be able to perform each step, although theperformance will be rough at this point. Shaping means identifyingproblem areas, changing steps to improve them, or analyzing how the stepsare affected when the procedure is used in different contexts. This all helpsto make the procedure more “your own.” Internalizing is achieved throughpractice. When the learner has internalized a skill or process, he or she isable to perform the procedure fluently and automatically.

In order to begin to understand these three phases, let’s apply them to alearning experience we all have had. Try to recall learning the proceduresinvolved in driving. How did you learn the steps? (Did your dad patientlygive you instructions?) How did you shape the procedures? (Do you stilldrive with your hands at 10 o’clock and 2 o’clock or drive only in thatparking lot where you learned?) When did you know that you hadinternalized it? (When you were driving with your arm around yourgirlfriend?) Discuss your experiences with a partner.

<Allow time for participants to think and share.>

We are not going to review strategies at this time for each of these phases ofacquiring procedural knowledge, but it is important to note that they arequite different from those used to help students acquire declarativeknowledge. One of the purposes of the Dimensions training is to understandeach type of knowledge well enough to select appropriate strategies for thetype of knowledge students are acquiring. Further, as teachers understandthese two types of knowledge, they are more likely to evaluate the success ofany strategy by determining if, in fact, it enhanced students’ acquisition ofthe targeted knowledge. For example, the fact that K-W-L is a powerful,research-based strategy does not imply that teachers who use it are doing agood job. It should be used if the goal is to help students construct meaningfor declarative knowledge, and its success should be measured in terms of theextent to which students construct meaning.

Another reason for understanding the distinction between the process oflearning declarative knowledge and the process of learning proceduralknowledge is that classrooms focused on content areas containing a great dealof declarative knowledge will look very different from those focused oncontent areas containing a great deal of procedural knowledge. In classes inwhich declarative knowledge is emphasized, the greatest amount of time isspent constructing meaning, then organizing it; the least amount of time isspent storing it. In classes in which procedural knowledge dominates, even if


Think/Pair/Share


Overview

just for a particular unit, the majority of time is spent practicing and shaping;the time required for the learner to construct models is relatively short. Thisillustrates that not all classrooms will look—nor should look—the same.

In general, which subject areas are heavy in procedural knowledge? Whichare heavy in declarative knowledge?

<The general opinion is that industrial arts is an area that consists largely ofprocedural knowledge, that social studies consists mostly of declarative knowledge, andthat mathematics seems split. Keep in mind that not everyone will agree with thiscategorization; other positions certainly are defensible.>

<If this is an introduction to a longer training, go to the discussion ofDimension 3.>

<If this is a stand-alone overview, ask participants to read the unit planningguides for Dimension 2, which are part of the handout you created. Acknowledge thatthey may not be familiar with all of the strategies included in the planning guides. Themain point is that planning for the acquisition and integration of knowledge requirescareful consideration of the processes involved in learning both types of knowledge.

Then go on to the discussion of Dimension 3.>

Dimension 3


Learning, of course, involves more than just acquiring and integratingdeclarative and procedural knowledge. In truly effective situations, learnersengage in mental processes that help them gain new insights aboutinformation, see new connections, and make new discoveries. In short,learners extend and refine their knowledge. Few would deny that teachingstudents to use processes that help them to extend and refine knowledge is adesirable educational goal. That goal, however, sometimes gets lost.


Consider the list on this overhead for a moment. Students need instruction inhow to perform these processes, as well as specific opportunities to applythem to content. Keep in mind that the goal is not just to “do” theseprocesses periodically or on a particular day of the week. (One schooldesignated a thinking day, which was called “Thinking Thursdays.”) The goalis for students to use the processes to extend and refine their knowledge.


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Overview

To illustrate what is meant by using these processes to extend and refineknowledge, let’s use one of the processes: comparing. At your tables, I wantyou to compare two words that you know fairly well, that is, that you havealready “acquired”: fun and enjoyment.

<Write the following on a blank overhead.

Fun and enjoyment are similar because they both ________________________.

Fun and enjoyment are different because fun is _________ but enjoyment is_______.

Ask participants to use these sentence stems to try to generate three similarities andthree differences for the words “fun” and “enjoyment.” Give them time to work, andthen elicit several examples from the groups.>

As I walked around while you were working, I was trying to determine if thisactivity helped you to extend and refine your knowledge. I was looking to seeif anyone seemed to be thinking hard in order to come up with examples ofthings that they enjoy and things that are fun. I was looking to see if anyonewas saying anything like, “Hmm. Is everything that is fun also enjoyable?” or“That’s a good idea. I’ve never thought about it like that.” These are signsthat tell a teacher that students are making connections, seeing newdistinctions, experiencing an “aha.” These are signs that by using the processof comparing, students are extending and refining their understanding of thetargeted knowledge. Each of the extending and refining processes can be usedto achieve this goal with targeted content knowledge.

<Examples of each extending and refining process are provided below. In general, it isnot a good idea to cover all eight processes. If time permits, go over four or five. If timeis short, go over two or three.>

In a moment, I will briefly go over the extending and refining processesidentified in Dimension 3 and give you an example of how each process canbe used by students to extend and refine knowledge. As I do, rate eachprocess in terms of how frequently you use it. If you use the process a greatdeal, assign a 3 to it. If you use it very little, assign a 1. Assign a 2 if youruse of the process is somewhere between a 1 and a 3.

Comparing is the process of identifying and articulating similarities anddifferences among items. For example, during a vocabulary lesson, studentscompare words that they think they know well (e.g., invention and discovery;fun and enjoyment) and, as a result, discover connotations and distinctions thatthey had not previously considered.





Overview

Classifying is the process of grouping things into definable categories on thebasis of their attributes. For example, during a history unit, students classifyall of the 20th-century wars by cause: (1) economics, (2) human rights issues,(3) expansionist motivations, and (4) other causes. Students often find thatthey had never considered how many wars were economically motivated.

Abstracting is the process of identifying and articulating the underlyingtheme or general pattern of information. For example, during a unit onRomeo and Juliet, students abstract the general theme of forbidden love andteenage rebellion. They suddenly see Shakespeare as “a pretty cool guy.”

Inductive reasoning is the process of inferring unknown generalizations orprinciples from information or observations. For example, after reading partof a story, students describe the physical appearance of the characters, eventhough the characters have not been described in the story. They thenidentify the specific information or observations they used to help themdecide what the characters looked like. The students quickly realize how anauthor can develop characters through dialogue and events in the story.

Deductive reasoning is the process of using generalizations and principlesto infer unstated conclusions about specific information or situations. Forexample, students have previously learned that hot air rises. During a newexperiment involving this concept, they successfully predict what must occurversus what might occur. They also explain the deductive reasoning that ledthem to conclude what must occur.

Constructing support is the process of building systems of support forassertions. For example, during a unit on civil disobedience, students try toconstruct support for or against the claim that flag burning should beprotected under the free speech clause of the First Amendment. As a result,they discover how complex many free speech issues can be.

Analyzing errors is the process of identifying and articulating errors inthinking. For example, during a science unit, students analyze a proposal forestablishing a nuclear power plant near a city. They discover errors in thelogic supporting the proposal. They begin to rethink their own positions onthe issue.

Analyzing perspectives is the process of identifying multiple perspectiveson an issue and examining the reasons or logic behind each. For example,during a unit on types of government, students identify reasons behind theperspective that democracy is the best form of government and reasonsbehind the perspective held by people in certain other countries thatsocialism is the best type of government. Students still think that democracyis better but understand why others sometimes choose socialism.



Which of the complex reasoning processes do you use a lot in the classroom?Which do you use sometimes? Which do you rarely, if ever, use? Whichmight you consider using, and how?

<Elicit responses.>


<If this is a stand-alone overview, ask participants to look over the activitieslisted on the Dimension 3 Planning Guide, which is part of the handout you created.You may ask them to generate examples of insights, discoveries, or ideas that mightresult when students do the specific activities described for the Colorado unit. Then goon to the discussion of Dimension 4.>

Dimension 4


We are now going to shift our attention to Dimension 4. As we exploreDimension 4, you will see that Dimensions 3 and 4 have similarities anddifferences.


Now, look at the processes included in Dimension 4. How do you think theyare similar to and different from the processes in Dimension 3?

<Target answers: Dimension 4 processes tend to be used in more authentic contexts;that is, it is easy to generate real-life situations in which we must make decisions orsolve problems. The Dimension 4 processes also are more complex in that they tend toinvolve more steps than those in Dimension 3. Finally, while doing many of theDimension 4 processes, we also may be engaged in one of the Dimension 3 processes.For example, we sometimes compare when we are making decisions, and we sometimesuse deductive reasoning while we are engaged in experimental inquiry.>

If learning stopped at Dimension 3 (extending and refining knowledge),students might not get the opportunity to apply what they have learned inways and contexts that are meaningful to them. When they have to use, orapply, knowledge, they not only demonstrate what they know but increasetheir knowledge as they are in the process of using it.

For example, you use and increase your knowledge about stereos when youare making a decision about buying an expensive system; you learn a great


Overview



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Overview

deal about solar energy when you are inventing an energy-efficient house;you use and increase your knowledge about discipline when you are solving aproblem like trying to raise your children without spanking them.

As I go over the processes in this dimension, identify those that are mostapplicable to your class or classes, and be ready to explain why.

<Again, examples are provided for each process, as they were provided in the section onDimension 3. You should decide how many and which ones to include in youroverview.>

Decision making is the process of generating and applying criteria to selectfrom among seemingly equal alternatives. For example, several students arein the process of selecting a musical to be produced by the dramadepartment. They are using knowledge about all of the things they knowmust be considered: audience, resources, personnel, production capabilities,specific knowledge of each play being considered, and so on.

Problem solving is the process of overcoming constraints or limitingconditions that are in the way of pursuing goals. For example, studentsdecide to produce a play using only lighting effects for scenery.

Invention is the process of developing unique products or processes thatfulfill perceived needs. For example, students in a physical education classdecide they are going to invent a new form of baseball that depends less onthe skills of the pitcher.

Experimental inquiry is the process of generating and testing explanationsof observed phenomena. For example, a student studying the effects ofexercise on health hypothesizes that many people do not exercise regularlybecause they do not understand its effects. He constructs a quiz and a surveyto test his hypothesis.

Investigation is the process of identifying and resolving issues about whichthere are confusions or contradictions. For example, a student is trying toexplore all of the theories about where Columbus actually landed when hediscovered the New World. She hopes to use what she is learning in order toconstruct the most likely scenario.

Systems analysis is the process of analyzing the parts of a system and themanner in which they interact. For example, students studying ecosystemsmight select several specific ecosystems and try to determine what wouldhappen if particular parts of each ecosystem were altered in some way as aresult of human activity.


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<Ask participants which of the processes are most applicable to their classes and why.>

In the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual it is explained that theprocesses in Dimension 4 are used to design meaningful, long-term tasksthat require students to use what they have learned. The reason for thisemphasis on the reasoning processes is to ensure that students are focused onusing their knowledge rather than on producing an attractive product. Toooften students (or their parents!) spend a great deal of time makingsomething that is bigger or prettier or that uses more technology thananyone else’s. Of course, using technology and making a quality product arepositive goals, but the emphasis in this dimension is on the use ofknowledge. Students who have limited access to art materials or technologymight be able to show that they, in fact, did think rigorously about theknowledge as they completed their task. We must be careful not to letimpressive products overshadow impressive thinking. In addition, manyprojects and products require students simply to reproduce knowledge. Bystructuring projects around Dimension 4 reasoning processes, we arerequiring students to generate knowledge. In other words, we are requiringthem to make decisions, to find solutions, and to offer clarifications.

Tasks that involve using knowledge meaningfully frequently are long termin nature. It is unlikely that students could complete any of these tasks inone or two class periods. It might take days (or, for older students, weeks) tocomplete these complex tasks. This means that students must be providedwith class time for these long-term projects and that the teacher’s role in theclassroom must support these projects.

<Put up Overhead O.12 and then Overhead O.14 again.>

Take a look again at the list of reasoning processes in Dimensions 3 and 4.Remember that attending to these two dimensions means directly teachingthese processes and holding students accountable for extending and refiningknowledge or using knowledge meaningfully. Think about the extent towhich processes like these are directly taught now in your classrooms. Turnto a partner and discuss the following questions: Should they be taught morefrequently? When? By whom?

<Allow time for participants to share.>


<If this is a stand-alone overview, ask participants to review the planning guidefor Dimension 4, which is part of the handout you created. Then move on toDimension 5.>



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Dimension 5


We have discussed the types of thinking required for establishing positiveattitudes and perceptions (Dimension 1), for acquiring and integratingknowledge (Dimension 2), for extending and refining knowledge(Dimension 3), and for using knowledge meaningfully (Dimension 4). Nowwe’re going to discuss Dimension 5, Habits of Mind.

The most effective learning is done when the learner is operating at a higherlevel of thinking. But what is “higher level thinking”? Some researchersassert that thinking and learning is “higher level” when learners areexhibiting certain habits of mind. This suggests that the phrase “higher levelthinking” is not something that is demanded from specific types of tasks; itis a phrase that describes what a learner exhibits, or does not exhibit, whenengaged in any type of task. For example, from a Dimensions of Learningperspective, it is not accurate to say that someone who is solving a problemis engaged in thinking that is “higher level” than a person who is trying tocomprehend something; problem solving can be done rather mindlessly,whereas comprehending can demand rigorous concentration. Again, asdefined in Dimensions of Learning, higher level thinking does not describewhat a task demands; it describes what the learner brings to the task.


In the Dimensions of Learning model, the fifth dimension, Habits of Mind,offers a list of specific mental habits that characterize higher level thinking.Let’s examine this list with a technique frequently used by teachers toencourage students to self-assess their own use of these mental habits.

Imagine a classroom of students working hard on a long-term Dimension 4task. Periodically, the teacher asks them to stop their work and respond toone or more of the following questions. Consider what effect being presentedwith these questions might have on students.

<Put up Overhead O.17, then O.18, then O.19. Allow time for participants to readeach set of questions. Participants commonly like these questions. You might includethem in a handout.>

Then put up Overhead O.16 again.>

The sets of questions you just saw are simply these productive habits ofmind turned into questions with a rating scale. No matter what the task,learners are engaged in higher level thinking to the extent to which they are


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exhibiting appropriate mental habits like those listed here under the threecategories of habits of mind: critical thinking, creative thinking, and self-regulated thinking.

Some would argue that these habits, sometimes referred to as dispositions,are what students need to succeed in the 21st century. Assume that youagree. How can we communicate to students that these habits of mind areimportant?

<Elicit responses. Examples: We help students learn how to develop the habits; wemodel them; we tell students that the habits of mind are important; we point outinstances that demonstrate that such habits are integral to the success of some of theirheroes.>

Some would argue that although there are many ways of communicating theimportance of mental habits, the message we give students is that what isgraded is what’s important. I’m going to paint a scenario that asks you toexplore this assertion and that also asks you to generate a new way ofviewing a situation that is outside the boundaries of standard conventions.

Suppose there is a school in which the report card students take homeincludes only these 15 habits of mind. These are the only things for whichstudents receive actual grades; the curriculum stays the same. Students aregiven assignments and feedback on how well they are doing, but grades arelimited to these 15 habits of mind. Would you want to work at this school?Why or why not? Think about this, and then buddy up with someone andshare your thoughts.

<Allow time for participants to think and then to pair up. Then ask severalparticipants to share their conclusions. You will probably get people who would like towork there because these habits are so important. Many, however, will say that theywould not like to work there because assessing these habits would be difficult and theassessments would be so subjective.>

You are highlighting the issues that consistently surround the habits of mind.Most people believe they are important. But they disagree about the role ofthe school and the possibility of assessing them. We are not suggesting thatschools grade these habits. This activity simply highlights the issues thatsometimes surface. It is important to not let disagreements related to theseissues distract from addressing this dimension in the classroom.

Remember that in the Dimensions of Learning model this dimension, habitsof mind, is part of the backdrop of the graphic representation of the model.This implies that these habits influence the learning of the knowledge thatis the focus in Dimensions 2, 3, and 4. These habits of mind are important


Overview


Think/Pair/Share



because they can dramatically influence learning. Even if a school has a very“back-to-basics” curriculum, if students are also developing these mentalhabits, their learning will be enhanced. How, then, might you communicateto students that these habits are important, and how might you helpstudents develop them?

The Teacher’s Manual suggests a number of ways to do this, includingsuggestions for assessing these habits. However, the manual definesassessment very broadly. Student self-assessment, as modeled with the self-assessment questions we examined a few minutes ago on the overhead, is auseful and effective method for maintaining students’ awareness of theimportance of mental habits.

<If this is an introduction to a longer training, move on to the Wrap-UpSection.>

<If this is a stand-alone overview, ask participants to read over the Dimension 5Planning Guide, which is part of the handout you created. Point out that the teacherhas decided how to reinforce or introduce various habits within the unit. Then moveon to the Wrap-Up Section below.>

Wrap-Up

We have now examined all five of the dimensions of learning. Eachrepresents a type of thinking distinct from the others, and yet, as the graphicimplies, each interacts and overlaps with the others. For example, whenstudents engage in activities that are designed to extend and refine theirknowledge, they have not stopped acquiring and integrating knowledge. Infact, they continue to acquire and integrate knowledge as they work on tasksin which they use knowledge meaningfully.

The Dimensions of Learning model can be used in a number of ways. Thereare four major ways described in the introduction to the Teacher’s Manual,pages 8-11. Turn to those pages now.

<If this is a stand-alone presentation and participants do not have the manual, youcould either omit the directions in this section that ask them to read, or you mightprovide them with a handout of these pages from the manual.>


First, it has been used as a resource for instructional strategies that are keyedto the effect that those strategies should have on the learning process. Take aminute to read the section on page 8 that describes this use.


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<Allow time for participants to read.>

Second, Dimensions of Learning is used to plan staff development. No onewants staff development opportunities to be perceived as one-shot inserviceworkshops focused on “hot topics” that are here today and gone tomorrow.The reason that schools and districts plan staff development opportunities isto help teachers learn so that they can help students learn. The Dimensionsmodel can provide a way to focus staff development efforts so that it is clearhow selected programs and strategies will affect students’ learning. Take alook at the matrix on page 10.

<Again, if participants do not have the Teacher’s Manual or a handout, you can usethe overhead of the matrix to make the following points.>


Down the left-hand side of the matrix is an outline of the Dimensions ofLearning model. This indicates that the person using this matrix has decidedthat Dimensions represents what he or she believes to be important in thelearning process. The first step in using this matrix to plan staffdevelopment is to determine what part of the learning process you are tryingto improve. This means that you should first identify your “learning goals.”Do you, for instance, want to improve students’ acquisition of proceduralknowledge? Do you want to improve students’ attitudes toward learning?Perhaps you want to help students extend and refine knowledge through theuse of specific reasoning processes. You might decide that you have several ofthese goals in mind.

Once you have decided what part or parts of the learning process you wouldlike to affect, you would move to the top of the matrix and begin to identify“resources for improvement,” that is, programs, strategies, techniques,experts, or any other type of resource that would help you to achieve thelearning goal you have set. Notice that you do not have to identify only oneresource; there are multiple resources that can help you to achieve your goals.

As you identify resources, you also will discover that a resource identified forone specific learning goal will influence other parts of the learning process aswell. Cooperative learning approaches, for example, might be selected as aresource for enhancing students’ attitudes toward each other. However,depending on how these approaches are used in the classroom, they also canpotentially influence many aspects of the learning process.

<As you make these points, you might demonstrate the use of the matrix by filling ina couple of resources at the top and then putting a mark in the appropriate squareacross from the aspect of learning that the resources influence. This will show


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participants how one resource can influence multiple parts of the learning process andhow a single part of the learning process can be influenced by multiple resources.>

Of course, you do not have to use a matrix like this to use the Dimensionsmodel as a framework for planning staff development. The point is that staffdevelopment opportunities should always be focused on a clear learning goaland that Dimensions provides a framework for setting these goals.


The third use of the model is as a structure for planning curriculum andassessment. The planning guide that accompanies each dimension provides astructure that encourages teachers to ask themselves key questions related toeach dimension as they plan curriculum units. The practice of askingquestions in each dimension is more important than filling out the planningguide itself. However, the guide provides a place for teachers to answer eachof the questions. Using a model of learning to plan curriculum unitscommunicates that students’ thinking and learning is more important thanthe activities that students experience or the strategies and techniques thatwill be used.

As people use the model to plan curriculum, they also realize that theirplanning for assessment is influenced. They discover, for example, that thetasks generated in Dimensions 3 and 4 can be used for assessment as well asfor instruction. Further, because the planning in Dimension 2 encouragesthem to clearly identify the declarative and procedural knowledge thatstudents will be learning, teachers have found that it is easier to designconventional forced-choice assessments that clearly assess the knowledge thatis important in the unit.

<If it is not already up, put up Overhead O.20 again.>

Finally, the most ambitious use of the model is as a focus for systemicreform. Some district administrators have concluded that so much is goingon in schools and classrooms that at times the focus on students’ learninggets lost. They do not want to stop people from using diverse resources orstifle the enthusiasm people have for what they are doing, but they believethey must focus efforts and energies on ensuring that enhancing students’learning is always the goal. As stated in the Teacher’s Manual (page 11), “Justas curriculum planners ask questions in reference to each dimension duringplanning, people in every part of the school system ask similar questions asthey create schedules, select textbooks, create job descriptions, and evaluatethe effectiveness of programs.”


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To conclude this overview, I’d like to see if you can briefly summarize someof the main points. Here’s how we will do it. Get a partner. One of you willbe A, and one of you will be B. After you have had a little time to reflect,A’s, see if you can identify and briefly describe each of the five dimensions of learning. After each dimension, B’s, identify one thing that was clear, orvalidating, and one thing that was perhaps confusing, or of concern. I willask several pairs to share to the whole group when you are finished.

<Allow time for participants to interact, and then have several people share aloud.Try to clear up any confusions that can be clarified quickly. If there is a major areaof confusion or concern, explain how the complete training will provide clarificationsand explanations.>

<If this is an introduction to a longer training, emphasize the fact that when used to plan curriculum, the model can increase the likelihood that students will be engaged in increasingly complex thinking as they learn content knowledge.Additionally, it can help teachers and students become more aware of what isnecessary for efficient and effective learning. Explain that during this training, each dimension will be explored in some depth. This will include brief summaries of theoretical foundations, demonstrations, and examples of content and planningunits that address the five dimensions of learning.>

<If this is a stand-alone overview, reemphasize the fact that this model was developed to help clarify the types of thinking involved in learning. When the Dimensions of Learning model is used to plan curriculum, it can increase thelikelihood that students will be engaged in increasingly complex thinking as theylearn content knowledge. Additionally, the instructional activities and strategies inthe Teacher’s Manual can help teachers and students become more aware of what isnecessary for efficient and effective learning. Review the resources available to thosewho are interested in learning more about Dimensions of Learning. These are listed in the Introduction to the Teacher’s Manual.>


Overview

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D i m e n s i o n 1

DIM

ENSIO

N 1

DoL Trainers Div 4/16/09 11:02 AM Page 6

Dim 2 chapter 9/10/07 2:55 PM Page 1


1

Dimension 1Attitudes and Perceptions

To The Trainer

This portion of the training covers Chapter 1 of the Dimensions of LearningTeacher’s Manual. The goal is to help participants understand the importanceof attitudes and perceptions to the learning process, to reinforce what theyalready are doing in the classroom, and to introduce some strategies that canhelp teachers and students enhance attitudes and perceptions. Dimension 1is divided into two major areas:

I. Helping Students Develop Positive Attitudes and PerceptionsAbout Classroom Climate

• Feel accepted by teachers and peers

• Experience a sense of comfort and order

II. Helping Students Develop Positive Attitudes and PerceptionsAbout Classroom Tasks

• Perceive tasks as valuable and interesting

• Believe they have the ability and resources to complete tasks

• Understand and be clear about tasks



Attitudes & Perceptions

Dimension 1

During this training, participants will be in the process of learning

• that attitudes and perceptions influence learning,

• that teachers can foster positive attitudes and perceptions throughtheir own everyday behavior and through specific activities,

• that students can learn how to take responsibility for establishingand maintaining positive attitudes and perceptions about learning,

• how to use various strategies and techniques to help students establishand maintain positive attitudes and perceptions,

• how to teach students to establish and maintain positive attitudes andperceptions, and

• how to plan for this dimension of learning.

Exploring Dimension 1

<Put up Overhead O.4 (from the Overview section).>

As we discussed in the Overview, attitudes and perceptions affect learning.In fact, they influence everything the learner does. Effective teachers areaware of how dramatically attitudes and perceptions affect learning and,therefore, continually monitor the class and use strategies to help themselvesand students establish and maintain positive attitudes and perceptions.Consciously attending to attitudes and perceptions has positive effects onstudents’ learning of content as addressed in Dimensions 2, 3, and 4.

<If the Dimensions of Learning videotapes are available, show the tape for Dimension1, which runs eight minutes. Introduce the tape by explaining that it depicts howteachers deal with the various aspects of Dimension 1. When the tape is over, haveparticipants briefly discuss what they observed on the tape.>

Dimension 1 focuses on the specific things that effective teachers do toinfluence students’ attitudes and perceptions related to classroom climateand to classroom tasks.


Recall a time you were a student, and identify a teacher who you knewaccepted and respected you. After you have that person in mind, identifyhow you knew he or she accepted and respected you and what difference thatmade in your learning. Then recall a time you were a student and a teacherdid not accept or respect you. What effect did his or her feelings have on youas a learner? Share your examples with a neighbor.

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Dimension 1

<Allow a few minutes for discussion, and then ask for several examples.>

Now, recall a time you were a student and you consciously did something toimprove your attitude in some way. For example, you may have donesomething to improve your relationship with your instructor or with yourpeers or to improve your attitude about your abilities. Determine how takingthis action enhanced your learning. Share this example with a neighbor.

<Again, allow a few minutes for discussion, and then ask for several examples.>

Both of these experiences illustrate that many teachers and students are awareof the influence that attitudes and perceptions have on the learning process.However, although a number of examples were just generated in this group,we also know that many times teachers, even master teachers, may beunaware of specific strategies that help students enhance or maintain positiveattitudes and perceptions or may forget to use what they know works.

Even when teachers use a variety of strategies, they cannot always meet theneeds of all students. Therefore, the responsibility for establishing positiveattitudes and perceptions should be shared; that is, students should betaught strategies to cultivate their own positive attitudes and perceptionsabout learning. Successful students may consciously or unconsciously usestrategies to establish and maintain positive attitudes and perceptions, buttoo many students are not knowledgeable about how to take responsibilityfor this type of thinking.

Although the role of positive attitudes and perceptions is widely known andacknowledged, viewing attitudes and perceptions as a type of thinking—infact, a thinking skill—may be a different perspective for some people. This isa useful perspective because it emphasizes that we can have an impact on ourown attitudes and perceptions; that is, we can change negative ones andcultivate positive ones. In addition, understanding that people can becomeskilled at enhancing and maintaining positive attitudes means that we asteachers can teach students how to develop this skill. This skill helpsempower students as they learn important content knowledge.

For example, a middle school student might learn to say to herself, “One ofthe reasons that I have been doing poorly in one class is that I know theteacher does not like me. That affects how well I do in her class. I don’t tryas hard in that class as I do in others. I’ve decided to consciously go out ofmy way to interact with the teacher in a positive way and put forth thesame—if not more—effort in her class as I do in others.” Many students donot realize that they can take responsibility for their thinking. However, asthey begin to do so, they often discover just how strongly they can motivatethemselves.




Dimension 1

Working with one or two other people, look again at the two basiccategories of attitudes and perceptions on page 14 of your Teacher’s Manual:those related to classroom climate and those related to classroom tasks.

<Put up Overhead 1.1.>

On this overhead is a list of teacher and student behaviors. For eachbehavior, try to determine if the goal is to affect attitudes and perceptionsabout classroom climate or about classroom tasks. Then go a little further,and identify the specific aspect of classroom climate or tasks that thebehavior affects. For example, if you think a behavior affects students’attitudes and perceptions about classroom tasks, determine if it influencestheir perceptions of the value and interest of the tasks, their attitudes andperceptions about their ability to complete the tasks, and/or theirunderstanding of and clarity about the tasks.

<Allow time for participants to do the matching, and then review the list together asa group. To facilitate this activity, it is useful to write the two general categories ofDimension 1 and the subcategories (see Overhead O.6) on a piece of chart paper or ona board. You might also want to briefly explain each of the subcategories within thetwo general categories of attitudes and perceptions. Note that some of the behaviorsmay impact several aspects of classroom climate or tasks and that different peoplemight see different benefits for the same behavior.>

An activity like this illustrates how a simple behavior can influence students’attitudes and perceptions about multiple aspects of climate and tasks. Thereare many strategies and activities that have been specifically designed foreach part of Dimension 1. The Teacher’s Manual describes a number of thesein some detail on pages 40-41.

<Put up Overheads 1.2 and 1.3.>


1.1Overhead

1.2 1.3Overheads




Dimension 1

Classroom Climate

Classroom Climate

Let’s spend some time now looking at a few of these more closely. Turn topage 15 in the Teacher’s Manual. Note that the first strategy describes how tohelp students understand that attitudes and perceptions related to classroomclimate influence learning. Take a couple of minutes to read over thisstrategy and to think about why it might be important.

<Allow time for participants to read and reflect.>

Let’s address the second point under this strategy and create a hypotheticalsituation right now. How many of you had a negative experience today? Didanyone oversleep? Did anyone wake up to a car that would not start? Didanyone not want to come to the training this morning? Any of thesesituations could lead to someone in this workshop having a negativeattitude. Working with one or two other people, create a hypotheticalsituation in which a participant could have a negative attitude. Thenidentify several things that he or she could do, given this hypotheticalsituation, to create a more positive attitude. Then, using the same situation,identify some things that an instructor could do to help this participant havea more positive attitude about the workshop.

<Allow time for participants to think of a situation. Ask them to share ideas withthe large group. Take the opportunity to share a real story of your own, that is, toshare things that have happened to you that could potentially influence your attitudesand perceptions, such as having difficulty travelling to a location, experiencing arough morning with your children, etc. Usually this section is one in which you canjoke about a few of the mishaps of the day so far.>

The next section includes strategies (2-10, pages 16-22) for helping studentsfeel accepted by teachers and peers. Let’s look at strategy 2: Establish arelationship with each student in the class. Please read this.


The suggestions under strategy 2 are similar to the things you mentionedwhen you described the teacher from your past who you knew accepted andrespected you. Think about how you feel when someone remembers yourname. All of us perhaps would agree that when someone makes an effort toget to know us, it has a positive effect. For example, I might be so impressedthat the manager at the dry cleaner calls me by name that I am motivated tokeep giving him my business. Now remember, if you go out to lunch todayand someone calls you by name, it is because you forgot to take off yournametag. <Just a joke.>



Classroom Climate60 Trainer’s Manual


Dimension 1

For the next few minutes, try to remember a number of situations in whichsomeone paid particular attention to you and it made a difference in yourattitudes and perceptions. Then transfer that to your classroom or school.What could you do to make the same difference for your students? Sharewith a neighbor the situations that you remembered and your thoughtsabout how you might make this same difference with your students.

<Allow time for participants to share in pairs and in the large group.>

Now let’s read strategy 3 about monitoring and attending to your ownattitudes. A famous teacher/writer, Wallace Fowlie, wrote a book entitledJournal of Rehearsals: A Memoir in which he shares his strategy of “rehearsing”much of what he does as a teacher. He imagines his class, the discussions thathe will engage in, and even how he will respond if he finds himself in certainsituations. This is a powerful strategy for educators to use. Considering howyou might respond to potentially negative situations before they happen cankeep you from having a knee-jerk reaction that might damage yourrelationship with a student or create a negative classroom environment. Witha partner, share a past experience in which you reacted too hastily, one thatwould have had an entirely different outcome had you rehearsed the situation.

<Alternative activity: You might instead suggest that participants identify asituation in which it might help to use an “as if ” strategy. This could be an effectivestrategy to use if a teacher has a negative judgment about a student (e.g., “Matt hasno interest in school.”). Using this strategy, the teacher would interact with thestudent as if he or she has positive attitudes about learning (e.g., “Matt is motivatedand interested in learning.”).>

The next two strategies, 4 and 5, both deal with different aspects ofpersonalizing instruction. Take a few minutes to read them before we discussthem.


For strategy 4, I’d like you to work with one or two other people to considera real-life situation in which the extent to which someone exhibits“equitable and positive” behavior can have an effect on those involved. Thinkabout a waiter in an expensive restaurant, for example. Describe twodifferent scenarios to your partner or partners. In one, the waiter is veryattentive to each person at your table. In the second, he is attentive andinteracts positively with everyone at the table except you. What kinds ofspecific behaviors might you see in each scenario? Discuss how you mightfeel as the patron. How might you react? Would you simply not go back tothe restaurant, or would you react in a different way? Or, think of your own

Think/Pair/Share





Dimension 1

example in which “equitable and positive behavior” might have an effect onthe people involved.

<Allow time for sharing.>

Just like a waiter who attends personally to each of his customers, beingaware of our attitudes and trying to engage in “equitable and positivebehaviors” in a classroom is important. We probably all agree about that, butit’s easy to forget. None of these strategies in Dimension 1 is new. Thechallenge is to regularly use what we know to be effective instructionalpractices. The references in the margin next to strategy 4 are good resourcesfor suggestions on meeting this challenge. They can be particularly useful onthose frustrating days when you walk into the building and go straight to thecalendar on the wall to count the number of days until your next vacation.

Strategy 5 is similar to 4 because of the nature of individualizing orpersonalizing behaviors. This strategy addresses the multicultural andmultifaceted nature of our society.

There was a story in a newspaper about an international summit beingconducted in a particular city. The article was a “how-to” on etiquette for“summit behavior.” Many of you have travelled widely and have hadexperiences with students from diverse cultures. Find a partner, and pretendfor a moment that you are volunteering to host an international group ofteachers this summer as part of a government summit. The two of you are incharge of part of the orientation. Make a list of five do’s and five don’ts thatwould help people to show respect for and sensitivity to people’s diversecustoms, perspectives, and backgrounds. Then share your ideas with anotherpair.

Have you ever been in a situation in which someone did not recognize yourindividual or cultural needs? How did that feel to you? How might youtransfer these ideas to your classroom teaching and learning? Every day,teachers host students from all kinds of backgrounds. What are some of thestrategies that teachers might use in addition to those listed on page 18?

<Allow a few minutes for participants to reflect on these questions and to make anynotes.>

Strategy 6, “Respond positively to students’ incorrect responses or lack ofresponse,” also emphasizes the importance of exhibiting respect for students.It takes time and practice to learn how to respond to students’ incorrectanswers in a way that maintains the dignity of the students yet holds themaccountable for correct responses. Even when the teacher tries to be kind—“Can someone help Johnny?”—students very quickly pick up on subtle cues


Individual Task

Classroom Climate




Dimension 1

from the teacher that their answers were wrong. They often react by givingup, tuning out, or acting out.

There are, of course, many effective ways of responding to incorrect responsesthat communicate respect and help maintain students’ dignity. It is useful tobuild a repertoire of responses. A few are offered in the bulleted items onpage 19. Take a minute to skim these.

<Allow time for reading.>

However, simply knowing these approaches is not enough. It takes practiceto make sure that your body language and tone of voice communicate thatyou believe that students can correct or improve their responses. Let’spractice.

Get a partner. One of you turn your back to the screen. The person facingthe screen is the “teacher.” The teacher is to begin asking the “student” someof the questions from the list on the screen. Think of it as playing “TrivialPursuit” without the competition. The teacher should try to use a number ofdifferent ways of responding when the student fails to provide the correctanswer.

<Put up Overhead 1.4 only when the participants who are “the students” have turnedso they cannot see the screen. Expose only the first half of the questions. Letparticipants know that the questions were selected to elicit incorrect responses or noresponses by intelligent adults so that they could practice the strategy.

Allow time for this activity. Then, if you have time, you might want to askparticipants to trade places and do this activity again with Overhead 1.5(the second half of the questions).>

Did you notice that in general you were consciously looking for positiveways to help each other give the correct answer? What is difficult aboutresponding positively to incorrect responses in the classroom? How dostudents react to different kinds of responses?

<Target answer: Participants will probably report that different students likedifferent kinds of responses. Some like to have help. Some prefer cues from the teacher.>

There is nothing new about these strategies. The difficult part is toremember to use them, especially on a day when you are frustrated bystudents’ answers. Some faculties have made a commitment to play this little“Trivial Pursuit” game periodically at faculty meetings just to remindthemselves to use these strategies.

1.4Overhead

1.5Overhead






Dimension 1

Classroom Climate

Now let’s look together at strategy 7, which recommends varying thepositive reinforcement offered when students give a correct response.Sometimes certain types of positive reinforcement, such as praise, can havelittle or no effect on particular students. Take a couple of minutes to readthrough the bulleted items on page 20.

<Give participants time to read.>

Now let’s practice using these different ways of responding. Keep yourpartner from the last activity. Again, one of you be the “teacher,” and one bethe “student.” I will put another set of questions on the overhead for theteacher to ask. These are more open ended and allow for many types ofcorrect responses. The teacher in your pair should ask several of thesequestions to the student. The teacher should try to use a number of thesedifferent ways of responding to the student’s correct answer.

<Put up Overhead 1.6. Allow time for pairs to use several of the questions.>

Which ways of responding were comfortable and natural for you as the“teacher”? Which did you like as the “student”?

<Try to emphasize that different kinds of responses are comfortable for differentteachers, depending on style. Also emphasize that, likewise, different students react indifferent ways to a teacher’s attempts to reinforce a correct response. There is no one bestway to respond. What is important is for teachers to have a fairly extensive repertoireof responses.>

The next two sections directly address how students can work with theirpeers in appropriate ways. Anyone who has taught knows that students loveto work together; they just don’t always do it in appropriate ways! Also,some teachers have had the experience of assigning “group work” andafterwards vowing never to do it again. In fact, one teacher remarked thatshe loves to have her students use cooperative learning techniques but heronly rule is NO TALKING! <Just a joke.>

On a piece of paper, make a list of things you like to do.

<Allow time for participants to generate ideas.>

Next to each example, indicate whether you like to do those things alone orwith others. For several items that you enjoy doing alone, list next to themwhy you prefer doing them alone. Likewise, for some of the items that youenjoy doing with others, list some of the reasons that you prefer doing theactivity with others.

<Allow time for this task.>


Individual Task

1.6Overhead




Dimension 1

Now compare your list with several other people. Pay attention to thereasons given for liking to do things alone and with others.

<Allow time for sharing in small groups.>

You probably discovered that people have different preferences in terms of thedegree to which they like to do things alone or with others. You probablyalso discovered that people have different reasons for their preferences. Noticethat strategy 8 suggests that teachers structure opportunities for students towork with peers. Keep in mind that this is suggested as a way of enhancingpositive attitudes among peers. Just as participants in this workshop vary inthe degree to which they like to interact with others, remember that studentsin your classroom will also differ greatly. To ensure that working togetherenhances attitudes towards peers, you need to make sure you understand howto make cooperation and collaboration work.

Although some teachers feel less in control when students are working ingroups, students can benefit from experiences that help them get along andwork with others. There are some valuable suggestions offered in thebulleted items on page 20, but much more is needed to become skilled inthis area. Many teachers have received extensive training in cooperativelearning models and strategies. For those of you who would like to learnmore about this area, some of the notable authors and researchers are listedin the margins of your Teacher’s Manual.

Although students work, play, and interact with their peers, they may nothave had opportunities to learn to work well together. For some of yourstudents, it will come naturally, just as it does for some of you. For others, itwill be important for you to be experienced at setting up and facilitatinggroup interactions. One way of preparing students to work together is to usethe suggestions listed under strategy 9 to help them get to know and accepteach other. Take a couple of minutes to review these suggestions.

<Allow time for participants to read and reflect.>

The last strategy in this section—strategy 10, “Help students to developtheir ability to use their own strategies for gaining acceptance”—highlightsan important issue about students taking control of their own thinking andlearning. An underlying theme throughout this manual is the importance ofstudents taking more responsibility for the thinking addressed in eachdimension. This means that students must increasingly use many of thesestrategies on their own and that they must develop their own strategies asthey become independent learners. Strategy 10 describes how you can helpstudents learn to accept increasing responsibility for gaining acceptance fromteachers and peers.



Classroom Climate 65Trainer’s Manual


Dimension 1

Read the suggested strategies for students to use in gaining acceptance fromteachers and peers. Then make two lists. Entitle one, “What positive things doI do to be accepted by others?” Entitle the other, “What positive things do Isee other people do to gain acceptance from others?” Tailor the lists to yourparticular grade level. Then try to create an activity that you might use inyour classroom to help students generate their own lists of strategies forgaining acceptance. You might start with an event or a piece of literature toprompt the activity. How would you follow through and monitor whetherstudents actually used one of their strategies in an attempt to gain acceptance?


The second main subsection under classroom climate refers to attitudes andperceptions related to experiencing a sense of comfort and order. If studentsperceive the classroom as comfortable and orderly, they learn more efficientlybecause they do not have to put much effort into thinking about theirdiscomfort or about creating a sense of order for themselves in what theyperceive as a chaotic situation. The challenge is that different people havedifferent criteria for what is comfortable and orderly. Therefore, it isimportant for teachers and students to work together to achieve positiveresults for everyone.

You probably have noticed that we take regular breaks during thisworkshop. Why do you think we do that? Actually this is a rhetorical“why?”. We all know that it can be difficult to sit still for long periods oftime. The first strategy on page 23—”Frequently and systematically useactivities that involve physical movement”—addresses this reality.

Many educators have noticed that the higher the grade level, the lessphysical movement there is in the classroom. What has been yourexperience? If you agree that there is less physical movement in classroomsas students get older and older, discuss why this is the case and whether youbelieve this is appropriate. Be ready to share aloud after you have discussedthis with your partner.

<It is not important to come to a conclusion about this. You will probably heardiffering opinions. Typically, it is mentioned that students move from class to class every40 to 50 minutes in middle school and high school and that this is where physicalmovement is allowed. It is sometimes worth mentioning that if high schools use a blockschedule, administrators may need to think about the issue of physical comfort.>

The second strategy is pulled directly from the Tactics for Thinking program,which is referenced in the margin on page 24. Bracketing is a term used todescribe what people do to help them focus their thinking on the task at

O.6Overhead

Think/Pair/Share

Individual Task


Classroom Climate

hand, even when multiple things are going on in their mind. Take a minuteto read the description of the strategy and the suggestions for introducingthis to students.


One suggestion is to identify for students examples of people who usebracketing successfully or who could benefit by using it. Let’s see if we cangenerate some examples together. Name some people or some fictionalcharacters—people students relate to or admire—who are probably good atbracketing and have been successful, at least in part, because of this ability.<Be ready with some examples from current events, perhaps an athlete, a businesstycoon, or an astronaut. Then have participants suggest some names.> The point isthat if students understand that the uses of bracketing go far beyond payingattention in the classroom, they might be more interested in using it.

The next two strategies for helping students to experience a sense of comfortand order are fairly common. Establishing rules and attending to maliciousteasing are topics with which you are probably familiar.

Just as in the previous section on helping students to feel accepted,suggestions are offered under strategy 15—“Have students develop theirown standards for comfort and order”—for helping students take moreresponsibility for this aspect of classroom climate. Take a couple of minutesto read the first classroom example on page 27 in which Mrs. Frost isreminded of the benefits of involving students in establishing order.


Share with a partner experiences in which, either as a learner or a teacher,you experienced the teacher and students working together to set andachieve standards of comfort and order.



Dimension 1

Think/Pair/Share


Classroom Tasks

The next major section of Dimension 1 in the Teacher’s Manual offerspowerful strategies for developing positive attitudes and perceptions towardclassroom tasks.


Notice that, as with each section of the manual, the first strategy (on page29) suggests ways of helping students to understand the importance ofmaintaining positive attitudes toward classroom tasks. The remainingstrategies address the goal of helping students to perceive tasks as valuableand interesting, to believe that they have the ability and resources tocomplete tasks, and to understand and be clear about tasks. To become morefamiliar with these strategies, as well as with the classroom examplesprovided at the end of this section, we’re going to use a jigsaw activity.

Get into groups of three, and assign an A, a B, and a C. Each person will beassigned several strategies and a classroom example to read. That person willthen share the key ideas with the other two members of the group. That wayeveryone does not need to read every section. The assignments are as follows:


A. Under the heading “Perceive Tasks as Valuable and Interesting,” readstrategies 2-5 on pages 30-32. Then read the first classroom exampleon page 37 (the Mr. Snow example).

B. Under the heading “Believe They Have the Ability and Resources toComplete Tasks,” read strategies 6-9 on pages 33-34. Then read thesecond classroom example on page 37 (the Mrs. Fitzsimmons example).

C. Under the heading “Understand and Be Clear About Tasks,” readstrategies 10-12 on pages 35-36. Then read the third classroomexample on pages 37 and 38 (the Mr. Young example).

As you read, highlight what you consider to be the most importantsuggestions. Be ready to share those ideas with the other members of yourgroup. You do not need to discuss the strategies in detail when sharing. Yourgoal is to familiarize other participants with the strategies they may want tolook at in greater depth at another time.

<Optional, if there’s time.> To prepare for this sharing, after you finishreading, find another person with the same assignment and discuss yourreactions.


Jigsaw


Dimension 1

Classroom Tasks

O.6Overhead

1.7Overhead


Planning

<Allow time for this activity.>

You are now familiar with the strategies included in the Teacher’s Manual andwith the classroom examples that are offered to stimulate reflection on howto apply the ideas highlighted in Dimension 1 in your classroom. I’d likeeach of you to pick one of the classroom examples and identify the strategythat the teacher used to improve the learning situation. What othersolutions might the teacher have tried? Share with your partner examplesfrom your experiences of the ways that teachers help students improve theirattitudes and perceptions about learning.

<Allow time for sharing in large group.>

Clearly, many of the strategies described in the manual are used regularly byclassroom teachers. However, the suggestion here and throughout thistraining is to consciously plan which strategies, if any, you are going to use,considering each of the five dimensions of learning as you do so.

Before we go on to planning for Dimension 1, does anyone have anyquestions, need anything clarified, or want to share an idea?

Planning for Dimension 1

<Participants should have a blank planning guide for Dimension 1 in the packetthat we recommend you give them at the beginning of any workshop in whichplanning is being addressed. See Handouts section.>

In the Teacher’s Manual, the discussion of each dimension concludes with asection on planning for that dimension. Included in these sections arespecific suggestions that facilitate effective planning. By the end of thistraining, you will be familiar with the essential elements of planning for theinclusion of the five dimensions of learning in a unit of study.

Let’s turn to pages 39-42 in the Teacher’s Manual. This section, which iscalled “Unit Planning: Dimension 1,” contains an example of a completedplanning guide for Dimension 1.

Planning may be something that you typically do “in your head” or, as someteachers have said, in a planning book that has a place to make notes aboutthe activities for each day. Whether you do most of your planning in yourhead or write out your plans, the planning process recommended withDimensions of Learning emphasizes the importance of asking yourselfpowerful questions as you plan. This process also emphasizes the importanceof planning overtly for each of the dimensions of learning that the teacher



Dimension 1

Think/Pair/Share



determines is important to address in any particular unit of study.Predictably, there are planning questions associated with each dimension.The planning section at the end of each chapter is designed to walk youthrough each of these questions. The planning guide is offered as a place towrite down your answers to these questions.

Some people prefer not to write down as much detail as that shown on thesample in the Teacher’s Manual. However, we recommend that each step ofthe planning process be addressed. Further, our experience shows that whenteachers write down their goals for student learning, it increases thelikelihood that those goals will be achieved.

<Put up Overhead 1.P1.>

Planning for Dimension 1 requires asking and answering the followingquestion:

What will be done to help students develop positive attitudes andperceptions?

There are two steps in the process of answering this question. The first step(see page 39) is to identify general or specific goals or concerns related tostudents’ attitudes and perceptions about learning. The second step is toidentify the particular things that you plan to do to address these goals orconcerns. There are two parts to this second step: (a) specifying what aspectof Dimension 1 will be used to address the goals and concerns and (b)describing, in a brief narrative, what exactly will be done. As an aid tocompleting this step, the strategies suggested earlier in the chapter aresummarized on pages 40 and 41.

<Put up Overhead 1.P2 (the filled-in planning guide from page 42).>

As you examine the sample planning guide on page 42, keep in mind thatyour responses to the key questions in this dimension will vary greatly as afunction of a number of things including the specific unit you are planning,the time of year, and your own observations in the classroom. You maydecide, for example, to try a new strategy, to simply remind yourself to dothings you have been forgetting, or even to do nothing specific in the unityou are planning.

Look at the planner that is completed (see page 42). Share your observationswith a partner.

<Allow time for review and sharing.>


Think/Pair/Share


Dimension 1

Planning

1.P1Overhead

1.P2Overhead


Planning

Although some people might infer that they should begin their planningwith Dimension 1 because it is the first dimension, remember that there isno sequence implied by the numbers of the dimensions. Many people planfor Dimension 1 after they have planned for Dimensions 2, 3, and 4. Whydo you suppose they do this?

<Target answer: The content and activities identified in the other dimensions—particularly 2, 3, and 4, which address academic content—might influence what youneed to plan in Dimension 1. For example, if I am planning a challenging, complexDimension 4 task, I might decide that it would be wise to focus on the clarity of thetask.>

Now I want you to operate as if you are planning a unit of study, perhapsone you have taught recently. Consider your students (real or hypothetical)and decide what you might plan to do for Dimension 1. You might justwant to jot down a reminder to do something on a more regular basis (e.g.,“Greet students at the door.”) or to engage in a specific activity (e.g., “Whenintroducing this unit, spend time explaining the value of the content.”).

<Allow a few minutes for participants to plan. You may have them use their ownpaper or provide them with a blank planning guide found in the Handout Section ofthe manual.>

<Ask several participants to share their plans.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented about Dimension 1. See page 9 for explanations of each of these formats forcompleting this portion of the training.>



Dimension 1


Planning Activity

Closure


D i m e n s i o n 2

DIM

ENSIO

N 2



Acquire & Integrate Knowledge

Dimension 2

2

Dimension 2Acquire and Integrate Knowledge

To the Trainer

This portion of the training covers Chapter 2 of the Dimensions of LearningTeacher’s Manual, “Acquire and Integrate Knowledge,” pages 43 to 112. Thegoal is to help participants understand declarative and procedural knowledgeand the three phases involved in acquiring and integrating each type ofknowledge. Participants should recognize that they already use manyeffective strategies but that an increased understanding of how knowledge isacquired and integrated will help them to make more conscious, informeddecisions about what to continue using and what kinds of additionalstrategies might be used to improve students’ learning.


• that students acquire and integrate two types of knowledge:declarative and procedural;

• that declarative knowledge refers to the information that studentsknow or understand, and procedural knowledge refers to the skillsand processes that students know how to use;

• that declarative and procedural knowledge each have distinctivecharacteristics yet are interdependent;

• that acquiring declarative knowledge requires students to constructmeaning for, organize, and store information, whereas proceduralknowledge requires students to construct models for, shape, andinternalize the skills and processes;




Dimension 2

• how to help students acquire and integrate both declarative andprocedural knowledge; and

• how to plan a unit by clearly identifying and organizing thedeclarative and procedural knowledge and by specifying strategies forensuring that students acquire and integrate this identifiedknowledge.


<It is important for participants to understand the information in the introduction toDimension 2 in the Teacher’s Manual (pages 43-50) because it lays the foundationfor the remainder of the chapter on acquiring and integrating knowledge. Wheneverpossible, have participants read over this introduction before coming to the trainingsession.>


A key word in the title of this dimension, as well as in the titles ofDimensions 3 and 4, is knowledge. It is important, as we proceed with thistraining, to share an understanding of the characteristics of two types ofknowledge: declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Understandingthese types of knowledge will influence the decisions you make related toDimensions 2, 3, and 4. The introduction to Dimension 2 (beginning onpage 43 of your manual) provides an explanation of some of thecharacteristics of these two types of knowledge.


Take a look at the two lists on page 43. In the paragraphs following the listsare definitions of procedural and declarative knowledge. Take a couple ofminutes to read these definitions.


Here’s a test that will require you to use what you just read. Many learningsituations necessitate the acquisition of both declarative and proceduralknowledge. For example, any time you are learning something related totechnology—how to use a new software program, how to use your new lawnmower, or how to access the Internet—you must acquire both declarativeand procedural knowledge. You must develop an understanding of information,such as terms, names of pieces of equipment, and uses of the technology; andyou probably need to learn a skill, such as turning on a machine, activating aprogram, and searching for information. At your tables, identify a learning


O.7Overhead

O.8Overhead




Dimension 2

situation related to the use of technology, either in the home or on the job.Then generate a list of declarative knowledge (what you must know orunderstand) and procedural knowledge (what skills or abilities you mustdevelop). Be ready to share your lists.

<Allow time for groups to work, then ask several groups to share. Listen carefully tomake sure that participants accurately identify examples of both declarative andprocedural knowledge.>

In many learning situations you could do this same thing, that is, you couldidentify what you need to know or understand and what skills you need todevelop. We will soon see that people learn these two types of knowledgedifferently and, therefore, that we must teach them differently. However,first let’s look in more depth at declarative and procedural knowledge. Pleaseread about the relationships between declarative and procedural knowledgeon page 45.


Now, here’s a mini-quiz I’d like you to take. With a partner, answer thefollowing questions.

<Put up Overhead 2.1. Allow time for this activity, and then ask several people torespond to each question.

Target answers:

1. Think about the field of science. If you listed the declarative knowledge andthe procedural knowledge in science, which list would be longer?

Answer: The list of declarative knowledge would be longer. There are manyconcepts and principles in all of the fields of science. Almost all of theprocedural knowledge is related to skills required to engage in scientificinquiry. This procedural knowledge might be very important, and it might beused every day in the science lab, but the quantity of declarative knowledgeis greater.

2. If you were trying to determine how well I understand music, why might Ijustifiably object to your assessing my understanding by asking me to sing?

Answer: If you ask me to sing, you are also assessing my proceduralknowledge related to being able to sing. I might not want you to drawconclusions about my understanding of music from your assessment of mysinging ability. If I sing well, you might correctly conclude that Iunderstand music. However, if I can’t sing, I would not want you toconclude that I don’t understand music. I may understand a great deal.


2.1Overhead




Dimension 2

3. A graduate student complained, “I received an A in my statistics course. Infact, I think I could pass some of those same tests right now. However, when Istarted to plan the data analysis for my dissertation, I had no idea how toset up my statistical study; that is, I didn’t know which of the formulas touse.” What type of knowledge did the student lack? How could this happen,given that the student received an A in the course?

Answer: The student must have taken a course in which proceduralknowledge related to formulas was emphasized. It is possible that all of thetests assessed this procedural knowledge; thus, the student scored well. If,however, the student did not understand the concepts related to the formula(the declarative knowledge), then that would explain why he or she did notknow when to use the formulas.>

Hopefully, it is evident that both declarative knowledge and proceduralknowledge are important. We are now going to look at each type ofknowledge in more depth.

Declarative knowledge, as we have seen, includes the information that wewant students to know or understand. This does not imply that studentssimply should know long lists of facts. Declarative knowledge includes facts,but it also refers to concepts, generalizations, and principles. It might beuseful at this point to understand how to organize information in ways thathighlight the distinctions among facts, concepts, and generalizations andprinciples. Turn to page 46 in your manual.


This section, entitled “Levels of Generality and the Organization ofKnowledge,” identifies and describes six common organizational patterns.Take a few minutes to read the descriptions. If you are more of a visuallearner, after reading these descriptions turn to pages 63-65 and examine thegraphic organizer associated with each pattern.

<Allow time for reading. Put up Overheads 2.3 and 2.4.>

These common organizational patterns help us to make sense of largeamounts of information. For example, think of something about which youknow a great deal: something you enjoy doing, such as cooking, sewing, orplaying golf; or a topic you love to learn about, such as stamps or birds.Now, pretend that you are selecting some information about this topic toteach to students. In a few minutes, I am going to ask you to use theorganizational patterns to help you decide which information to include andwhich patterns you would want your students to see. But first, I will modelthis for you. Suppose I want to teach students information about quilting.

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<You should select a topic with which you feel comfortable. Using Overhead 2.2, godown the list of patterns, and, in a think-aloud fashion, ask yourself if there isimportant information in each pattern that you might want to include. You will bewriting on the right-hand side of the overhead as you do this think-aloud.>

I might start by asking myself if there are any terms or descriptions ofspecific things related to quilting that might be important for students toknow. I might decide that there are several names of quilting patterns that Iwant them to know, such as the “double wedding ring” and the “log cabin”design. Would there be any time sequences? Probably not. How aboutprocess/cause-effect relationships? Yes. I might want them to be familiarwith the major steps of the process of making a patchwork quilt, fromdesigning the pattern to finishing the edges. My list might end up lookingsomething like this.

<Write these examples, or the examples from your selected topic, on Overhead 2.2.

Notice the examples of concepts and generalizations/principles on my list.Sometimes people are somewhat confused about the difference between aconcept and a generalization/principle. This is because the word concept isoften used loosely in everyday language to refer to any general idea. Hereyou can see, however, that we are referring to a concept as a word (orsometimes two words like artificial intelligence) that represents a general classor category of things or ideas. A generalization or principle is a statementabout a general class or category.

1. Descriptions

Vocabulary Terms

Facts

2. Time Sequences

3. Process/Cause-EffectRelationships

4. Episodes

5. Generalizations/Principles

6. Concepts

Patterns: Double Wedding Ring,Log Cabin

Process of making a patchwork quilt

Many crafts developed as a result ofscarcity.

The arts and crafts of an era reflectthe culture of the time.

Scarcity, arts, crafts>

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Now I’d like you to try using these organizational patterns to plan forteaching information to someone. At first, I’d like you to work alone on thisassignment. You will be sharing your work later.

Select a topic that is of interest to you, and use these organizational patternsto identify and organize the information that you might teach to someone.Keep in mind that you are using the patterns to organize a list ofinformation—declarative knowledge—that you might teach someone. At thispoint you are not making final decisions about what you would actually teach.

<Allow time for participants to work on their lists. Circulate as they work to answerquestions and to clarify any areas of confusion.>

Now turn back to page 48 in your manual. The last paragraph on that pageexplains that these organizational patterns represent a hierarchy, from themost specific to the most general. As explained, it is important to understandthat both concept patterns and generalization/principle patterns containinformation that is at a higher level of generality than the information in theother patterns. As the first example in the paragraph on page 48 explains,learning about the concept of culture will be much more useful to someonethan simply learning about the culture of a specific country.

Using my quilting example, I might learn about specific quilting patternsand understand how these patterns symbolize aspects of the lives of pioneers.Although this is interesting specific information, it would be more useful ifI learned the generalization “Arts and crafts of any era reflect the culture ofthat era.” This generalization is at a higher level of generality and thus couldbe applied to many different situations.


Examine for a minute the examples on this overhead of potential goals forunits or study. Notice that the specific information is paired with moregeneral concepts and generalizations/principles.

Now look at the list of information you generated earlier about your topic ofinterest. Did you identify any generalizations/principles or concepts thatwould transfer to other topics? If not, could you? Reexamine your list, andshare the results at your tables.

<Allow time for them to work.>

To review, declarative knowledge can be organized into patterns so thatstudents see the relationships among the pieces of information. There are sixcommon organizational patterns that can be used to organize the information.Some of these patterns organize very specific factual information; others

Individual Task


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organize information that is more general. We will revisit these patternswhen we explore how to help students organize and see patterns and when wepractice planning.

Procedural knowledge is somewhat easier to organize. Take a minute to readthe section about procedural knowledge on page 49 of your manual.


Procedural knowledge, then, is not organized into patterns. It can beorganized as a continuum, from very specific skills to more general processes.

Go back to page 43, and look at the list of procedural knowledge. Noticethat some of the procedural knowledge identified is at the very generalprocess level. Some items on the list are more specific skills. With one ortwo other people, try to identify some specific skills that would need to betaught in order for students to learn the items that are more generalprocesses. Be ready to share.

<Participants should be able to identify a variety of skills. For example, the process ofsetting up an experiment would include skills like controlling variables andanalyzing data. You might find that some of the skills identified by participants areactually examples of the declarative knowledge that is needed to use a skill or process.For example, if someone states that in order to read music a person must understandwhat the musical symbols represent, point out that recognizing symbols is an exampleof declarative knowledge. This is a good time to reiterate the following point.>

You probably noticed once again that for all procedural knowledge, you canidentify important declarative knowledge that is associated with it. Forexample, setting up an experiment is included on the list of proceduralknowledge on page 43. You would not be able to set up an experiment ifyou did not know what a variable was or if you did not understand theconcepts related to the subject of your experiment. As we study theremainder of Dimension 2, we will see that when teaching skills andprocesses, it is important to make sure that students understand the relateddeclarative knowledge.

At this point, some of you may be wondering why we are spending this timetrying to understand the distinctive characteristics of declarative andprocedural knowledge. A primary reason for pursuing this understanding isthat people learn these two types of knowledge differently. Let’s look at thephases of learning both declarative and procedural knowledge. These areexplained briefly on pages 49-50.



Declarative Knowledge78 Trainer’s Manual


Dimension 2

<Allow time for reading. Then put up Overhead 2.6.>

Take a look at the two figures on page 50. Notice that to learn declarativeknowledge, the learner needs to construct meaning, organize, and store.Learning procedural knowledge requires the learner to construct models,shape, and internalize. These figures highlight that the relationship among thephases is different for each type of knowledge.

For declarative knowledge we will see, for example, that when we areconstructing meaning for information, we might already be organizing itand that when we are constructing meaning for and organizing information,we are more likely to store, or retain, that information. However, forprocedural knowledge, we tend to move through the phases in a more linearfashion, although we may move back and forth among the phases, as needed.For example, if we begin to practice the procedural knowledge in order tointernalize it, we may discover that we need to go back and do some workon shaping it. The relationships among the phases for each type ofknowledge will be clearer to you as we study each. We will now look moreclosely at declarative knowledge.

Declarative KnowledgeThere is a great deal of declarative knowledge that students are expected toacquire and integrate in school. Although some educators and noneducatorsalike resist emphasizing the acquisition of information in an age oftechnology, others suggest that we cannot function and progress as a societyunless we share a common body of knowledge that includes information thatwe all know and understand. As the debate rages on, it continues to be ourresponsibility as educators to identify important declarative knowledge andto make every effort to provide students with multiple opportunities toacquire and integrate that knowledge. This section of the Teacher’s Manualprovides suggestions for helping to achieve that goal.


Construct MeaningAs explained in the introduction to Chapter 2 (pages 49-50), acquiringdeclarative knowledge requires three overlapping phases. The first phase we willconsider in learning declarative knowledge is constructing meaning. This isfacilitated when learners are able to connect new knowledge to what theyalready know. During any learning situation, however, students may notconsciously and explicitly make these connections. The result may be similar toyour experience of reading the “Doing Laundry” passage during the Overview.

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Declarative Knowledge

<If participants have not had this experience, do this activity as described in thetraining script for the Overview, page 38.>

There are a number of strategies and approaches that teachers can use, andthat they can teach to students, to ensure that students are constructingmeaning as they are learning declarative knowledge.

The first strategy, described in your manual on page 52, providessuggestions for helping students understand the process of constructingmeaning. The “Doing Laundry” passage is included in this section as anexample to use with students just as it was used with you during theoverview of the Dimensions of Learning model. The reason this is the firstsuggestion under constructing meaning is that students have a greaterchance of successfully using all of the other strategies for constructingmeaning if they understand the purpose of the strategies. Take a minute toread the suggestions for building this understanding.

<Allow time for reading. After participants have read for a minute, stop them andgive them three minutes to turn to a partner and verbalize what they were thinkingabout as they read. You are modeling for them a very unstructured “three-minutepause,” which is the next strategy.>

The next strategy, strategy 2, describes the use of the three-minute pause.Please read this section in your manual.


We just used the three-minute pause while you were reading. This is one ofthe simplest strategies for constructing meaning. As students are exposed tonew information when, for example, reading a book, watching a film, orlistening to someone presenting information, they periodically are asked topause and turn to a partner to summarize, discuss interesting ideas, andidentify and resolve any areas of confusion. This pause may last threeminutes, or it may be shorter. Students are then asked to turn their attentionback to the learning experience.

Why would this strategy help students to construct meaning? How can itprovide you with an indication of how well students are constructingmeaning?

<Target answer: Students become active rather than passive learners. When theyverbalize their thoughts, they begin to process the information they are receiving. Ifduring the pause teachers notice that students are not able to say anything about theinformation, this should be a cue that students have not been able to constructmeaning.>





Dimension 2

A very different strategy for constructing meaning is for learners to use all oftheir senses as they are exposed to information. This strategy (strategy 3) isdescribed on pages 53 and 54 of the Teacher’s Manual. Please read this section.


Although many of you probably have used this strategy in the classroom, itis worth reviewing. Teachers have reported that when students becomeproficient at using this strategy, their understanding and retention ofinformation is positively affected. However, to get these results, studentsmust practice generating mental images. It is relatively easy to do this whena passage of information contains rich language that helps them to createimages, but it is much more difficult when the information is presented in atraditional academic style. Let me illustrate.

In a moment I’m going to put up a passage taken from National Geographic.I’d like you to read this passage. As you read, consciously try to create amental image, using all of your senses. Be ready to share your images, todescribe what was going on in your mind. In other words, be ready todescribe what it was like to think about the information.

<Put up Overhead 2.8 (Silk). Allow time for reading and sharing. Encourageparticipants to describe what they saw, heard, tasted, smelled, and touched as theyread.>

When we are stimulated by writing that is rich with images, it is relativelyeasy to engage all of our senses. We construct pictures almost unconsciouslyand, as you just experienced, use our senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste,and touch. As a result, we understand and retain the information fairly well.Content knowledge presented in textbooks or lectures, however, sometimesdoes not have the rich language you just experienced. In such cases, learnershave to consciously work to engage all of their senses in order to helpthemselves construct meaning. The more abstract the information, the morechallenging it is to create mental images and the more teachers must helpstudents to create them.

<Put up Overhead 2.9 (Why Our Hair Turns Gray).>

Now I want you to read this passage. Be prepared to answer: What can yousee? Hear? Smell? Taste? Touch?

<Allow participants time to read the passage on the overhead. You may want to,instead, use your own passage for this experience.>

What mental pictures and sensations did you create?

Individual Task

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2.9Overhead





Dimension 2

<Have several participants answer the question aloud. As they do, probe for moredetails in their pictures and ask them what they saw, heard, smelled, tasted, and felt.Role-play the teacher by demonstrating that you are not simply attending to the degreeto which they understand the content; you are helping them develop the ability tocreate more and more detailed images.>

This passage is written in “textbook style” and describes a process. Both ofthese characteristics make it more challenging for readers to engage all oftheir senses because the language is straightforward, dry, and abstract. Howmight you help students to engage all of their senses when they arepresented with passages like this?

<Make the point that you were demonstrating several techniques as you tried to elicitmore and more details about their mental pictures. Discuss other ways for helpingstudents to refine this skill, such as describing your own mental pictures andsensations to students, asking students to describe their pictures and sensations to eachother, and using a think-aloud to model the strategy.>

Turn to page 81, and read the second classroom example, the Mrs. Garronexample. It shows how a teacher might use the mental imagery strategy toengage students in the process of learning specific declarative knowledge inthe classroom, in this case a fifth-grade classroom. Even if you don’t teach atthis level, the example might help you think of ways to use this strategywith your students.


Strategy 4 (Help students to construct meaning for vocabulary terms) alsoencourages the development of the ability to create images, but it applies thestrategy specifically to vocabulary development. You will recall that whenidentifying the declarative knowledge that is important in a unit of study,you might identify key vocabulary terms. The section in the Teacher’s Manualthat deals with Strategy 4 highlights the point that if students are simplymemorizing definitions of vocabulary terms, especially when they don’treally understand the definitions, they are not constructing meaning. As aresult, the memorized definitions are virtually useless.

The five-step process described under Strategy 4 (see page 55) emphasizesthe importance of students developing an understanding of the terms theyare learning. With this approach, students do not memorize definitions fromthe dictionary but, instead, use them as a resource for information that helpsthem to understand the words well enough to create mental images. If theyare unable to create images, students learn that they must seek out otherresources—another dictionary, a dictionary on software, a parent, a teacher—



to get the information necessary to understand the terms well enough tocreate images of them.

Helping students to construct meaning can also be facilitated with a strategycalled K-W-L, which was developed by educator/researcher Donna Ogle. It isdescribed on page 55 of the Teacher’s Manual.

<Put up Overhead 2.10 (the K-W-L chart).>

The first step in the K-W-L strategy is to ask students what they alreadyknow (K) about the topic of the lesson. As students give their ideas (whetherright or wrong), write them in the first column of a K-W-L chart.

The second step is to ask students what they want (W) to know about thetopic. Write their responses in the second column.

The third step is to present the information so that students can read, hear,or experience it in some other way. It is important to remind students tokeep in mind what was recorded in the K and W columns.

Finally, after you have presented the information to students, ask them whatthey learned (L). As you record their responses, draw arrows to make explicitconnections to items listed under K and W. Some of what students learned mayvalidate or correct information listed under K or answer questions under W.

As explained on page 56, there are some additional things you can do tomake this strategy work for your students:

• Under K (what I know) it is sometimes helpful to ask, “What do youthink you know?” Then it’s okay if students find out later that theywere wrong.

• Under W (what I want to know) a related question might be, “Whatdo I think I’m going to find out?” Model for students how scanningmaterials before they read can help them in this step.

• Some teachers add another W (what I want to know now) to reinforcethe idea that learning is ongoing; it does not stop at the end of thelesson.

Teachers who have used the K-W-L strategy report that they see evidencethat students are constructing meaning when they use this strategy. Theyalso report some predictable glitches: When students are asked, “What doyou want to know?”, they sometimes reply, “Nothing” or “I don’t knowenough to know what I want to know.” It helps to model strategies—scanning materials, predicting from pictures, talking to others—that helpthem to anticipate the information that they will receive.



Dimension 2

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Dimension 2


<K-W-L is a very popular strategy. You might ask participants if they have used itin their classrooms and then encourage them to share their experiences.>

Many teachers feel that it is best for students to discover or figure out themeaning of information. This approach, sometimes referred to as an“inductive” or “inquiry” model, can be used very successfully to help studentsconstruct meaning. There are many specific instructional strategies that fallinto this category; the Teacher’s Manual provides a step-by-step description ofone such strategy: concept attainment. This strategy takes students through aprocess that helps them discover the important attributes of a concept they arelearning. In this process of discovery, students construct meaning for theconcept by using the clues provided to them. Let’s walk through the versionof the concept attainment strategy that is described in the Teacher’s Manual.

The first step in this strategy is to present students with several examplesand nonexamples of the concept they are learning. Students then try toidentify what the examples have in common (and, conversely, what thenonexamples lack); that is, they try to identify the attributes of the concept.Usually, the teacher does not give the name of the concept at first. Instead,he provides more and more examples and nonexamples as students try tofigure out the important attributes of the concept by identifying what theexamples have in common. When students think they know the importantattributes, they do not give these answers aloud because that wouldimmediately cut off the critical thinking processes of the other students.Instead, if they think they know the attributes, students simply give otherexamples and nonexamples. In this way, they can test their own ideas andprovide additional examples for other students to consider.

Now I want you to try to figure out the attributes of the concept illustratedby these examples and nonexamples.

<Put up Overhead 2.11, and uncover the examples and nonexamples, one line at atime. After uncovering several, ask the following question.>

I’m sure you will quickly recognize that the concept is compound word.However, pretend that you do not know. What do you think are the majorattributes of the examples?

<Allow time.>

Can anyone think of any additional examples and nonexamples to add to thelists?


2.11Overhead


<Add participants’ examples. If they say that the only attribute is “a word made bycombining two smaller words,” ask them to determine if the words “knowledge” and“supervision” are compound words. They may then say that another attribute is that“the meaning of the new word must combine the meanings of the two shorter ones.”Then ask if “butterfly” is a compound word.

The attribute list will probably eventually include the following:

• two words are combined to make a new word,

• the meanings of some compound words are made up of a combination of themeanings of the two shorter words, and

• the meanings of some other compound words are not strongly related to themeanings of the two smaller words.>

Let’s try another example of this concept attainment strategy.

<Use Overhead 2.12 to take participants through the process for the concept“rhombus.” Attributes: figure with four equal sides; opposite sides must be parallel.Show examples and nonexamples one at a time. Ask participants to list attributes.>

Presenting new concepts in this way is a very powerful technique because itrequires students to construct the defining attributes of a concept. Studentsmust retrieve their prior knowledge about the examples and nonexamples inorder to try to identify characteristics that the examples share and that thenonexamples lack. When using the strategy, it is important to reinforcestudents’ thinking, and not just the right answers, as they try to figure outthe attributes of the concept.

Take a look now at the italicized lists of examples and nonexamples in themiddle of page 58 of the Teacher’s Manual. Quickly put your hand over theparagraph under the two lists so that you cannot see the answer. As you try toidentify the attributes of this slightly more complex concept, notice how muchprior information you must use to construct the meaning of the concept.

<Allow time for participants to do this task.>

Finally, Strategy 7 suggests that teachers use instructional techniques thatprovide students with strategies to use before, during, and after they receiveinformation. These strategies can be used by learners during the entire readingprocess. Two instructional techniques that follow the before, during, and afterstructure are described in the Teacher’s Manual: Reciprocal teaching and SQ3R.

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Read through the description of reciprocal teaching on pages 59 and 60, andthen read the information in the margin on page 59. Explain to a partnerwhy you think this technique produces such dramatic results with students.

<Allow time for participants to read and discuss.>

The strategies included in this section of the manual are all examples ofthings that teachers and students can do to ensure that information is beinglearned, not just taught. No matter how rich the activity, learners willsuccessfully acquire knowledge to the degree to which they actively engagein constructing meaning, whether they are reading, listening to, observing,or doing something with the information.

OrganizeI am going to show you a picture of something fairly familiar to you.Although this is a simple task, don’t say aloud what you see. People willrecognize it at different times.

<Put up Overhead 2.13. Allow time for people to try to see the dog. It is a good timeto joke a little about their inability to see something they surely must know. Rewardthose who see it quickly by labeling them as “the gifted students.” After a couple ofminutes, tell them there is a dog in the picture. Don’t be surprised when many peopledo not see it until you outline it for them.>

The point of doing this is to help you experience what it is like whensomething that is clear to some people is, at best, fuzzy to others. For thosewho had trouble seeing the dog, how did it feel when others could see it?For those who saw it before it was outlined, what feelings did you have whenyou knew you could see it and others couldn’t? For those who quite clearlysaw something other than a dog, how did you feel when you found out youwere wrong?

As information is being presented in the classroom, students may or may notrecognize the patterns of ideas in that information, just as many of you hadtrouble recognizing the pattern of the dog. Of course, patterns in informationare not intentionally distorted as the picture of the dog was, but whatstudents see in even well-organized blocks of information still will vary.

The key to seeing the dog was being able to organize all of the lines andshadows in order to recognize the pattern of a dog embedded in the picture.Likewise, when trying to acquire information, the key is to organize theideas in order to recognize the patterns of relationships embedded in the

Think/Pair/Share

2.13Overhead



block of information. Just as there were distracting lines hiding the pictureof the dog, there are often words and ideas that, for many students, seem todistract them from the organizational patterns in the information.

<Put up Overhead 2.7 again (the three interlocking circles with abbreviateddefinitions of the phases of learning declarative knowledge).>

Organizing declarative information is a critical part of acquiring declarativeknowledge. The strategies on pages 61-72 describe a variety of methods forhelping students to see patterns in the information they see and hear.

Perhaps the most common strategy used to organize information is theformal outline. For some people, outlining is an effective way ofunderstanding the relationships among key ideas; for others, it is difficultand not very helpful. However, there are many other strategies for helpingstudents to see the patterns of relationships in information.

The first strategy on page 61 reminds us that it often helps for students tounderstand the purpose of the strategies in this section: to organizedeclarative knowledge. The activities at the bottom of page 61 and the topof page 62 suggest a sequence of experiences that might help students tobecome aware of their ability to see patterns all around them and then to usethis ability to recognize patterns in information.

<Give participants an opportunity to skim through activities 1-4 on pages 61-62.>

In the introduction to Dimension 2 we examined the most commonorganizational patterns in information. You’ll recall that these patterns wereconcepts, generalizations/principles, episodes, processes/cause-effectrelationships, time sequences, and descriptions. Students who are familiarwith these commonly used patterns can become skilled at using them toorganize information that they read or hear. To see and understand thesepatterns more clearly, students can learn to use graphic organizers.

Read the sections on pages 62-65, which again describe the most commonorganizational patterns and provide a graphic organizer for each.

<Allow time for participants to read. Then present the sample passages on Overhead2.14 (How Do You Hear Sounds?) and Overhead 2.15 (Noise Can Harm You) tosee if participants can recognize patterns that are clear examples of the organizationalpatterns.>

<Put up Overheads 2.3 and 2.4 again (the graphic organizers).>



Dimension 2

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Let’s use these patterns.

Take a few minutes to read the passage on page 66 entitled “Dictators Riseto Power.” When you finish, do not look ahead to page 67.


Now, use one of the graphic organizers you just read about to organizeimportant information into one of the six common organizational patterns.Go ahead and draw the organizer, and begin to put in the key information.For this first part of the activity, work alone.

<Allow time for participants to create their organizers.>

Now, compare what you have done with at least two other people.

<Ask several people to explain which pattern they used. You should get a variety ofresponses.>

Look at pages 67 and 68, and compare what you created with the organizersyou find there. As you look them over, notice that as each organizationalpattern is used, different information from the passage is highlighted.

<Allow time for participants to look at the organizers on pages 67 and 68.>

Although many teachers have used graphic organizers with students, theycommonly use a web-like organizer similar to that used here underdescriptive pattern. However, it is important to remember that the graphicorganizer that is used should visually depict the relationship you wantstudents to see.

The use of patterns to organize the information can be either teacher directedor student directed. The teacher may decide that there are specific ideas andrelationships among ideas that students must clearly see; in this case, he orshe should select the patterns to organize information. The other option is toask students to organize information on their own. Of course, this approachmakes students more active learners. If pattern recognition is truly studentdirected, the teacher needs to accept what students see, as long as theinformation is well organized.

Another method of communicating specific organizational patterns is toprovide students with questions to help them use a specific pattern and tosee the relationships among the ideas being organized. As you can see fromthe examples on pages 68 and 69, there are specific questions to ask whenyou want to emphasize a particular organizational pattern.

<Read a few of the questions to participants.>

Individual Task



Once students become familiar with the common organizational patterns,you can encourage them to take notes using graphic representations.Examine Figure 2.8 on page 70, which shows one way of organizing notesusing graphic representations. One teacher explains that she periodicallyrequires students to use this method. Her students prepare their note-takingpaper with two columns. Then periodically during the learning experience,she cues them to pause and construct a graphic organizer for their writtennotes. She also encourages them to use pictographic representations. Look atpage 71 for an explanation and an example of a pictograph.

Working with a couple of other people, select one of the graphic organizersfor the dictator passage that you were working on a few minutes ago, andcreate a pictographic representation instead. You do not have to be an artistto make this work. Think of it as playing the game of “Pictionary” in whichyou use stick figures and crude drawings to communicate meaning.

<Allow time for participants to work and to share. If possible, distributetransparencies on which they can create their pictographs and then share their work.Large pieces of paper might also be used and then taped onto the walls of the room.>

Building pictographs engages students in representing linguisticinformation nonlinguistically. As suggested, physical models also might beused. Both of these types of representations require students to selectimportant information that should be included in their pictographs ormodels. Thus, the strategy encourages students to focus on key ideas and therelationships among them.

<Do the following activity if you have time.>

In groups of three, select a current event with which you are fairly familiar.Represent the key ideas and the relationships among those ideas using apictograph. When you are finished, I will ask you to share your product.

<Allow time for participants to create their pictographs. Encourage them to use as fewwords as possible. Ideally, make sure that chart paper and magic markers areavailable to participants so that they can produce something large enough to share.You might want to make it a game by having groups hold up their pictographs andgiving points to groups who can guess what each pictograph represents.>

As you share your pictographs, describe how you decided what to includeand why you represented it the way you did.

<Sharing can be with the whole group, among small groups, or both.>



Dimension 2







Dimension 2

Think about the explanations just given for the pictographs. What evidenceis there that creating these representations helps students to organizeinformation?

<Target answer: When creating pictographs, students have to be selective about theinformation that they include and careful to identify relationships among elements.These two processes are at the heart of organizing.>

Teachers who have taught students to take notes using pictures and graphicorganizers have reported that many students get excited about thepossibilities. “You mean we can draw what we are learning?,” they ask. Ofcourse, many students still need guidance in building useful pictographs andorganizers, but for some students note taking begins to mean more than thebusy work of copying what’s on the blackboard or writing down every wordthe teacher says.

Finally, it is recommended that you use graphs or charts to organizeinformation. This approach is commonly used to organize quantitativeinformation, but the example on page 72 shows a way of depictingconceptual ideas as well.

There are, of course, variations of all of these strategies. Turn to page 82, andread the classroom example in the middle of the page. It begins, “A team ofhealth education. . . .” This example does not include a pictograph or agraphic organizer as described in the manual, but you will see the graphic asa variation designed to help students organize information.

Store<Put up Overhead 2.7 again (the three interlocking circles with abbreviateddefinitions of the phases of learning declarative knowledge).>

When students use strategies that help them to construct meaning andorganize information, they are more likely to remember that information.However, there are times when specific memorization techniques are necessary.

Discussing memory makes some people uncomfortable. How many of youthink you have a good memory? A bad memory? A so-so memory? Howmany of you have already forgotten the question?

The characterizations associated with the labels “good memory,” “poormemory,” and so on are one reason people feel uncomfortable with the topic.Another is that many people believe memorization has no place in schools.The reality, however, is that sometimes there is information that students areexpected to memorize. As explained in the introduction to the section on

2.7Overhead



storing declarative knowledge (page 73 in the Teacher’s Manual), we aseducators need to make good decisions about what students shouldmemorize. We then should provide them with effective strategies so that itwill not take them long to memorize necessary information.

The most common method of memorizing is mental rehearsal, repeatedlygoing over information. This is also the least efficient way of storing newknowledge. There are better strategies for enhancing long-term memory.

How many people have used mnemonic devices to help students memorizeinformation (for example, ROY G. BIV to remember the colors of therainbow or HOMES to remember the Great Lakes)?

<Elicit other examples.>

Creating mnemonic devices can be a very efficient way of storing specificcontent knowledge. Unfortunately, they are somewhat limited in their use.It is difficult to generate mnemonics for everything we want to memorize.There are, however, a number of other strategies students can use.

First, help students understand that storing information can be facilitated byusing strategies for constructing meaning and organizing. There are severalsuggestions on page 74 for helping to build this understanding with students.

Next, introduce students to one of the most common principles related tohow human beings store and recall information: Memorizing often relies oncreating mental images, and these images rely on our ability to use symbolsand substitutions.

To illustrate this principle, think about something significant that hashappened to you within the last year (such as a wedding or graduation youattended or a hike you took in the Grand Canyon). Try to recall thatincident in detail. Turn and tell your neighbor about it.

<Allow two or three minutes for this sharing.>

Now, describe what was happening in your head as you recalled and describedthe event. Were you seeing things? Smelling? Tasting? Hearing? Touching?


When we remember something really well, like the event you just recalled,our senses are usually involved. In the section of this model on constructingmeaning, one strategy was to have students use all of their senses. Thesuggestion was to help students create mental pictures and physicalsensations so that they can attach what they know to what they are

Think/Pair/Share



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Dimension 2


experiencing. When the instructional goal is to store information, imagesthat include both mental pictures and physical sensations are used in a moresystematic and structured way.

Take a moment to read the second strategy for helping students to storedeclarative knowledge (pages 74 and 75).


This section suggests helping students use symbols and substitutes to createmental pictures and physical sensations for information. A symbol is aconcrete image that stands for or represents abstract information. Theclenched fist is a symbol for power. The dollar is a symbol for money. If Iwere trying to remember the phrase “Money is power,” I might use thesesymbols. I would create a mental picture of a clenched fist and a dollar sign.I would also try to put touch, taste, smell, and so on in the picture.

A substitute is a word that sounds like or looks like abstract content but isfamiliar and concrete enough to picture mentally. For example, if I weretrying to remember that Topeka is the capital of Kansas, I might picture atop (Topeka) spinning on a can (Kansas). Note the example on page 75 thatshows a picture that might be created to remember that water is two partshydrogen and one part oxygen.

Turn to page 82, and read the last classroom example. It explains the creativeresult of a group of students using substitutions to recall information.


In small groups, see if you can generate a symbol or a substitute for theseven continents. Form these groups with the people around you inwhatever way feels comfortable.

<Allow several minutes for small groups to work. Elicit examples from the entiregroup, or have small groups share with each other.>

Becoming skilled at creating mental pictures and physical sensations for alltypes of concrete or abstract information will allow students to use a numberof memory strategies. One of the most widely used strategies is the linkstrategy, which is described on page 75. It involves telling yourself a littlestory that “links” together the mental pictures and physical sensations youhave created for the information. “Georgette, the Jersey Cow,” the system youlearned in the Overview session, is an example of the link method. Themental pictures in this system were combinations of symbols and substitutes.


2.16Overhead



See if you can remember the pictures that were linked (during theGeorgette, the Jersey Cow/thirteen original colonies example) and thendetermine which ones are symbols and which are substitutes.

<If participants did not do this during the Overview, have them read the descriptionon pages 75 and 76 and then see if they can recall all thirteen original colonies.>

<Allow time for participants to recall the pictures and to decide which are symbolsand which are substitutes. Only the Empire State Building is a symbol; all of theother elements are substitutes.>

Now, with a partner take the symbols and substitutes you generated for theseven continents and try to link them together into a story or picture.

<Allow time for pairs to work and to share their work with a couple of other pairs.>

There are a number of other highly structured systems that use mentalpictures. Four of these systems are described on pages 76-80.

<At this point, demonstrate the strategies with which you are most comfortable.Include the rhyming pegword system by having participants give you ten or more itemsto memorize (depending on how far you can go). Ask participants to give you the itemsin random order while someone records them in numbered order on a blank overhead;then repeat them back in order. This assumes you have practiced and are confidentdemonstrating the technique in front of a group.>

I just demonstrated the rhyming pegword system. It is relatively simple touse. Now I’ll teach you how to use it.


Repeat this list of words to yourself. One is a bun, two is a shoe. Get adistinct mental picture of the items (bun, shoe, tree, etc.).

<Allow two or three minutes.>

Now I will give you a grocery list, and you will be able to list the items inthe order I give them to you.

<First, talk participants through the process as follows.>

Recall the pegword for the number I give you. I’ll start with the numberone. Get a picture of the bun. Now put into that slot a carton of milk. Makesure the picture of the pegword (i.e., bun) and the picture of the groceryitem (i.e., milk) interact in some way (e.g., milk is pouring over the hot dogbun making it soggy. Ick!). Also remember to try to hear, smell, taste, andtouch something. Focus on the picture of the two items (the pegword andthe grocery item), then let the picture go.



Dimension 2


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Dimension 2


Think/Pair/Share

<Call out the other nine items, giving participants a few seconds to create mentalpictures of each. Record the list as you give participants the items in mixed order.After reading all ten items, ask participants to write the grocery list in order. Manywill probably be able to do this. Encourage those who cannot to go back and examinewhat went wrong for the information they could not recall.>

Many students can use the rhyming pegword system the first time they areexposed to it or after a little practice. Whether they use it for content is notnecessarily important. They can just have fun with it. Often students willdiscover that memorization, just like other thinking skills, is not a “gift”that you have or that you lack. Anyone can get better at any type ofthinking when he or she has strategies for doing so.

Take a moment to read a more content-related use of the rhyming pegwordsystem on pages 76 and 77. Then read about the number/key word, thenumber/picture, and the familiar place systems, which are variations of thepegword system.


Now, with a partner, try to think of content that you teach that requiresstudents to memorize. Discuss whether you think any of these strategieswould help students to be successful.

<Allow time.>

The final strategy for helping students to store declarative knowledge,strategy 5, reminds us that mnemonic devices are also very powerful ways ofhelping students to recall information.

As we have seen, there are many strategies that can be presented to studentsto help them store important information. However, once again, pleaseremember that when students spend time constructing meaning andorganizing, they will be more likely to retain the information.

<Put up Overhead 2.7 again (the three interlocking circles with abbreviateddefinitions of the phases of learning declarative knowledge).>

We have examined strategies for helping students to construct meaning for,organize, and store declarative knowledge. There is no guarantee that thesestrategies will work, but they all have been used effectively with studentswho are acquiring declarative knowledge. We will see that when planningfor declarative knowledge, it is important to identify which strategies will beused during the unit to ensure that as students engage in various activities,they are constructing meaning for, organizing, and storing the information.

2.7Overhead



Declarative: Planning

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to this section of Dimension 2. See page 9 for explanations of each ofthese formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Planning for Dimension 2,Declarative Knowledge

<Participants should have a blank planning guide for declarative knowledge in thepacket that we recommend you give them at the beginning of any workshop in whichplanning is being addressed. See Handouts section.>

We have been discussing the types of thinking needed to efficiently acquireand integrate declarative knowledge and have examined strategies that willstimulate these thinking processes. It is important to carefully planinstruction related to Dimension 2. Like each of the dimensions, planningfor Dimension 2 requires a process that includes steps designed to answer aprimary question, in this case, “What will be done to help students acquireand integrate declarative knowledge?” This process is described on page 83of your manual.

<Put up Overhead 2.P1 (the questions and steps for planning for Dimension 2).>

As you follow these steps and make decisions, record your ideas and plans ona planning guide, as shown on page 92.

<Put up Overhead 2.P2 (a reproduction of page 92 of the Teacher’s Manual).>

The planning process for Dimension 2 is perhaps the most difficult and timeconsuming of any of the dimensions. This is because in Dimension 2 you areidentifying the knowledge that you want students to acquire and integrate,extend and refine, and use meaningfully. Notice that Step 1 asks the question,“What declarative knowledge will students be in the process of acquiring andintegrating?” Accompanying this question, a sentence stem begins theanswer, “As a result of this unit, students will know or understand . . .”.

This part of the planning process is covered beginning on page 84. There areseveral steps within Step 1. These steps vary depending on the extent towhich you use standards and benchmarks.

<Before the training begins, you should determine the degree to which you need toexplain standards and benchmarks to your audience. Once you determine ifparticipants use standards and benchmarks, structure the training in a way that



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Closure

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Dimension 2


focuses them on the examples that most closely match their school, district, or staterequirements for curriculum design. In other words, if they use standards andbenchmarks, emphasize those examples that use benchmarks. If they do not, focus themon the “without standards and benchmarks” examples.>

Frequently, unit planning begins with developing a title for the unit. Asdescribed in Step 1a, that title might be a topic, a theme, a concept, ageneralization, or any other unifying idea that brings meaning to the unit. Aunit title simply gives us a way of talking about the unit. The title of theexample in the Teacher’s Manual is the Colorado Unit.

Step 1b suggests brainstorming a list of information that should be includedin the unit. This is just a way of getting started. A list from this part ofplanning the Colorado Unit might have looked something like this.


Step 1c asks you to start making some decisions. You can’t teach everythingthere is to know about Colorado or about any topic. To help you makedecisions about what to teach, it is suggested that you use the organizationalpatterns identified in the introduction to Dimension 2 and reinforced in thesection of the manual on organizing declarative knowledge. If, in addition, youuse standards and benchmarks, at this point you should let the benchmarks foryour grade level drive your decisions. With or without benchmarks, you needto spend some concentrated time identifying and organizing the declarativeknowledge that it is important for students to learn.

Take a couple of minutes to read through the identification process explainedon page 85. (This includes a process to use with and without standards andbenchmarks.) Then examine the accompanying sample worksheets and unitplanning graphics on the following pages.

<Allow time for reading. You may want to use Overheads 2.P4, 2.P5, 2.P6, and2.P7 as you review this process. These are overheads of the sample worksheets andgraphics on pages 86-89.>

<Put up Overhead 2.P3 again (the brainstormed list).>

Notice that not all of the information on the brainstormed list was identifiedas important. Notice also that much of the specific factual information wasselected because it supports the more general concept patterns andgeneralization/principle patterns. Let’s look at these two patterns more closely.

When you are identifying concepts and generalizations/principles, you areidentifying knowledge that will help students understand information other

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2.P4 2.P5

2.P6 2.P7

Overheads



than that included in this unit. Both factual information (which is morespecific) and concepts or generalizations/principles (which are more general)are important. However, factual information is what students should know,whereas concepts and generalizations/principles are information that studentsshould understand. We will see in other dimensions that general knowledge(that is, concepts and generalizations/principles that students need tounderstand) is the knowledge that is worth extending, refining, and usingmeaningfully.

If only factual information is identified, we suggest that you ask yourself ifthere is also general knowledge that students should be acquiring andintegrating during the unit.

During planning, then, you are identifying the important declarativeknowledge and organizing it into patterns. The worksheets on pages 86 and88 are only samples that represent the process of making these decisions. Theunit planning graphics on pages 87 and 89 represent the final decisions forthis unit. As explained in the manual, the graphic format is shown as analternative way of depicting the final decisions; this is a visual and less linearway of showing your planning decisions than the ideas roughed out on thesample worksheets. Either the worksheet, the graphic format, or both may beused to identify the declarative knowledge that will be the focus of the unit.

Before going any further with the planning process, let’s practice this veryimportant step of identifying the declarative knowledge for the unit. Youmay work alone or with others. Start by selecting a unit that you are goingto plan. It makes sense to select a unit that you actually teach. If you are notpresently a teacher in the classroom, select a unit that you have taught orthat you know is taught.

<It is recommended that you try to let participants know ahead of time that they willbe planning a unit during the workshop. It helps if they have already made theirselections and perhaps even brought some materials with them that will help them inthis planning segment of the training. In addition, you should come to the workshopprepared with your own examples to model each part of the process. You can use theColorado Unit examples, of course, but if you select something that is familiar to you,it will seem more real to participants.>

First, brainstorm a list of the declarative knowledge that you want studentsto acquire and integrate. It might be useful to think of the accompanyingsentence stem that begins the answer to the question in Step 1, “As a resultof this unit, students will know or understand….”



Dimension 2

Planning Activity





Dimension 2

If you are using benchmarks, this is a good time to specify whichbenchmarks will be addressed in this unit. Depending on where you beginin your planning, the brainstormed list of declarative knowledge might leadyou to the identification of appropriate benchmarks, or your selectedbenchmarks might suggest appropriate declarative knowledge that should beincluded in your brainstormed list.

<Model this for participants, and give them time to generate their lists.>

Next, set up a worksheet format (as shown on pages 86 and 88) or a unitgraphic format (as shown on pages 87 and 89), and begin identifying andorganizing the important declarative knowledge. If you plan usingbenchmarks, organize the information under each benchmark that is beingtaught, as shown in the Colorado Unit examples.

Identify any concepts, generalizations/principles, etc., that are important inthe unit, and write the pattern in the first column. Identify the knowledgethat is organized into those patterns in the second column.

If there are concept patterns and generalization/principle patterns in theunit, consider if you need to identify any important specific facts that willsupport these more general patterns. You can see how these are identified inthe Colorado Unit worksheets and unit graphics.

<Model this step for participants, and/or refer again to the Colorado Unit examples.>

Keep in mind that planning rarely is a linear process. Although we areidentifying the declarative knowledge in Dimension 2 before we look atDimensions 3 and 4, the knowledge we identify may be revised afterdecisions are made in the other dimensions. In fact, some people plan bybeginning with Dimension 4 and then identifying the declarative knowledgefor the unit. We will look more closely at these different planning sequencesin Chapter 6, “Putting It All Together.”

<The amount of time that you spend modeling the planning process and providingparticipants with time to practice will depend on the extent to which your audienceplans to use the Dimensions of Learning model to plan units of study.>

Now that you have identified the declarative knowledge that you wantstudents to acquire, you need to move on to Step 2 and answer the nextquestion, “What experiences or activities will be used to help studentsacquire and integrate this knowledge?”

<Put up Overhead 2.P1 again (the major planning questions and steps).> 2.P1Overhead



These experiences may include direct, active experiences or indirectexperiences such as reading, listening, or viewing. Look at the sample list ofexperiences and activities on page 90. The sample page from the planningguide for the Colorado Unit, page 92, includes both direct and indirectexperiences.

For many teachers, identifying experiences and activities has been the focusof their planning efforts. Rich, engaging activities are, of course, important,but you will notice that when planning with the Dimensions of Learningmodel, the emphasis is on first identifying important knowledge and thendesigning experiences and activities that will provide students withopportunities to acquire that knowledge. The activities and experiences arenot the end; they are the means to the end.

When selecting and designing activities and experiences, the planner mustconsider the diversity that exists in the classroom. Some learners are mostcomfortable with active, hands-on activities; others prefer quiet, reflectiveexperiences. Some students learn best when they hear the information; otherswill want to hear and see the information. The key is to vary the types ofactivities and experiences so that all students at times will be learning in themode that is most comfortable for them.

Step 3 of the planning process asks you to now answer, “What strategies willbe used to help students construct meaning for, organize, and/or store thisknowledge?” As explained, we know that even wonderful activities andexperiences do not guarantee that students will acquire the identifiedknowledge. During planning, it is important to identify the strategies thatyou might use to increase the likelihood that students will learn from theactivities and experiences that you have planned. The strategies reviewed inthis chapter are listed together on page 91 as a handy reference to use as youare planning.

As just explained in Step 2, all classrooms have students with diverse stylesof learning. In addition to varying the types of activities and experiences thatyou select, you need to vary the strategies that you use in conjunction withthese activities and experiences. Some students will prefer discovery orinquiry strategies; others will find that they learn best when information ispresented using a didactic strategy such as K-W-L. Again, the key is to varyyour choices in order to appeal to diverse styles of learning.

Finally, Step 4 asks you to describe what will be done. This part of theplanning guide for the Colorado unit, as seen on page 92, shows a briefdescription, written by the teacher planning the unit, of what will happen inthe classroom. This space does not have to be filled out as it is in this



Dimension 2




Dimension 2


example; that’s up to you. Use the space in any way that will help you, orothers reading your unit, to understand exactly what you plan to do.

The entire unit plan for the Colorado Unit is included in the back of yourmanual (pages 329-339). You will quickly notice that there are multiplepages for the planning of declarative knowledge in this unit. There are threereasons for this:

1. We wanted to provide you with a number of different examplesduring this training.

2. This is a long unit (four weeks) with a heavy emphasis on declarativeknowledge.

3. The planning guides have been filled out in the kind of detail that isneeded if the unit is to make sense to others who may want to use it.

Units can be planned with much less detail, especially if they are only foryour personal use, or they can be planned with much more detail if youinclude individual lesson plans. The amount of detail included, again,depends on who will be using the unit plan.

It is important to remember that in addition to planning units of study,there are other uses of the Dimensions of Learning model. For example, itmight be used to better understand the learning process or to increase yourrepertoire of strategies for the classroom. Understanding this section, and thenext one on procedural knowledge, is critical to using the Dimensions ofLearning model for any of these purposes.


Closure



Procedural Knowledge

<Put up Overhead O.8 (from the Overview section).

As we discussed in the introduction to Dimension 2, the distinction betweendeclarative and procedural knowledge is important because these two typesof knowledge are learned differently and, therefore, should be taughtdifferently. We have seen that acquiring and integrating declarativeknowledge involves three phases: constructing meaning, organizing, andstoring. Acquiring and integrating procedural knowledge also involves threephases: constructing models, shaping, and internalizing.

<Put up Overhead 2.18 (the triangles).>

One difference between learning declarative knowledge and learning proceduralknowledge is the amount of time spent on each of these phases. When we listthe phases sequentially, we can see on this overhead that the amount of timespent in each phase for procedural knowledge is inversely proportional to theamount of time spent on the phases for declarative knowledge.

It is relatively time consuming to construct meaning and to organizedeclarative knowledge. Not much time is spent storing because the phases ofconstructing meaning and organizing enhance retention, and there is not agreat deal of knowledge that needs to be memorized. However, whenstudents are learning procedural knowledge, the opposite is true. That is, thefirst phase, constructing models, does not take much time; shaping takesmore time; and, internalizing, which requires students to practice over anextended period, is the most time-consuming phase. This will make moresense to you as we explore each phase of learning procedural knowledge.

<Put up Overhead 2.6 again. This overhead shows the three circles, representing thethree phases, for declarative knowledge and for procedural knowledge.>

Listing these phases sequentially to show this inverse relationship is actuallya little misleading. We have seen that the three phases of learningdeclarative knowledge overlap. We will see that the three phases of learningprocedural knowledge are more sequential in nature, but also interactive.Let’s explore each phase now.

<At this point, it is important for participants to relate each of the phases of learninga skill to their own learning experiences. You can help them to do this by providingthem with a common experience, more specifically by teaching them a procedure andincluding all three of the phases. Although we suggest that you teach participants touse chopsticks, you can use any procedure that you feel comfortable teaching.>



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O.8Overhead

2.18Overhead

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Dimension 2


<Even if some participants already are able to use chopsticks, they can take part in the learning experience by learning to use chopsticks with their nondominant hand. Overheads are provided (Overheads 2.20 and 2.21), and you can purchaseinexpensive sets of chopsticks from import stores or from Chinese restaurants. If you do not have chopsticks, you can use pencils.

To create the chopstick experience for participants, use the script that follows. If youare teaching them a different skill, use this script as an example that you can adapt.>

So that we can refer to a common experience as we study proceduralknowledge, I am going to teach you to use chopsticks. Let’s pretend that youare planning to visit China and that you must learn this skill in order toavoid insulting your host. If you are already proficient at using chopsticks,use your other hand (your nondominant hand).

<Put up Overhead 2.19 (the three circles with abbreviated definitions of the phases oflearning procedural knowledge).>

First, I am going to help you construct a model for this skill; that is, I amgoing to teach you a set of steps for using chopsticks. This is a critical phaseany time you are learning to do something.

Think of another time you learned a skill of some sort, such as how to swinga golf club or how to log-on to the Internet. Try to remember how youlearned the steps involved. Did someone demonstrate them? Did you readthem in an instruction manual? Did you figure them out on your own? Asyou recall how you “constructed the model” for the skill, share yourexperience with your partner.

<Allow time for thinking and sharing.>

One way of helping learners to construct a model is to provide them with aset of written steps. I am going to use this approach now.

<Put up Overhead 2.20 (steps for learning to use chopsticks).>

As you read through these steps, I will demonstrate each step and talkthrough what I am thinking as I do each step.

<Demonstrate each step with a set of chopsticks.>

Now, pick up your chopsticks, and try to perform each step.

<Allow time for participants to try each step. Circulate in order to help anyone who ishaving trouble.>

Let me stop you for a minute. Some people around you who already usechopsticks may use a different method, such as holding the first chopstick

Think/Pair/Share

2.19Overhead

2.20Overhead



between the second and third fingers. Feel free to adjust your style ofholding chopsticks to use any suggestions your experienced colleagues mightoffer. Also, try to pick up various things on your table and notice how yourgrip needs to change as a function of the size and shape of the object. Goahead now and try to figure out the best way to alter or change the steps youhave been given so that you begin to become comfortable using thechopsticks. This phase of learning a skill is called shaping.

<Put up Overhead 2.19 again (the three circles with abbreviated definitions of thephases of learning procedural knowledge).>

<Give them time to use the chopsticks. You might consider passing out some objects forthem to try to pick up. Various types of candy can be fun. As you circulate, helpparticipants who are having trouble. You might ask participants how holdingchopsticks compares to holding a pen or pencil.>

Now I’d like you to increase your skill level so that you might eventually usechopsticks to eat yet still be able to have a dinner conversation with yourfriends. In general, what must you do in order to get better at something?

<Target answer: Practice.>


I am going to help you begin to internalize this skill by having you practicefor a few minutes. I’d like you to see how many items you can pick up, moveabout a foot, and then set back down in 30 seconds. I’ll then give you severaladditional 30-second periods to see if you can improve. You could recordyour progress on a sheet like this one.

<Put up Overhead 2.21 (practice chart).>

Ready? Begin.

<Give participants several 30-second segments to practice. As you review and explaineach of the three phases of acquiring and integrating procedural knowledge, refer tothis common experience or ask participants to identify specific examples from their ownexperiences as examples of each phase.>


You have now experienced the three phases of learning proceduralknowledge. To review, in the first phase learners construct a model, or learna set of steps, for performing the skill. They are able to perform the skill,but their performance is usually a bit rough. Remember when you first



Dimension 2

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Dimension 2

learned to drive a car? If you were driving a stick shift, the step thatrequired you to push down the accelerator pedal and release the clutch at thesame time was probably a bit rough the first time.

Shaping is the phase during which you “make the procedure your own.” Youlearn how to use it in different situations and you change, add, or deletesteps, as needed. You probably remember that when you learned to drive acar you began to realize that you really did not have to hold your hands onthe steering wheel exactly as your instructor advised. You could drive the carwith your hands in a number of different positions. You also learned thatdriving is a bit different on wet pavement than on dry pavement. Each timeyou changed the process of driving or performed variations of the process,you were shaping your procedural knowledge.

The final step of learning procedural knowledge is to internalize theprocedure. The term internalize is used in everyday language to mean manydifferent things. Here we use the term only to refer to the phase of learningthat is characterized by being able to use the procedural knowledge withouthaving to think about the steps. (For example, you can now drive a car frompoint A to point B without much conscious thought about driving, perhapswithout enough conscious thought. Have you ever driven from point A topoint B and, upon arriving, realized that you could not remember anythingthat happened between the two points?)

We are now going to look at each phase more carefully. To prepare for this,form groups of three with those around you. Assign each person a letter: A,B, or C.

<Allow time.>

Now, I’d like each of you to study the strategies associated with each phase.As we proceed through these phases together, you each will be the leader ofthe group when we discuss the phase you have been assigned. For now, readyour assigned section and think about the strategies. Try to determinewhich, if any, of those strategies I used when I taught you to use chopsticks.

<Put up Overhead 2.22 (jigsaw assignments), and give them time to read.>

As we discuss each phase, you will be the leader when we focus on thestrategies you were assigned.


2.22Overhead



Construct Models<Put up Overhead 2.19 again (the three circles with abbreviated definitions of thephases of learning procedural knowledge).>

The first step in learning a procedure is to construct a model, that is, to knowthe set of steps involved in performing the skill or process. Sometimes all ateacher has to do is demonstrate, or model, a skill or process to help studentsclearly envision the steps that are involved. However, it is important tounderstand that sometimes it is necessary to do more than demonstrate thesteps. Some students, because of the way they learn, consistently need morethan the experience of watching someone else use the skill or process. Inaddition, some procedures have such a complex set of steps that all studentsneed to do more than watch a demonstration. There are a number oftechniques that can be used to help students construct models for proceduralknowledge. Several are described in the Teacher’s Manual.

<Put up Overhead 2.23 (Construct Models for Procedural Knowledge).>

The person in each group of three who was assigned to read this section (theconstruct models section) should now briefly describe these strategies to thegroup. When you describe each strategy, indicate which, if any, were usedduring our shared learning experience with the chopsticks. In addition, in yourgroups describe what exactly I would have done if I had used the strategy.

<Allow time for the small groups to discuss these strategies.>

Keeping in mind what you’ve learned so far and how you teach procedures,what additional strategies might you use to help students construct models?

<Allow time for participants to share their ideas.>

Shape<Put up Overhead 2.19 again (the three circles with abbreviated definitions of thephases of learning procedural knowledge).>

The next step in effectively learning a procedure is to shape it. Once youstart to use a skill or process, you usually begin to modify or alter it in someway. Thus, shaping can involve modifications like adjusting your approach,adding some steps and dropping others, becoming aware of variations inusing the process, discovering potential problem areas, and using the processin different contexts. This step is often left out of the learning process andyet is critical to learning the procedure and using it effectively. If studentsbegin to make errors early in the learning process and then practice andinternalize the procedure while still making these errors, it is difficult forthem to correct the errors later.



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Shaping also includes helping students to develop the conceptualunderstanding that is necessary to becoming competent in the use andapplication of the skill or process. Many students cannot use mathematicalcomputations to solve word problems, for example, because they do notunderstand the mathematical processes nor the circumstances under whichone is used as opposed to another.

As stated earlier, although we know that shaping is critical, it is the phasethat is often left out of the teaching process. What are some reasons that thisphase is often left out?

<Target answer: Common reasons are lack of time, lack of awareness of theimportance of this part of the process, and failure to plan for shaping during unit orlesson planning.>

The Teacher’s Manual suggests four strategies for helping students to shapeprocedures.

<Put up Overhead 2.24 (Shape Procedural Knowledge).>

At this time, have the person in your group who was assigned this section(the shaping section) briefly explain these four strategies, which are used tohelp students shape procedural knowledge. Remember to identify thestrategies I used when I taught you to use chopsticks and, for the strategiesthat I did not use, to describe what it might have looked like if I had.

<Allow a few minutes for small groups to work.>

Let’s take a few minutes to study in more depth the four strategies forhelping students shape procedural knowledge. Specifically, let’s see if we candescribe how these strategies might be used to help shape a specificprocedure: long division with whole numbers. Just to review, long divisionrefers to the process signified by the following <write on chart or overhead>:3794 divided by 27.

In your groups see if you can identify

1. the variations in the process of long division that you might want tomake students aware of,

2. the common errors or pitfalls that you might want to make studentsaware of,

3. various situations in which long division can be used that you mightwant to make students aware of, and

4. important concepts or principles related to the process of long division.




2.24Overhead



<Allow participants five minutes to come up with their ideas. Then discussconclusions in the large group. Answers will probably include the following:

1. Important variations: Sometimes there is a remainder; sometimes there isnot. Sometimes it is easy to identify the number of times the divisor goes intothe dividend; sometimes it is difficult.

2. Common errors: It is common to lose track of place value when initiallybeginning the division process. You might incorrectly bring down numbersafter subtraction.

3. Different contexts: There are some situations in which you need an estimateof the answer and other situations in which you need an exact answer.

4. Conceptual understandings: It is important to understand the (a)concepts of divisor, dividend, remainder, (b) when to use division, and(c) that division is repeated subtraction.>

Internalize<Put up Overhead 2.19 again (the three circles with abbreviated definitions of thephases of learning procedural knowledge).>

The last phase in learning a procedure is internalizing. Through practice, welearn a process or skill well enough to perform it proficiently and accuratelywithout consciously thinking about every step. The procedure becomes ameans to an end.

<Put up Overhead 2.25 (Internalize Procedural Knowledge).>

Last, but not least, the person assigned to this phase of learning proceduralknowledge should now briefly explain these strategies to the group. Be sureto identify the strategies I used and, for each strategy that I did not use,describe what it might have looked like if I had.

<Allow time for participants to work in small groups.>

Practice is time consuming, but if students are going to be expected to use aprocess or skill, opportunities to practice must be provided. Thus it isimportant to ask yourself whether the skill is one that is critical tointernalize. In other words, is it one that students will still need to be ableto perform in a month, a semester, or a year? It is sometimes appropriate tosimply introduce a skill and give students time to practice it a little but notto internalize it. However, for skills that are to be internalized, massedpractice, or frequent trials, should occur first. Then, over time, studentsshould engage in distributed practice, that is, periodic practice sessions at



Dimension 2

2.19Overhead

2.25Overhead




Think/Pair/Share

Closure


Dimension 2


increasing intervals (for example, once a day, then once a month, then onceevery three months). Remember that the Teacher’s Manual suggests thatstudents keep a chart or some other record of their speed or accuracy as theyseek to master a procedure.

As educators begin to better understand the process of acquiring andintegrating procedural knowledge, they begin to see why teachers sometimesaccuse their students’ previous teachers of not doing their jobs. You may haveheard accusations like, “Didn’t they teach them anything in_____?” Oftenthe reason that students cannot do what they have been taught to do is thatthey learned it only well only enough to pass a test. If educators expectstudents to perform a procedure proficiently and accurately, they must setaside time for students to practice so that they internalize the procedure.

On pages 104-105, you will find some classroom examples that deal withacquiring and integrating procedural knowledge. With a partner, read anddiscuss the examples provided. As you discuss these examples, answer thefollowing questions: What do you think of how the teacher in your exampleresponded in the situation portrayed? What might you do or recommendthat someone do in that situation? Then identify a process or skill that yourstudents have had difficulty learning. How might you strengthen how youteach that process, given what you now know about acquiring andintegrating procedural knowledge?

<Allow time for discussion and then sharing with the whole group.>

<If the Dimensions of Learning videotapes are available and if time permits, it canbe useful to replay the tape for Dimension 2 and then to have a brief discussion aboutthe nature of declarative and procedural knowledge. Before participants watch thistape, challenge them to identify things they were not aware of the first time theywatched the tape.>



Planning for Dimension 2, Procedural Knowledge

<Participants should have a blank planning guide for procedural knowledge in thepacket that we recommend you give them at the beginning of any workshop in whichplanning is being addressed. See Handouts section.>

<Put up Overhead 2.P8 (the major planning questions and steps).>

Planning for the acquisition and integration of procedural knowledgeinvolves asking and answering the following question:

What will be done to help students acquire and integrate proceduralknowledge?

If you look at page 106, you will find that there are three basic steps involvedin answering this question. The three columns on the planning guide (page112) correspond to the three steps for planning for procedural knowledge.


Step 1: What procedural knowledge will students be in the process ofacquiring and integrating? As a result of this unit, students willbe able to….

Step 2: What strategies will be used to help students construct modelsfor, shape, and/or internalize this knowledge?

Step 3: Describe what will be done.

Now let’s look at the sample Colorado Unit to see how each of the steps isaddressed on the planning guide and accompanying worksheets.

Step 1, again, asks what procedural knowledge students will be in theprocess of acquiring and integrating. The answers to this question will varydepending on the specific school or district. Some teachers have a great dealof latitude in determining what knowledge students should acquire. Othersare in schools or districts that have identified standards and benchmarks,which articulate what students should learn. Examples and worksheets areprovided in the Teacher’s Manual for each of these situations.

Take a few minutes to examine the two worksheets with their accompanyingplanning graphics on pages 109 and 110 in the Teachers’ Manual. One is forplanning without standards and benchmarks.

<Put up Overhead 2.P10 (the sample worksheet and unit planning graphic frompage 109).>



Dimension 2

2.P8Overhead

2.P9Overhead

Think/Pair/Share

2.P10Overhead

Procedural: Planning



Dimension 2


The other is for planning with standards and benchmarks.

<Put up Overhead 2.P11 (the sample worksheet and unit planning graphic frompage 110).>

How are they alike? How are they different? Identify any questions you haveabout these worksheets, and then talk these questions over with a partner.

<Allow time for participants to discuss, and then ask if anything needs to be clarified.>

When identifying the procedural knowledge that students will learn in theunit, it is important to identify specific skills or processes, not generalmacroprocesses (which are discussed in the introduction to Dimension 2 onpage 49). When procedural knowledge is too general, such as “students will beable to read well,” it is difficult to generate a single set of steps and then to helpstudents shape and internalize the process. During planning, it is important tospecify exactly what skill or process students will be learning to do.>

<Put up Overhead 2.P9 again (the filled-in planning guide).>

Let’s look at the planning guide again. Step 2 (column 2) asks, “Whatstrategies will be used to help students construct models for, shape, andinternalize the procedural knowledge?” Step 3 (column 3) asks you todescribe what will be done.

In order to complete the second step, you must decide whether the skillneeds to be internalized; in other words, should students learn it wellenough to use it with relative ease and then practice it enough to be able touse it in six months or a year? Some skills may simply need to beintroduced so that students construct a model, do some shaping, and thenperhaps practice the skill to a very limited extent. This somewhat cursoryintroduction to a skill would result in students knowing about the skill.However, in six months or a year students would need to extensively reviewthe skill before they could use it.

On the other hand, when the knowledge is to be internalized, students mustspend more time in each phase of the learning process. They must constructa model, spend concentrated time shaping the procedure, and have manyopportunities for massed and distributed practice.

Refer to the planning guide for the Colorado Unit (page 112), specificallysteps 2 and 3. In your groups, discuss the following questions: What do youthink of the strategies the teacher selected to help students acquire the mapreading and interpreting skills? What other strategy or strategies might shehave selected?


2.P11Overhead

2.P9Overhead



<Refer to the summary of strategies on page 111 of the Teacher’s Manual.>

What other procedural knowledge might be taught as part of this unit?

<Allow time. You may want to take some suggestions from the large group.>

Let’s practice using these steps with the planning guide. Identify a procedureyou have taught or would teach as part of a unit you are planning. Once youhave identified a process or skill, select the strategy or strategies you woulduse to help students construct models. For example, would you use a think-aloud demonstration? Would you provide students with a written set ofsteps? Next, identify the strategy or strategies you would use to help studentsshape the process. Would you focus on variations in the procedure? If so, whatvariations? Would you point out common errors in the procedure? If so, whaterrors? What conceptual understandings would be important for students toachieve competency with the process? Finally, if the skill is to be internalized,identify the practice schedule that you would set up.

<Allow participants five minutes to plan. Then ask them to share their results withthe large group.>

As you look at the pages of the Dimension 2 planning guides for acquiringand integrating declarative and procedural knowledge, it should be clear thatthey guide you through the process of making decisions related to theessential knowledge in a unit. Of course, students will be exposed to a greatdeal of information in any unit you plan, but it is futile to expect them toacquire and integrate everything that might be important. The importantknowledge that you identify on these planning guides is actually only aportion of the knowledge to which students will be exposed during theactivities and experiences—films, field trips, readings—in the unit.


Illustrating this point graphically, the large circle represents the total bodyof content knowledge to which students will be exposed during a unit; thesmall circle represents the portion that is planned for, taught, and assessed.We will soon see that during the planning process for Dimensions 3 and 4,it is this knowledge, represented in the small circle, that will be consideredwhen we are identifying what knowledge will be extended, refined, and usedmeaningfully.


Planning Activity

Closure



Dimension 2


2.P12Overhead


D i m e n s i o n 3

DIM

ENSIO

N 3



3

Dimension 3Extend and Refine Knowledge

To the Trainer

This portion of the training covers Chapter 3 of the Teacher’s Manual, whichaddresses the eight complex reasoning processes in Dimension 3. It isimportant for participants to understand that acquiring and integratingknowledge is not the end of learning. The most effective learning takes placewhen students extend and refine the knowledge they acquire in order todevelop an in-depth understanding of that knowledge. By making newconnections, restructuring the knowledge, experiencing new insights, andcorrecting misconceptions, students understand the knowledge they arelearning at a deeper level and thereby extend and refine that knowledge. Tothis end, teachers should plan and explicitly teach processes that, whenapplied to knowledge, cause such connections and insights to happen. Theseprocesses include the eight highlighted in Dimension 3:

• Comparing: Identifying and articulating similarities and differencesamong items.

• Classifying: Grouping things into definable categories on the basisof their attributes.

• Abstracting: Identifying and articulating the underlying theme orgeneral pattern of information.

• Inductive reasoning: Inferring unknown generalizations orprinciples from information or observations.

• Deductive reasoning: Using generalizations and principles to inferunstated conclusions about specific information or situations.



Extend & Refine Knowledge

Dimension 3

• Constructing support: Building systems of support for assertions.

• Analyzing errors: Identifying and articulating errors in thinking.

• Analyzing perspectives: Identifying multiple perspectives on anissue and examining the reasons or logic behind each.


• that the process of learning should go beyond acquiring andintegrating knowledge to include extending and refining importantknowledge;

• that students can learn specific complex reasoning processes thatextend and refine knowledge. As a result of using these processes,students should see knowledge in new ways and be able to expressinsights, understandings, ideas, or discoveries related to thatknowledge;

• that these processes must be taught explicitly so that they can berigorously applied to important content;

• how to use the eight complex reasoning processes to help studentsextend and refine knowledge;

• how to teach students to use each of the eight processes to extend andrefine knowledge; and


When you cover the Dimension 3 complex reasoning processes, it issometimes helpful to cluster them into groups and then show how theprocesses within each cluster are interrelated. Specifically, we recommendpresenting comparing, classifying, and abstracting together because they allfocus on similarities and differences; inductive reasoning and deductivereasoning can be presented together because although there are otherimportant differences between these two processes, inductive reasoning isessentially the inverse of deductive reasoning; the processes in the thirdcluster—constructing support, analyzing errors, and analyzingperspectives—all deal with examining issues and their related claims andsupporting arguments.




Dimension 3



A basic principle of learning is that once acquired, knowledge changes. Whenwe encounter new information, we may learn something about it and achievea certain level of understanding. But then as a result of having additionalexperiences that encourage us to think again about the information, we maychange our understanding because we learn more, clear up misconceptions,make new connections, and so on. In Dimension 3, these changes inknowledge are referred to as “extending and refining” the knowledge.

As a result of the experiences we have every day, we are constantly extendingand refining knowledge. This is fortunate because another principle of learningsuggests that when we first learn something, we usually learn it at a surfacelevel, and we sometimes learn it inaccurately; thus, we may unknowingly walkaway from a learning experience with incomplete understandings,misconceptions, or misunderstandings. For this reason, whether it happensnaturally or is carefully planned as part of students’ learning experiences,knowledge should be constantly extended and refined. Symbolically, theprocess of extending and refining knowledge might be represented in this way.

<Put up Overhead 3.0A.>

• This top graphic represents the knowledge students might haveabout the Civil War after an initial period of study.

• As a result of reexamining that knowledge by explicitly applying oneof the complex reasoning processes, that knowledge might look likethis bottom graphic. It is expanded and reorganized, and newconnections are made.

<If the Dimensions of Learning videotapes are available, show the tape for Dimension3, which runs about nine minutes. Ask participants to look for specific examples ofstudents extending and refining their knowledge. Afterward, lead a brief discussionabout what participants observed. Alternatively, you might show the tape at the endof Dimension 3 as a summary and review.>

As we explore the eight complex reasoning processes in this dimension, keepin mind that the purpose of engaging students in these types of thinking isto help them extend and refine their knowledge: to make new connections,to have insights, to restructure their knowledge, and to clarifymisunderstandings. It is important for students to understand this so thatthey not only deepen their understanding of content but also increase theirunderstanding of learning as a process.

3.0AOverhead

O.11Overhead


Jigsaw



Dimension 3

<Put up Overhead 3.0B.>

John Dewey reminds us, “We learn by doing, if we reflect on what we havedone.” This quote reminds us that it is important to build enough time intoinstruction for students to learn how to use a reasoning process, for them toapply it to important content in order to extend and refine their knowledgeof that content, and for them to reflect on what they have learned as a result.


Read over the list and description of the eight reasoning processes includedin Dimension 3, which can be found on page 114 of your manual. Some ofthese reasoning processes are probably very familiar to you, and some may befairly new to you. We will look at several of them in-depth as we proceedthrough this part of the training.

It is important to note that many teachers use questioning techniques toengage students in the types of thinking listed in Dimension 3. Teachersmight already be asking questions such as, “How are these items alike?” or“How could you group these items?” These types of questions are especiallycommon in classrooms in which the teacher uses Bloom’s Taxonomy toconstruct questions. Although such questions can potentially stimulatestudents to engage in “higher level” thinking, frequently they do not havethis effect. Instead, students give answers that reflect lower-order, or surface-level, understanding. This might be because although students may have asense of what it means to synthesize or to analyze, they often don’t knowexactly how to do these types of thinking.

The bias here, therefore, is to explicitly teach the reasoning processes and tohave students rigorously apply them to important content. Students mustknow how to use the processes if they are to adequately perform the kinds ofanalyses the processes require. It is unfair to students, and presumptuous onthe part of teachers, to assume that students understand what they aresupposed to do when asked to use comparing or inductive reasoning, forexample. Remember, these processes are procedural knowledge and,therefore, take quite a lot of practice before they become internalized. Andbecause the processes are procedural knowledge, they should be taught asany other skill or process, by helping students construct models for, shape,and internalize them.

There are some general principles of implementation that are useful toconsider as teachers, schools, and districts plan for teaching the Dimension 3processes. Get into groups of three with those around you. I’d like eachperson in the group to read one of the bulleted items on pages 114-115.

3.0BOverhead

O.12Overhead



Dimension 3


Then share the general principle of implementation with your group, anddiscuss each point briefly.


Before we explore the individual reasoning processes in Dimension 3, itmight help you to understand that a similar organizational format is used foreach reasoning process.

<Put up Overhead 3.0C.>

In addition, on pages 115-116, there is a brief explanation of the fivesections that have suggestions for teaching each process.

<Read the steps aloud.>

I’d like to point out that section 2 under each reasoning process includes a setof steps (which we sometimes refer to as “regular” or “original” steps) as wellas a set of steps in simplified language, which is often used with youngerstudents or with students who are just beginning to learn the process.

Comparing

<If you are starting your training here, remember to review the introduction toDimension 3, which identifies the major goals of these training segments and providessuggestions for helping participants understand the organization of the Teacher’sManual for each of the reasoning processes in this dimension.>

<As explained in the introduction to the training for Dimension 3, you may want toplan the training so that the processes of comparing, classifying, and abstracting areexamined as a cluster. This will help participants to see that these three processes cancomplement and supplement each other in the classroom. For example, when studentsare comparing, they may discover that the process of abstracting works better whenthey are comparing large blocks of information or that the process of classifying worksbetter when there are long lists of items.>

Comparing is the process of identifying similarities and differences amongitems. We all regularly compare things in daily life: We might comparebooks written by a favorite author, we might compare with our spouse or afriend how we spend our time at work, and so on. As a result of comparingthings in this way, we gain new insights or change our perceptions aboutthem. These benefits of the process of comparing are also available to us aswe are exposed to comparisons made by others, for example, through themedia or in conversation. For example, Consumer Reports organizes much of its

3.0COverhead

Comparing



Dimension 3


information about products into comparison matrices that influence buyers’perceptions of these products. Similarly, television news-magazine programsoften compare current and historical events to help us understand both.

What other kinds of comparisons are we regularly exposed to in life? Inwhat other instances do we regularly use the process of comparing? Try tothink of a time you compared two or more things that you thought youknew well but about which you discovered something new as a result of thecomparison. Or, try to think of a time you were influenced by a comparisonmade by someone else. In other words, think about a comparison thatextended and refined your knowledge.

<Elicit several examples. Emphasize how comparing extended and refined participants’knowledge. Allow participants to discuss and then to share some examples.>

It is important to communicate to students that comparing—and all of theother complex reasoning processes that are part of Dimensions 3 and 4—areused frequently in everyday life. To this end, the first strategy for teachingcomparing—in fact, the first strategy for teaching all eight of the extendingand refining processes—provides suggestions for helping studentsunderstand the process so that they see its importance and usefulness inmany places besides the classroom.

Considering that most people compare things many times each day, it issomewhat surprising that students often perform poorly on tests that requirethem to do comparison tasks. For example, a number of years ago, theNational Association of Educational Progress (NAEP) included in itsnational assessment a comparison task that asked students to compare thediet of the pioneers with the typical diet of today (see Mullis et al., 1990).Even though a description of the diet of the pioneers was provided, only27% of all 17-year-olds completing the task received a score indicatingadequate or better performance. This is a perplexing result because teachersreport that students are frequently asked to engage in comparison tasks inthe classroom. Why did students perform so poorly on this test?

One possible explanation is that although students are frequently asked tocompare, they may not have been taught how to compare. Another possibleexplanation is that students may have learned how to compare in one or twoclasses during their schooling but never internalized the process. Remember,learning how to compare—in fact, learning how to engage in each of thereasoning processes that are part of Dimensions 3 and 4—requires students tolearn a skill, that is, to learn procedural knowledge. To truly learn a skill,students need to construct a model for, shape, and internalize the procedure.Thus, to become proficient at using the process of comparing, students need to


Comparing




Dimension 3

learn the steps and have opportunities to practice using the steps over a fairlyextended period of time. If, instead, students simply are asked from time totime to compare and are not taught the steps in a careful manner or given achance to practice using them, they will not really learn to use the process.This might help explain students’ poor performance on the NAEP task.

To provide support for directly teaching complex reasoning, the Dimensions ofLearning Teacher’s Manual includes a step-by-step model for using each of theeight processes. Let’s look at the steps for the process of comparing.

<Put up Overheads 3.1A and 3.1B.>

If I were introducing these steps to students using a think-aloud process, Imight say, “Let’s see. I want to compare pizza, fried chicken, and tossedsalads. Now, what specific characteristics should I use in my comparison?How about nutritional value, calories, price, and the amount of fun you canhave eating them?”

<Begin to fill out a blank comparison matrix as provided on Overhead 3.1C. Thisfood example is only a suggestion. Feel free to use any items and characteristics youwish. It is probably a good idea to fill out much of the information in a preparedmatrix before the training.>

I might construct a matrix using the items and characteristics I haveidentified and then fill out the information in each cell. Now, how are theitems similar and different in terms of each characteristic? Looking at thisinformation, what have I learned? It seems that the more fun things are, themore expensive and the less nutritional they are. That figures.

Strategy 3 for each of the eight complex reasoning processes identifies thecritical steps and difficult aspects of the reasoning process and givessuggestions for dealing with them. Teaching the process of comparing canseem deceptively simple. There are several key points offered to help you avoidpossible pitfalls. Take a minute or two to read the key points on page 119.


<Put up Overhead 3.1D.>

As emphasized in these key points, it is important to ask yourself whatknowledge students are extending and refining as they engage in comparisontasks. Careful thought needs to be given to the items that students arecomparing and, especially, to the quality of the characteristics that are being used in the comparison. Selecting characteristics is a critical step ifmeaningful conclusions are to be drawn from the comparison.

3.1DOverhead

3.1COverhead

3.1A 3.1BOverheads

Comparing







Dimension 3

<Put up Overhead 3.1E.>

Notice the difference in the kinds of conclusions that can be drawn whencharacteristics are changed. Different characteristics require the learner toexamine very different attributes of each item.

Notice in Key Point 2 that although there are a couple of suggestions forhelping students generate meaningful characteristics (i.e., brainstorm ideasas a class and use an expanded comparison), we recommend that teachersmodel the process of generating good characteristics and give studentsextensive feedback as they are learning to compare. Let’s practice.

Suppose you were asked to compare these cities: New York, Denver,Houston, and ____. <Add the city where you are.> With a partner, generatecharacteristics on which to compare the cities that might produce interestinginsights or conclusions.

<Ask several pairs to share their sets of characteristics. Emphasize the idea thatdifferent attributes of cities, or of any location, are examined as a result of identifyingdifferent characteristics. Make the point that it is important to identify the knowledgethat students are extending and refining during the process of comparing.>

Identify one or two comparison tasks you have used in your classroom. Witha partner or with those around you, discuss the purposes of these tasks.What knowledge did you expect students to extend and refine—that is, tounderstand better—by engaging in these tasks? How could you use theinformation in the key points from the Teacher’s Manual to strengthen oralter what you have done?

<Ask several pairs to share any insights they had as a result of their conversations.>

Now take a minute to look at the graphic organizers presented in strategy 4.(See pages 120-121.) These are organizers that you can use to help studentsunderstand and use the process of comparing. Consider the steps in thecomparing process as you look at the Venn diagram organizers.

<Put up Overhead 3.1F.>

Sometimes teachers use a single diagram in which similarities are written inthe overlapping portions of the circles and differences are written in therespective outer portions of the circles. How is this use of Venn diagramsdifferent from the way Venn diagrams are used in the graphic on page 120(or on this overhead)? How does it reflect the steps of the process?

3.1FOverhead

3.1EOverhead

Comparing




Dimension 3

<Target answer: In the example from the manual, a separate pair of circles for eachcharacteristic is needed. This emphasizes step 2 of the process in which students arerequired to clearly identify the characteristics they will use in the comparison.>

As explained in the introduction to Dimension 3, strategy 5 offerssuggestions for using both teacher-structured and student-structured tasks.Please take a minute to read strategy 5 on page 121.


The degree to which the teacher or students structure tasks is a function ofthe purpose of the task. Generally, however, the goal is to increase theamount of input that students have in structuring tasks. Turn to page 122,and read the third classroom example. This is a task that is fairly teacherstructured. After you read it, be ready to describe how you could make itmore student structured.

<Have a few participants share their examples.>

Remember that comparing is a reasoning process that we all use. During anylearning experience, it can be helpful to consciously compare things—cities,food, books, movies, etc.—to understand them more in-depth or in newways. When asking students to compare, we must teach them how tocompare and then encourage them to reflect on the results.

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of comparing. See page 9 for explanations of eachof these formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Classifying



Closure

Classifying




Dimension 3

<Optional introductory activity. Have participants classify themselves into thefollowing categories:

1. Those born and raised in the city in which you are training.

2. Those born and raised anywhere (else) east of the Mississippi.

3. Those born and raised anywhere (else) west of the Mississippi.

4. Those born and raised outside the continental United States.

Designate a part of the room for each category, and have participants move to thatplace. After looking at the results of this classification, determine what conclusionsyou might draw. Often, the main conclusion is that people in the room who were bornand raised in the city in which you are training like it well enough to stay and workthere. This is information that you did not have before the activity.

Next, have participants move again to one of the four locations, but this time ask themto move to where they ideally would live if they could freely choose and money was nota consideration. After participants have moved, ask for conclusions that might bedrawn. Frequently, people who were born, raised, and are still living in the city inwhich you are training also prefer to live there.

After participants have returned to their seats, make the point that classifying andreclassifying things can provide new information about the items classified. In thiscase, participants probably learned something new about one another.>

Classifying is the mental process of grouping items according to commoncharacteristics. Because it often requires a careful analysis of the items beingclassified, it helps us to extend and refine knowledge.

People make sense of their world by classifying information and usingclassification systems that they take for granted. The way we classify thingsand the ways things are classified by others influences our perceptions andour behaviors. It can be fun to make this point with students by askingthem to consider what might happen if certain classification systemschanged. For example:

• What might be different if items in a grocery store were classifiedinto three price ranges: 1¢ to $1.00, $1.01 to $5.00, and $5.00 andhigher?

• What might be the consequences of classifying middle schoolstudents by their height?

What other classification systems might be fun to change?

<Provide time for participants to share ideas.>


Classifying





Dimension 3

The point is that classifying information or accepting given classificationscan influence how we view information. As with the other extending andrefining processes, we regularly and naturally use this one in our everydaylives. Likewise, in the classroom we ask students to classify things. However,as we spend time now learning about the process of classifying, we will tryto distinguish between classifying as it is most commonly used in theclassroom and classifying as it is used to help students extend and refineknowledge.

The most common type of classifying assignment asks students to placeitems into predetermined categories: animals into species, literature intogenres, wars into time periods. Although interesting connections certainlycan be made, this type of assignment is really only asking students to findout or recall the correct answer. Conversely, when students are asked tocreate and define their own categories and then to justify the placement ofitems into those categories, they might analyze information in new ways andthereby extend and refine their understanding of the information (i.e., gaininsights, make new connections, and clarify confusions).


Let’s do an activity that requires you to analyze the categories and theinformation that is being classified. With two or three people around you,take a few minutes to classify the items on the left into the three categories:living, dead, or other (the column with the question mark). Feel free todefine items or categories as you work together.

<Allow a few minutes for participants to classify most of the items.>

Let’s go over each item and see what you did in your groups. If you have ananswer that differs from one given by another group, please raise your hand,give your answer, and explain that answer.

<Take answers. When there is more than one answer given, put a check in the columnfor each answer, as long as the explanation is reasonable. After doing six or eight ofthe items, call a time-out and explain the point of this activity.>

The important part of the activity was not where the checkmarks were placedbut the discussions that went on at your tables. The process of classifying,when used in the spirit of Dimension 3, is about extending and refininginformation. Some of you may have used the traditional scientific definitionof living; others of you may have generated your own definitions. In eithersituation, whenever you stopped to discuss and reconsider attributes of theitems or the meanings of the category labels, you were engaged in extendingand refining your understanding of the information.

3.2AOverhead

Classifying


Many teachers use the process of classifying as a Dimension 2 activity. Whenthey use the process like this, the purpose is for students to get the item inthe right column, to reproduce knowledge. Although there is nothing wrongwith using the process in this way, students might then be asked toreclassify the items using different categories in order to extend and refinetheir knowledge. For example, students might first be asked to classifyinsects the way a scientist might classify them. This would assess how wellthey know the scientific classifications. Then, to help them look at differentattributes of insects (to help them extend and refine their knowledge) theymight then be asked to classify the insects as if they were exterminators andthen as if they were frogs looking for dinner.

Now I’m going to give you another assignment to do in your small groups.Here are the categories I want you to use.

<Put up Overhead 3.2B.>

Here are the items I want you to classify.


<Give no further directions. Some groups probably will begin to categorizeimmediately. Some will define the rules for the categories before they begin. Circulateand look for (1) groups that have clearly defined their categories before proceeding; (2)the difference in discussion when the categories are defined in a way that clearlyindicates where each item fits (e.g., they might realize that the colors don’t give themclear definitions of the categories so they have to create clearer characteristics for thecategories, such as works written in the 1800s, the 1950s, the 1960s, etc.) and whenthe categories are defined in a way that less clearly indicates where each item fits(e.g., passion, humor, sadness, purity); and (3) examples of groups performing eachstep of the process from pages 124-125 in the Teacher’s Manual. Allow five to sixminutes for this activity. Most participants will not finish but will have gone farenough for the important points to be made during the discussion.>

The reason I gave you vague category labels was to see how you dealt withthe categories. Most of you were bothered by these ambiguous categorylabels, and, therefore, early on in the activity you stopped and defined yourcategories. Before hearing how you grouped the items, turn to the step-by-step process on pages 124-125.

<Put up Overheads 3.2D and 3.2E.>

Although you may not have finished, try to determine if you followed eachof these steps as you worked on your assignment.



Dimension 3

3.2BOverhead

3.2COverhead

3.2D 3.2EOverheads


Classifying




Dimension 3

<Allow some time for groups to consider what they did. Then, with the large group,provide some feedback on what you observed, and make some of the following generalpoints, which relate to the critical steps and difficult aspects of the process on pages125-126 of the Teacher’s Manual.>

Often when we do this activity in workshops, some participants begin tocategorize the titles right away without defining the categories. As a result,in some cases items might be placed into a category for different reasons. Inother words, the category changes each time an item is placed into it. Forexample, we might place The Scarlet Letter in the Red category because scarletis red but also place Hamlet in the Red category because the story is bloody.

What is the point? The category labels you were given were intentionallyambiguous. You probably discovered that if you had not first carefullydefined the categories, the process of classifying the items would have simplybeen an exercise in putting items into columns. The purpose of this activitywas to help you remember that students often do what some of you startedto do: place items into categories before they understand the attributesnecessary for category membership. The bad news is that they might do thiseven when the category labels are quite clear. The very bad news is thatsometimes when they realize that they don’t really understand the categories,they go right ahead and continue to classify the items. They are “getting theassignment done.”

The task you just did highlights another challenge in using the process ofclassifying. When students are creating their own categories, as youeventually had to do, they may clearly identify the attributes of the category,but the categories they select may do little to extend and refine theirknowledge. For example, the Red category could be defined as “books withred bindings,” Blue as “books with blue bindings,” and so on. Or, Red couldbe defined as “books with five or fewer words in their titles,” Purple as“books with 5-10 words in their titles,” etc. Students will need modeling, aswell as practice and feedback, to become proficient in identifyingmeaningful, relevant categories.

Finally, students might define categories that are totally unrelated to oneanother. For example, it would be difficult to classify items if Red weredefined as “books with powerful emotional scenes,” and Blue as “books thathave predominantly female characters.” It is more meaningful to create a“classification system,” that is, to use categories that are related. Forexample, along with “books with powerful emotional scenes” students mightcreate categories like “books that maintain a lighthearted tone” and “booksthat move back and forth between intense emotion and lightheartedness.”


Classifying


<As you make these points, you may want to use examples that you observed duringthe activity.>

In summary, the purpose of this activity was to emphasize the first three keypoints in the process of classifying, as explained on pages 125-126.

<Put up Overhead 3.2F, and read aloud the first three key points.>

The final key point is important to keep in mind when you are designingclassifying tasks. Some of the more interesting insights into knowledge comewhen students classify the items more than once. Each time they reclassifyitems, they are (at least potentially) examining different attributes of theitems. This is what leads to extending and refining the knowledge.

<Put up Overhead 3.2G.>

For example, one teacher used classifying to deepen students’ knowledge ofthe vocabulary terms in a geography unit. After students gained afundamental understanding of the words, she asked them to classify thewords into categories they created. They classified the terms in predictableways. Although their work indicated that they had some understanding ofthe terms, she then asked them to reclassify the terms two additional timesusing less conventional categories. The teacher was pleased with theconversations among students as they did this task in groups.

You try it. In your small groups, use this list of terms (or you may use thelist of titles of books), and figure out two additional ways of classifyingthem. Notice how you extend and refine your knowledge of the terms (orbooks) as you reclassify them into additional classification systems.


<Put up Overhead 3.2H.>

Strategy 4 presents two graphic organizers that may be used to help with theprocess of classifying. Take a look at these organizers, which can also befound on page 127, Figure 3.3. One of these graphics is simply columnscreated to represent each category. The other one is more hierarchic and ismost appropriate when some categories need to be divided further.

Now take a few minutes to read the classroom examples on pages 128-129.In your small groups, select one example, and discuss what knowledge thestudents are extending and refining as a result of the classifying task. Inaddition, discuss the following questions: What is a strength of the task?What potential problems might arise as students attempt to complete thetask? What suggestions might you make to deal with these problems? Arethere any general suggestions you might make for redesigning the task?





Dimension 3

3.2FOverhead

3.2GOverhead

3.2HOverhead

Classifying




Dimension 3

<Allow time for a few participants to share.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of classifying. See page 9 for explanations of each ofthese formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Abstracting



Now we’re going to look at the process of abstracting. First, let’s read thispassage.


Find a partner, and try to identify another sequence of events that followsthe same general pattern as the sequence of events in the QWERT passagebut that has nothing to do with typewriters.

<Allow time for pairs to work together, and then ask them to share with the largegroup. Some common examples include the metric system and the nine-month schoolyear.>

What you have done is move from the concrete to the abstract to theconcrete (or from the literal to the general to the literal). You read a passage,identified key ideas, transformed the specific key ideas into a generalpattern, and matched the general pattern to a new situation. It is a relativelyeasy and natural process that helps us to make connections betweenseemingly different situations. In the Dimensions of Learning model, we callthis procedure abstracting. Although it sounds academic, we use this processalmost every day. We identify and use general patterns when, for example,we recognize that two people who seem to have very different styles of


3.3AOverhead

Closure

Abstracting


communicating actually share certain general characteristics, or when we arewatching a movie and we think to ourselves, “This is one of those movies inwhich the person least likely to be guilty is the one who did it.”

In the classroom, we frequently give assignments that, although unstated,ask students to abstract. For example, we might ask them to read a fairy taleand then write their own. Often, however, students simply rewrite the samefairy tale and change the characters’ names. These disappointing results canbe addressed by teaching students the process of abstracting.

Strategy 1 on page 131 of the Teacher’s Manual suggests ways of helpingstudents understand this process and includes additional examples ofabstracting from everyday life. Take a couple of minutes to read this section.


Once students are familiar with the nature of abstracting and how peopleoften unconsciously use it, you can present them with a set of steps to usewhen applying the process to content.

<Review Overheads 3.3B and 3.3C along with Overhead 3.3D.>

Let me walk you through these steps with the QWERT passage. Step 1 asksyou to identify what seems to be important or basic in the information. Thissimply means to identify the main ideas. For this passage, the result mightlook like this.

<Put up Overhead 3.3E and show the left side only (Specific/Literal).>

The next step is to rewrite the basic information in a more general form.Notice the words that are changed in the general pattern on this overhead.(Although it is not the case on this overhead, often as you rewrite you cancondense the general pattern into fewer steps.)

<Show the right-hand side (General/Abstract) of the overhead one item at a time sothat participants can see how the general pattern was created.>

<Then cover up the Specific/Literal side of the overhead.>

Finally, examine the general pattern, and decide what other informationmight follow that same pattern. Now, begin to think about other things thatfollow this pattern. We already generated examples of information thatseemed to follow this same pattern. Let’s see how closely the examples wegenerated earlier—before we learned the process—match the general patternof the QWERT passage.

<Guide participants through an analysis of each example generated earlier, and tryto determine how closely they match the general pattern on the QWERT overhead



Dimension 3

3.3B 3.3C

3.3D

Overheads

3.3EOverhead

Abstracting





Dimension 3

(Overhead 3.3E). You will probably conclude that some of their examples match thepattern exactly, whereas others only partially match this general pattern.>

Notice that when we closely followed the steps of the process, we couldcompare the original and the new information in much more detail than wecould when we did it loosely.

Abstracting is a way for us to identify similarities and differences betweenand among large blocks of information. Because it can seem intimidating atfirst, the process of abstracting probably should be introduced to students ina very methodical way with simple examples. For instance, you might givestudents the specific pattern from a simple passage, and then either providethem with the general pattern or help them to generate it. They should thenbe able to apply the general pattern to new information.

To help students understand the process, you might share examples withthem of situations in which abstracting has been used (e.g., West Side Storywas abstracted from Romeo and Juliet), then ask them to identify otherexamples of situations in which abstracting was used or instances in whichthey used abstracting in their own lives. You might also help them tounderstand that metaphors and analogies are forms of abstractions. Forexample, “love is like a rose” is a metaphor based on a basic pattern: Loveand a rose are both beautiful and enjoyable, but they are not without theirpainful aspects.

Once students have seen examples of abstracting and have practiced usingthe process, hopefully they will see it as a way of connecting two pieces ofinformation that appear to be unrelated. Point out that rigorously using theabstracting process can help them to extend and refine their understandingof information as they make connections that are more subtle and that theyotherwise might miss.

<Put up Overhead 3.3F (The Emperor’s New Clothes). If you think that participantsmight not be able to read this overhead, include it in a handout.>

Let’s spend a little time practicing the process of abstracting. Read thispassage and perform each of the steps in the abstracting process. You maywork in pairs or in small groups. Refer to the steps of the process. Be sure touse each of them. Be ready to share with the large group.

<Allow time for this activity. You might then put up Overhead 3.3G, which showsone possible result of applying the abstracting process to “The Emperor’s NewClothes.”>

What was most difficult about doing this? What was most interesting?

3.3FOverhead

3.3GOverhead

3.3EOverhead

Abstracting


<Often participants say that identifying the literal pattern of information was themost time-consuming part. They also often say that it’s interesting to find out how tomethodically connect two very different things.>

A number of English teachers have reported that the abstracting process hasgreatly improved students’ creative writing. Frequently when students areasked to write stories that have the same theme as one they are studying, thestories they write are almost identical to the one they are studying (with theexception of name changes). However, when they learn the abstractingprocess, they carefully identify the literal series of events in the story they arestudying, then, event by event, create a general pattern. Then, by focusingonly on the general pattern they have created (teachers often have studentsput away the paper on which they recorded the literal series of events), theywrite new stories. Teachers have been very impressed with the resultsbecause of the interesting stories that students write that follow the generalpattern but that are quite different from the original and from each other.

One social studies teacher reported how pleased he was when he usedabstracting to help students discover that the pattern of events in theRevolutionary War could be applied to current events. This process helpedstudents to see why and how studying history helps us understand events inthe world today.

Using the abstracting process can help learners extend and refine knowledgeby helping them make connections between the familiar and the unfamiliar.More specifically, the process can help them understand unfamiliar, complexinformation by connecting it to something they know well, and it can helpthem gain new insights into familiar information by connecting it tosomething new. For example:

• In a unit on MacBeth, the process of abstracting helped students tosee that a story that was written so long ago and that was set in a far-off place had a theme that was very much like those of books theyhad read and soap operas they had watched.

• In a science class, students studying how blood cells fight diseasebegan to better understand the process when they saw that it waslike a military raid.

• While learning about different cultures in a social studies class,students at first thought that many of the customs and rituals were“weird.” When they used abstracting, they reexamined their ownfamiliar customs and discovered that these customs had some of thesame general “weird” qualities.



Dimension 3

Abstracting





Dimension 3

• As students were trying to understand the writing process, theirteacher helped them to see that at an abstract level the process is likethings they consider to be quite different. She helped them to see,for example, that writing is like baseball: In writing class they haveto practice, try not to make errors, and do their best when otherpeople are going to see their work.

Let’s take a few minutes to consider and discuss the critical aspects anddifficult steps of the abstracting process and to look at some classroomexamples that feature abstracting.


The first key point explains that Step 1 of the process of abstracting(identifying what is important or basic to a block of information) is often themost difficult for students. Many of you experienced this when you did theassignment in your small groups. You may need to give students multipleopportunities to practice this step.

The second key point highlights a dilemma that students often face whendoing the second step (writing the basic information in a more general form).How general or how specific should the pattern be? Look at the examplesprovided in Key Point 2 on page 134. The level of generality that’sappropriate depends on the content and the purpose of the assignment.However, keep in mind that if the pattern is too specific, it will be difficultto make any interesting connections to the original information. On the otherhand, if it is too general, everything starts to connect to everything else.

<Put up Overhead 3.3I.>

Let me illustrate. On this overhead are four of the major events in the storyof Cinderella. In the right-hand column is a pattern that is very general,perhaps too general. There are many stories that could be generated fromthis general pattern that would have very little connection to the theme ofCinderella. Working with one or two others, generate a more specific, butnot too specific, general pattern for the middle column that more accuratelyidentifies a general pattern or theme.

<Allow time for work and then sharing.>

The last key point emphasizes that the process of abstracting is morepowerful if at first you simply encourage students to make connections thatare the most obvious but eventually hold them accountable for makingconnections that are less obvious. Remember that the goal is to extend and

3.3HOverhead

3.3IOverhead

Abstracting


refine students’ knowledge. Therefore, it is important to push students alittle as they use this process or any of the reasoning processes. The greatestinsights will probably not come on their first try.

As has been explained, you may have to guide students and model the stepsof this process at first. In other words, you might start with tasks that arevery teacher structured, and then slowly move toward tasks that are morestudent structured as suggested in strategy 5 on page 135. Turn to theclassroom examples on pages 136 and 137 of your manual. As you readthem, notice the extent to which the teacher is guiding the students in theuse of the abstracting process.

<Use if you have looked at the processes of comparing, classifying, and abstracting asa cluster.>

We have just looked at the processes of comparing, classifying, andabstracting. Take a few minutes to review and reflect on each of these threeprocesses. What do they have in common? What are their similarities? Whatdifferences can you identify?

<Target answer: They all involve looking at attributes or characteristics; they all alsoinvolve generating conclusions by examining similarities and differences. Comparing isbest when there are three or four items to analyze; classifying works best when thereare lists of items; and abstracting is most appropriately used with blocks ofinformation or scenarios.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of abstracting. See page 9 for explanations of each ofthese formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Inductive Reasoning


<As explained in the introduction to the training for Dimension 3, you may want toplan the training so that the processes of inductive reasoning and deductive reasoningare examined together. There are several suggestions in the Teacher’s Manual forhelping students understand when they need to use inductive reasoning versus deductivereasoning.>

Closure



Dimension 3


Inductive Reasoning




Dimension 3

<Combine this task with a break.>

Take five to ten minutes and go on an “induction outing.” That means that Iwant you to walk around the area and carefully observe everything aroundyou. Make a list of several specific things that you observe. When you returnto the room, I want you to write a conclusion that you can draw about thearea, that is, about this building, the grounds, and/or about the people whowork here. Make sure that your conclusion is supported with a number ofobservations, three or four perhaps. For example, if you took a walk around aneighborhood and noticed that at a particular house there were skis hangingin the garage, a basketball hoop above the driveway, tennis rackets on theporch, and a volleyball net in the backyard, you could reasonably concludethat the people living there are very involved in sports. When you come back,be ready to share the pieces of evidence that led you to your conclusions.

<When participants return, have them write a conclusion about what they noticed.>

Now look at your conclusion, and see if you can generate a differentconclusion that could be drawn from the same observations.

<After they have had time to do this second part of the assignment, ask severalparticipants to share their conclusions from the induction outing. As they read theirconclusions, ask them to identify the observations they used to draw the conclusions andthen to share the other conclusions that could be drawn from the same observations.>

Inductive reasoning is the process of inferring unknown generalizations orprinciples from information or observations. It is a process that we use everyday. In fact, we can’t avoid it. We infer people’s moods from their behavior,we infer the intent of comments made to us, we even infer what people looklike before meeting them. Have you ever worked with someone for a longtime before you met his or her spouse? And then when you met him or her,your first reaction was, “No way!”? You had unconsciously inferred what thespouse would look like.

The induction outing you just experienced is a good way to introduceinductive reasoning to your class. Actually you can use it when students arein any situation in which they can make rich observations: on a field trip,during an assembly, watching a movie, and so on. It is an experience thatstudents enjoy, and it is an effective way of helping students to understandtwo important points about inductive reasoning: When using the process,conclusions should be based on a number of observations (otherwise, howwould you be able to look for patterns or connections?); and, there are oftenseveral conclusions that can be drawn from the same observations. Thus,conclusions that are based on inductive reasoning may or may not beaccurate or true.

Individual Task

Inductive Reasoning


We ask students to do inductive reasoning all the time, particularly afterreading information or viewing a film or video. In fact, any time teachers say“read between the lines” or ask, “What can you conclude?”, they are askingstudents to use inductive reasoning; students must come to generalconclusions that are not stated within the text but are inferred by theinformation that is presented. If we want students to do a good job with thistype of reasoning, we should teach them the process and help them practiceit so that they can consciously apply the process to everyday situations and toacademic activities.


Let’s read over the general process for inductive reasoning. The steps are alsoon page 139 and 140 in your Teacher’s Manual. (Notice that you looselyfollowed these steps as you took your induction outing.) Take a couple ofminutes to read these steps and the example in italics right below the stepson page 140. Note that seeing the patterns or connections in the informationor observations is what helps you to determine the generalization orprinciple.

One way of giving students opportunities to practice using inductivereasoning is to provide them with a list of specifics and ask them to drawgeneral conclusions. Let’s practice doing this with this list of specifics.


The specific information listed here is about the topic of soap operas. Usingonly these statements, what conclusions might you draw about soap operas?

<Give participants time to read the specific statements and to draw conclusions. Askseveral people to share their conclusions. As people start to share their conclusions, youwill notice that many use other information to draw their conclusions; that is, theyuse information that was not given in the specific statements but was part of their ownknowledge about the topic.>

Your goal is to draw general conclusions from the patterns or connectionsyou see in the specific information. The only way to determine if yourconclusions are logical is to examine the specific information that you used.There is nothing wrong with using more information than you were given,but I would need to consider that additional information.

<If the following example does not come up in your interactions with participants,share it with them as a common occurrence:



Dimension 3

Individual Task

3.4A 3.4BOverheads

3.4COverhead

Inductive Reasoning





Dimension 3

A participant might offer the conclusion that soap operas are watchedprimarily by women. You can point out that such a conclusion does notfollow from the information provided. The reply might be, “But it saysthat soap opera ads focus on household cleaning products.” Again, pointout that it still does not logically follow that women are the primaryaudience. If you then ask what additional information the participantwas using, he or she might say, “It is primarily women who usehousehold products.” Now the conclusion about women as the primaryaudience does follow logically.>

Valid conclusions arrived at inductively follow logically from specificinformation and observations. Notice that it is important to clearly identifythe information or observations that are being used to draw conclusionsinductively and the extent to which they are correct or valid. In this way, wecan analyze the information and observations to determine the validity of theconclusions. Take a minute to skim over the key points on page 141.

<Allow reading time. Put up Overhead 3.4D.>

As I responded to your conclusions about soap operas, I was applying thesecritical points to determine the validity of your conclusions. Were yourconclusions really opinions, restatements, or additional observations? Was itclear what information you were using, and was that information free of biasor assumptions? Did you use several pieces of information to draw yourconclusions?

When introducing inductive reasoning to young students, you might simplyemphasize the process of making connections and seeing patterns ininformation. Some of these key points will be too complex for them tounderstand. Gradually, however, students need to be made more aware of thesepoints and increasingly held accountable for drawing conclusions that are valid.

One way to help students become more proficient at using inductivereasoning is through visuals such as the organizer on page 142 and theinductive reasoning matrix illustrated on page 143.

<Put up Overheads 3.4E and 3.4F.>

By organizing pieces of information graphically and providing spaces forwritten conclusions, students can make connections that otherwise might bequite difficult to make.

Although drawing invalid conclusions about soap operas does not haveserious consequences, sloppy inductive reasoning in other situations is muchmore serious. Look at the key points again.

3.4DOverhead

3.4E 3.4FOverheads

Inductive Reasoning


<Put up Overhead 3.4D again.>

Discuss with two or three others at your table how sloppy inductivereasoning—that is, reasoning that violates the key points—can lead toprejudice, impulsive behavior, and destroyed relationships.

<You might ask several people to share their ideas aloud.>

Section 5 in the Teacher’s Manual reminds us to use both teacher-structuredand student-structured tasks. Read the classroom examples on pages 144-145. In each case, the teacher is asking students to use the process ofinductive reasoning. Choose a couple of the examples, and discuss with apartner whether you think they are student structured or teacher structured.How would you change one to be more student structured or a different oneto be more teacher structured, and why would you do that?

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of inductive reasoning. See page 9 for explanations ofeach of these formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Deductive Reasoning


<As explained in the introduction to the training for Dimension 3, you may want toplan the training so that the processes of inductive reasoning and deductive reasoningare examined together. There are several suggestions in the Teacher’s Manual forhelping students understand when they need to use inductive reasoning versus deductivereasoning.>

Deductive reasoning is the process of using generalizations and principles toinfer unstated conclusions about specific information or situations. Thisdefinition may sound fairly technical, even intimidating. But it is importantto understand that it is something we do every day. Take a couple of minutesto read the introduction to deductive reasoning in your Teacher’s Manual onpages 146-147.




Dimension 3

Closure

3.4DOverhead

Think/Pair/Share

Deductive Reasoning




Dimension 3

We are going to examine deductive reasoning as a general process ofapplying generalizations and principles to specific situations, and we aregoing to look more closely at one form of deductive reasoning: categoricalsyllogisms. The goal of this training is to understand how to teach studentsthe process of deductive reasoning. This process is particularly important forstudents to learn because, as emphasized in the introduction, it helps themto transfer knowledge from one situation to another.

Let’s begin to develop our own understanding of the process of deductivereasoning by using the suggestions in the Teacher’s Manual for helpingstudents learn to use it. On pages 147 and 148, strategy 1 recommends thatyou help students understand the process by examining the relationshipbetween deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.

The most common understanding is that inductive reasoning moves fromspecific to general and deductive reasoning from general to specific.Although this is technically accurate, there is much more to the distinctionbetween inductive and deductive reasoning. Take a couple of minutes to readthe explanation and examples of inductive and deductive reasoning at thebottom of page 147 and the top of page 148.

From these examples, it is evident that when you reach conclusionsinductively, you use specific information and try to generate the most likelyconclusion. However, even when you do a good job of reasoning, thatconclusion may or may not be true. The process of deduction is much moreprecise; that is, if you use appropriate generalizations and principles and ifyou do a good job of reasoning, you can have a great deal of confidence inyour conclusion.

The important role of principles and generalizations in the deductivereasoning process should be fairly evident at this point. Let’s look at thesteps for deductive reasoning to understand better when generalizations andprinciples are used in the process.


Of course, the implication of these steps is that to be able to engage indeduction, students first must learn principles or generalizations that theycan apply to specific situations. Further, students must understand thesegeneralizations and principles well enough to know when and how to applythem to new or different situations. Using the example you just read at thetop of page 148, if students only memorized principles of force and motion,they certainly would not be able to use those principles to make accuratepredictions about the path of a billiard ball.

3.5A 3.5BOverheads

Deductive Reasoning


<You might point out to participants that this emphasis on understandinggeneralizations and principles is explained further in the first key point made aboutthis process on page 150.>

In everyday situations, understanding important principles well enough toapply them might not seem so difficult. For example, if I understand generalprinciples related to flowers, or to cooking, or to golf, I then can use theseprinciples to draw conclusions about how to help a specific flower to bloom,how to cook a specific soufflé properly, or which club to select on a specificfairway. However, as we begin to examine some of the more academicgeneralizations and principles, the challenge of teaching these generalizationswill become clear.

Let’s examine some examples that use more academic generalizations andprinciples. Take a couple of minutes to read the classroom examples thatapply deductive reasoning. These can be found on pages 153 and 154. Whatare the academic generalizations or principles that students must understandin order to complete the assigned tasks? What challenges in teaching thesemight the teacher encounter?

<Target answers: In the Ms. Isaacs example, students must understand what plantsneed to survive and how they get what they need. In the Mr. Caraveo example,students must understand what happens when people are choking. In the Mrs.Williamson example, students must understand the characteristics of a free-marketsystem. And, in the Ms. Touchett example, students must understand the law ofconservation of momentum. Participants probably will see that the challenge is to helpstudents understand generalizations or principles well enough to feel confident inanswering the questions.>

The second key point related to deductive reasoning (on page 150) explainsthe challenge of the third step of the process: helping students determine ifthe generalizations or principles do, in fact, apply to the specific situation.Learners must make sure that the specific situation meets the conditions thathave to be in place for those generalizations or principles to apply. In somecases, this means that they must restate the generalizations or principles inorder to clearly identify those conditions. In the example you read earlier atthe top of page 148, it was explained that because you understand the lawsof gravity, you can predict that if you step off the roof, you will fall. Ofcourse, that is the case only if certain conditions are met. The laws of gravityapply to the situation only if, for example, you are on the planet Earth andyou are not in a vacuum. Again, it is important to determine if the situationmeets the conditions that must be in place for the generalizations orprinciples to apply.



Dimension 3

Individual Task

Deductive Reasoning




Dimension 3

In one of the classroom examples you read, students were learning that whensomeone is choking, the Heimlich maneuver should be applied. In thesituation given to students, a person is choking. However, in order to answerthe question correctly, students had to determine if the conditions were rightfor using the maneuver. They had to recognize that the specific situation didnot meet the conditions necessary to require the Heimlich maneuver. Whatconditions were not met?

<Target answer: The Heimlich maneuver is appropriate only if the choking person isgetting no air. The person who was coughing was obviously getting enough air to cough,and, therefore, the conditions requiring the Heimlich maneuver were not in place.>

Take a look at the graphic organizers for deductive reasoning on pages 151 and152. These highlight the importance of checking to determine if theconditions are in place that would make the generalizations or principles apply.

<Put up Overheads 3.5C and 3.5D.>

As you may be able to see by now, deductive reasoning encourages an in-depth understanding of important content generalizations and principles. Italso enhances understanding of new situations to which these generalizationsand principles are applied. This is why it is such a powerful process forextending and refining knowledge.

The final key point related to deductive reasoning emphasizes that althoughinductive approaches to learning are often recommended (perhaps too oftenrecommended), deductive approaches can be equally as effective. Becausedeductive reasoning can help students gain an in-depth understanding ofcontent knowledge, when planning it is important to consider whetherstudents should spend their time discovering generalizations and principles orapplying generalizations and principles.


We have touched on each of the key points on page 150. Let’s review thesepoints again.

Are there any questions?

<Allow time.>

Let’s turn to page 157 of your Teacher’s Manual. Some of you may beinterested in teaching your students a more formal type of deductivereasoning called categorical syllogisms. Many of you will groan, but let’s takethe following quiz.

3.5C 3.5DOverheads

3.5EOverhead


Deductive Reasoning


<Put up Overhead 3.5F. Allow participants time to discuss and compare answers insmall groups. The answer to all three is “d.” You may want to tell participants theanswers when they have completed the quiz but indicate that you will discuss thereasons later.>

These items are similar to those that appear on many aptitude tests and testsof reasoning abilities. They all require deductive reasoning. The first one isan example of a categorical syllogism. Let’s spend some time exploring thistype of deductive reasoning and discussing how to use it in the classroom.


A categorical syllogism contains two premises and a conclusion. On thisoverhead is the categorical syllogism example from page 155.

<Read aloud Overhead 3.5G.>

As explained, when the two premises are true and the reasoning is valid, theconclusion must be true. Most people are familiar with this format, oftenfrom the classic categorical syllogism:

All men are mortal.

Plato is a man.

Therefore, Plato is mortal.

<Show the first syllogism on Overhead 3.5G.>

This type of reasoning format is usually studied in formal logic classes.However, it can be used powerfully in any classroom. Your manual suggestsfour ways in which you might approach categorical syllogisms with yourstudents.


The first suggestion is to help students recognize hidden categoricalsyllogisms in their everyday language. The syllogism about airplanes, asexplained on page 155, could be “hidden” in the statement, “I know thisairplane has a fire extinguisher because it is a commercial airplane.” Whensomeone says, for example, “That is a bee. Watch out for its stinger,” theimplied categorical syllogism is

<Put up Overhead 3.5G again, and show this syllogism.>

All bees have stingers.

That is a bee.

Therefore, that has a stinger.



Dimension 3

3.5GOverhead

3.5GOverhead

3.5HOverhead

3.5FOverhead

3.5GOverhead

3.5GOverhead

Deductive Reasoning




Dimension 3

Turning a statement into a categorical syllogism clarifies the two underlyingpremises and the conclusion and allows you to more easily analyze the degreeto which they are true. Turning an everyday statement into a categoricalsyllogism with its two premises and conclusion is called standardizing. Whena statement is standardized, it also is easier to recognize another characteristicof categorical syllogism: that the two premises have three elements.

<Write the following two examples on a blank overhead:

All apples are fruit.

This is an apple.

Therefore, this is a fruit.

All whales are mammals.

That is a whale.

Therefore, that is a mammal.>

The three elements of the first example are easy to pick out: “apples,”“fruit,” and “this.” Now examine the second syllogism.

Identify the three elements.

<Provide answers for them to check themselves: “whales,” “mammals,” “that.”This is typically fairly easy for participants.>

<Put up Overhead 3.5G again.>

Look again at these three categorical syllogism we used earlier. Let’s analyzethe second one about airplanes. Finding the three elements here is a little bittricky. See if you can find them.

<Allow time.>

You probably easily identified “commercial airplanes” as one element. Youprobably can see that the third element is “the airplane I am on.” The secondelement, however, requires that you take the phrase “have a fire extinguisheron board” and turn it into an element. You do this by simply changing it sothat it reads: “things that have a fire extinguisher on board.” That word thingsis the key to turning phrases into elements. So, if I had a premise, “Allzebras are striped,” I would have to restate it to say, “All zebras are thingsthat are striped.” Now my first two elements would be “zebra” and “thingsthat are striped.” See if you can identify the three elements in the other twosyllogisms we examined earlier.

Individual Task

3.5GOverhead

Deductive Reasoning


<Use the Plato and the bee syllogisms on Overhead 3.5G. Participants should be ableto identify the elements in the Plato syllogism as “men,” “things that are mortal” (or“people who are mortal”), and “Plato.” The bee syllogism elements are “bees,” “thingsthat have stingers,” and “this.”>

Now try to standardize these everyday statements so that the logic is valid.

<Put up Overhead 3.5I. Expose only the left-hand column first. After participantshave had a chance to work, show the right-hand column answers.>

The second suggestion for teaching categorical syllogisms is to providestudents with a way of graphically representing categorical syllogisms. Themost common way is to use Euler <pronounced “oiler”> diagrams. If you cangraphically represent the relationships, you can explore the logic in thereasoning. To get a sense of Euler diagrams, take a few minutes to read pages156-157.

<Allow a few minutes for reading.>

Consider the statement from our previous exercise: “Oh, you say Mary wrotethis report? Then we don’t have to worry; it will be accurate.”

When we standardized it, we identified three elements: “reports that Marywrites,” “things that are accurate,” and “this.” Let’s represent thesegraphically. <Draw the diagram on the overhead as you model these steps.> First,give each element a circle. Next, show the relationship between “reports thatMary writes” and “things that are accurate.” Now add the relationshipbetween “this” and “reports that Mary writes.”

Notice that once you have depicted the relationship between the twopremises, you can test the validity of a conclusion. In other words, you candetermine whether the conclusion follows logically from the premises. Is theconclusion, “This is accurate” valid?

things that areaccurate

reports thatMary writes

this



Dimension 3

3.5IOverhead

3.5GOverhead

Deductive Reasoning




Dimension 3

<Target answer: Yes, because the “this” circle is within the “things that are accurate”circle.>

Now graphically represent each of the other two syllogisms on this overhead.

<Participants are doing this task for the syllogisms on Overhead 3.5I. Go over theanswers with them.>

For each of these syllogisms, the conclusion that was written has been showngraphically to be valid. Notice that I continue to use the word valid. Again,this means that the Euler diagrams showed that the reasoning used waslogical; in other words, we can confidently draw the conclusions, given twopremises. However, we will see that valid does not necessarily mean true.

If you are interested in having students become more familiar with commonvalid categorical syllogisms, you can follow the suggestion on page 157:Present students with the various forms of valid and invalid categoricalsyllogisms. The chart on page 158 can be used as a quick reference to helpstudents analyze the validity of the reasoning in various syllogisms.

You will see that this chart labels the elements A, B, and C. Look across thetop of the chart, and find the coded form of your first premise. Look downthe side to determine the coded form of the second premise. Now, find theintersecting square. If the square is blank, then no valid conclusion can bedrawn; otherwise, the coded statement will tell you what conclusions can bedrawn.

Try Item 1 in the test you took at the beginning of this section:

All beans are vegetables = All A are B.

Some vegetables are green = Some B are C.

What conclusions can be drawn?

<Target answer: No valid conclusion can be drawn.>

Students who become intrigued with categorical syllogisms could try towrite examples of each valid conclusion identified in the chart or findexamples and try to place them in the chart.

The final suggestion on page 159 suggests having students examine thetruth of the premises in categorical syllogisms. Take a minute to read thissection.


Individual Task

3.5IOverhead

Deductive Reasoning


<Put up Overhead 3.5J.>

Now take a look at the statements on this overhead. Work with one or twoother people to do the following: First, identity the implied categoricalsyllogisms; next, use a Euler diagram or the chart on page 158 to determineif the reasoning is valid.

<Allow time for this work.>

Is the conclusion in each example valid?

<The answer is “yes.”>

But what is wrong?

<Participants should easily see that although the reasoning is valid, the premises arenot true.>

These examples highlight the difference between validity and truth.

If I teach students that “all dogs bark,” then tell them that I have a dog andask them to tell me what they can conclude about that dog, they could say,“Your dog barks.” However, we know there are dogs that don’t bark;therefore, their conclusion might not be true because the principle they arereasoning from is not true. Actually, it is more accurate to say that theconclusion is valid but not necessarily true.

To illustrate with content knowledge, students are commonly taught thatmysteries have the following characteristics:

• unresolved or unexplained events

• foreshadowing

• suspense

• clues or evidence

Students may incorrectly translate these characteristics into the followingfour generalizations or premises:

• All mysteries have unresolved or unexplained events.

• All mysteries use foreshadowing.

• All mysteries are suspenseful.

• All mysteries provide clues or evidence.



Dimension 3

3.5JOverhead


Deductive Reasoning




Dimension 3

If we asked students to use this information to make a prediction they mightconclude the following:

• All mysteries are stories with foreshadowing.

• My book is a mystery.

• My book will be a story with foreshadowing.

Although this conclusion is logically valid, it is not necessarily true becausewe know that not all mysteries use foreshadowing. The point is that if youare teaching students to reason deductively from premises, you must becareful to make sure they understand that they must consider the validity oftheir conclusions and the truth of their premises.

To summarize, when teaching students principles and generalizations, youneed to help them understand if the principles or generalizations alwaysapply or if they only sometimes apply to specific situations. Likewise, whenteaching a concept, it is important to clarify which attributes are alwayspresent and which attributes are sometimes present.

The consequences of incorrectly concluding that all dogs bark or that allmysteries use foreshadowing are not very serious. In other situations, however,faulty deductions can have serious consequences. In fact, at the heart ofstereotyping is valid reasoning from untrue premises. An example from one orour earlier activities, the syllogism related to blondes, illustrates this type ofstereotyping. What are some conclusions that students might make thatcould have serious consequences because they are based on false premises?

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of deductive reasoning. See page 9 for explanations ofeach of these formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Closure

Deductive Reasoning


Constructing Support


<As explained in the introduction to the training for Dimension 3, you may want toplan the training so that the processes of constructing support, analyzing errors, andanalyzing perspectives are examined as a cluster. This will help participants to seethat these three processes can complement and supplement each other in the classroom.For example, when students are analyzing perspectives, they may want to use theprocess of analyzing errors to scrutinize the reasons underlying a perspective, or theymay want to take a perspective and construct support for it.>

Think of a time when someone or something (such as an article oradvertisement) tried to influence you or talk you into something. Now, finda partner. Taking the position assumed by the person, article, or ad,reconstruct the case made. Do this by role-playing the “pitch” that wasmade. You might be a teenager arguing to stay out late, a politician tryingto gain support or a vote, or an advertiser selling a particular product. If youcan’t recall such a situation, take a position about something that’simportant to you, and role-play trying to influence your partner’s thinkingor actions about that topic or issue.

<Allow time for activity.>

As you listened to someone else trying to influence your thinking orpersuade you to do something or buy something, you probably noticed thatthe person used some very specific techniques. Specifically, what techniquesdid your partner use to try to persuade or influence you? Share your ideaswith your partner.

<Allow time for each partner to share.>

Constructing support is the process of building systems of support forassertions, or, stated more simply, it is the process of providing support forstatements. Think about how our lives are influenced by the persuasiveabilities of people involved in campaigns, whether designed to sell a politicalcandidate, an anti-drug message, or a product or to elicit community buy-infor a new recycling project. These campaigns succeed because people knowhow to construct support for their ideas.



Dimension 3







Dimension 3

People who successfully construct support for assertions have two kinds ofknowledge: first, an understanding of and ability to use persuasivetechniques, and, second, an understanding of the information needed toconstruct a powerful argument. Teaching students to construct support,then, not only provides them with the opportunity to gain the ability to usepersuasive techniques, it sets up situations in which they will need todevelop an understanding of the information—to extend and refine theirknowledge—in order to construct the argument. In addition, taking andconstructing support for a position, especially when students have somechoice about the position, is beneficial because it increases their engagementin the learning process.

Let’s look at the steps for the process of constructing support on page 162 ofthe Teacher’s Manual.

<Put up Overheads 3.6A and 3.6B. Allow time for participants to read.>

As you present the steps to students, ask them to identify current topics orissues (e.g., from the classroom, the news, or their own lives) that mightwarrant their taking a position and constructing support for that position.Then, preferably using one of their ideas (or, if you feel more comfortable,using the think-aloud example in the manual or an idea of your own), modelhow you would construct support for a position. As you model the process,elicit suggestions from students for how to make the argument stronger.


The key points for constructing support present information that studentsneed to understand in order to competently use the process. The first keypoint, which begins on page 163, discusses the difference between fact andopinion. This is an important distinction because, as stated in the first twosteps of the process, it is appropriate to construct support only for opinions.Take a minute to read the Key Point 1 on page 163.


Now let’s take a look at a few examples. Teaching students the differencebetween facts and opinions is actually fairly common. However, it isimportant for students to understand that the term fact is being used to referto statements that can be verified. At your tables, determine whether each ofthese statements is a fact or an opinion.


3.6COverhead

3.6DOverhead

3.6A 3.6BOverheads



In addition to understanding the difference between fact and opinion, it isimportant to understand some of the techniques that speakers traditionallyuse to garner support. Key Point 2, on page 164 of the Teacher’s Manual,includes a description of such techniques, specifically four types of appeals.Although these types of appeals will sound familiar, they actually date backto ancient Greece. As you read through the descriptions of these four typesof appeals, keep two questions in mind: Which type of appeal is mostcommonly used in our society? Which type is emphasized in school?

<Allow time for participants to read about the four types of appeals.>

Let’s answer the two questions: Which type of appeal is most commonlyused in our society? Which type is emphasized in school?

<Take responses from participants. Typically, people conclude that appeals that arenot based on reason are probably used the most. Yet we tend to teach students toconstruct reasoned appeals.>

It is important for students to understand all four types of appeals, becauseothers will use these methods to persuade them and because students shouldknow how to use the appeals to be persuasive in important situations. Peoplewho are well respected (and some who are not) use these appeals every day.For each of the appeals, see if you can identify famous people, living or fromthe past, who are or were particularly good at using that appeal. Be ready toshare your examples.

<Allow time for participants to work together to think of examples. Possible examplesthat you might offer are

• Using personality: Political candidates often use personal stories, show agreat deal of personal interest in people, or are very cordial. President RonaldReagan was considered persuasive in part because he was so likable.

• Using tradition or accepted beliefs: Speakers sometimes use phrases like,“Americans always have. . . ,” “like Grandma used to make,” “the rightthing to do,” or “family values.” Religious leaders, such as Billy Graham,are known for using this approach.

• Using rhetoric: Martin Luther King used beautiful language and aneloquent style when he spoke, for example in his “I Have a Dream” speech.Jesse Jackson is well known for his use of language to make a strong case forhis positions.

• Using reason: Pamphlets and brochures often have well-structured supportfor the ideas, people, and institutions that they represent. These typicallyinclude statistical evidence to support claims made. William F. Buckley iswell known for his reasoned arguments.>





Dimension 3




Individual Task


Dimension 3

<Optional activity: Show television video segments of examples of the various kinds ofappeals. Give participants a mini-quiz to determine if they can designate the kind ofappeal or appeals that each uses.>

When you are aware of the variety of appeals, you begin to notice their uses.All of these types of appeals are effective, but the one that is probably thefocus in most schools is the appeal to reason. One model for constructing asound appeal to reason is provided in Key Point 3 on page 165 of theTeacher’s Manual. There are four primary components to a sound appeal toreason in this model.

<Put up Overhead 3.6E, which has descriptions of each part.>

<Now put up Overhead 3.6F.>

Let’s look at the beginnings of an argument constructed with this model.Notice that the claim is supported with factual information that helps tobuild the case.

However, just because all the parts are there does not guarantee that theargument is strong. Let’s look at two different passages constructed using thebasic model. As you read each of them, notice that all the elements of anappeal to reason are present. What is the difference between the two?

<Put up Overheads 3.6G and 3.6H. Allow a few minutes for participants to readand analyze both arguments. Ask for their conclusions, and make sure the followingpoints are made.>

This activity makes it apparent that an appeal to reason containing all fourcomponents is not necessarily a strong appeal. Factual information may bepresented in a way that communicates bias. When teaching the process ofconstructing support, it is important for students to understand the kinds oferrors that they should avoid if they want their arguments to be valid. Itmay be useful to review the different kinds of errors in thinking. These typesof errors are described in the Teacher’s Manual in the section on analyzingerrors. With enough practice and guidance, students will become skilled atconstructing support for their ideas.

Let’s take a few minutes to practice constructing support. Use what youknow and have learned about the process. You may want to use the graphicorganizer on page 166 to help you plan for making your case.

<Put up Overhead 3.6I.>

3.6G 3.6HOverheads

3.6IOverhead

3.6EOverhead

3.6FOverhead



Consider the following claims: <Write on a blank overhead.>

A. The salary structure for teachers should include merit pay.

B. The salary structure for teachers should not include merit pay.

<Alternatively, substitute a current issue that might stimulate opposing views andthat most participants will know well enough to be able to generate evidence,elaborations, and limitations.>

You may work with one or two other people. First, select one of the twoclaims. All of the groups supporting Claim A move to one side of the room;groups supporting Claim B move to the other side. Now, working together,construct support for your claim. You may use any of the appeals, but youmust include an appeal to reason. See if you can include all four componentsof a good appeal to reason.

<Allow time for groups to work.>

Now, I’d like each group to find a group from the opposing side. Take turnspresenting your support.

<Again, allow time for each group to present.>

What were the easiest and the most difficult parts of the process ofconstructing support? What did you notice as you listened to support for theopposing claim? How does the process of constructing support help you toextend and refine knowledge?

<Often participants notice that the same evidence could be used to support or refute anargument, that it is hard to come up with facts as opposed to opinions, and that theprocess of constructing support leads to many discoveries, insights, and ideas related tothe topic. They also typically say that they would need to consult some resources to getmore information.>

You will notice that strategy 5 suggests using both teacher-structured andstudent-structured tasks. Let’s look at how the process of constructingsupport is used in the classroom. Take a few minutes to read the classroomexamples on page 167. Notice that the first three are very teacher structuredand the last one is very student structured.

<Allow time for this activity. Have a few people share their arguments with theentire group. Make sure the following point is made: It’s important to involve studentsearly and often in the design of constructing support tasks because part of learning theprocess is being able to determine which opinions warrant support.>



Dimension 3







Dimension 3

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of constructing support. See page 9 for explanations ofeach of these formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Analyzing Errors


<As explained in the introduction to the training for Dimension 3, you may want toplan the training so that the processes of constructing support, analyzing errors, andanalyzing perspectives are examined as a cluster. This will help participants to seethat these three processes can complement and supplement each other in the classroom.For example, when students are analyzing perspectives, they may want to use theprocess of analyzing errors to scrutinize the reasons underlying a perspective, or theymay want to take a perspective and construct support for it.>


In each of these, someone is trying to persuade someone else to believe or to dosomething. Without necessarily using the technical language associated withfallacies, describe the types of weak arguments you notice in each statement.

<Allow time for discussion in small groups.>

We live in a society in which we are inundated with information like theexamples we have examined. Some messages are clear and straightforward,simply providing us with information. Many messages, however, are likethese. They are skillfully crafted to influence us to buy something, to believeor support something, or to take some sort of action. The ability to analyzethis information, to identify ways in which others are trying to influence usor other people, and to recognize possible errors in thinking is an importantlifelong learning skill.

Analyzing errors is the process of identifying and articulating errors inthinking. This process is used to develop the habit of analyzing informationfor possible errors (intentional or unintentional) that are made through theuse of faulty logic, weak references, attacks, or misinformation. One way tohelp students become aware of the need to understand and use the process ofanalyzing errors is to present them with information from their everyday

Closure

3.7AOverhead


Analyzing Errors


lives and then ask them to find errors in thinking reflected in theinformation, just as we did a few minutes ago.

When first teaching this process you might present students with messageslike the ones you just analyzed but take them from your local newspaper orfrom current events students will recognize. Don’t use advertisements only;older students in particular are very aware that advertisers use all sorts oftechniques to try to persuade them. As you present students with examplesthat reflect errors in thinking, focus on the reasons that people make errors intheir thinking and the consequences of not recognizing such errors.

Look again at the examples of messages we examined earlier. Think aboutthe types of examples you would probably find to introduce students to theprocess of error analysis. What are some examples of the consequences peopleexperience because of their failure to recognize errors in the thinkingunderlying information they are receiving?

<Ask for several people to share examples of consequences. Typically, examples ofconsequences will include experiencing regret after you vote for a candidate, buyingsomething someone talks you into or doing something dangerous such as taking drugs.>

As you are discussing consequences with students, you can present themwith a model for the process of analyzing errors (on pages 169-170 of theTeacher’s Manual).

<Put up Overheads 3.7B and 3.7C.>

Although the steps appear simple enough, most people do not rigorouslyapply the process when confronted with information and, consequently, fallinto situations they could have avoided. As explained in the first key point(page 171), one of the major goals in teaching this process is to introduceand reinforce the practice of looking for errors in information that you arereceiving. If students only develop the tendency to watch for errors, they arewell on their way to becoming proficient at using this process.

The next challenge, described in the second key point, is to help studentsrecognize different types of errors. Although cautiously watching for errorsin information is important, understanding different types of errors willenhance students’ ability to recognize errors, even subtle, skillfully craftederrors. Let’s look at the section called “Types of Errors in Thinking,” whichis on pages 173-176.

Let’s examine this detailed information on types of errors in thinking. You’llfind four sections that describe specific types of errors: faulty logic, attacks,weak references, and misinformation.



Dimension 3


3.7B 3.7COverheads

Analyzing Errors







Dimension 3

<Put up Overheads 3.7D and 3.7E.>

Take a few minutes to skim through this information. Some of the types oferrors will be very familiar to you. Some will probably be less familiar ornew to you.


Do you recognize the use of any of these in the examples we analyzed earlier?

<Put up Overhead 3.7A again. 1. Appeal to authority. 2. Appeal to the people. 3.Appeal to emotion. 4. Arguing against the person. 5. Arguing from ignorance.>

Let’s become more familiar with these types of errors in thinking. I apologizefor having you sit and read so much but we will become more active here ina minute. Turn to the classroom examples on pages 176 and 177, and readthrough them. Pay particular attention to the last example.


Notice that in the last example the topic is whether there is life on otherplanets. This is a topic that people love to talk about, as evidenced by thenumber of movies about the topic, the speculation in the media, the UFOsightings, etc. Let’s use some of the types of errors to analyze the reasons thatpeople give for believing or not believing about the existence of life on otherplanets.

Working in small groups, try to construct, for as many types of errors aspossible, an argument that exemplifies that error. Look again at the examplesin the classroom task on page 177 for the model of what you should do. Let’smake this a little competitive. We will see which group can construct anargument for the most types of errors in thinking. Ready. Go.

<Allow time for them to work. This should be fun. They will find that some of theerrors are more difficult to exemplify than others. Circulate throughout the room, andencourage groups to move on if they are having trouble with one particular type oferror. At the end of the working time, determine which group was able to exemplifythe most types of errors. Time permitting, have people read examples for as many errorsas possible.>

<You will need to prepare slips of paper ahead of time for the following activity.>

Now let’s use what we have learned to apply these types of errors to othertopics. On the table in the front of the room, there are small pieces offolded-up paper. On each piece is a letter. Buddy up with someone, and each of you come up and select a piece of paper. You and your partner willnow have two letters that correspond to one of the types of errors on

3.7D 3.7EOverheads

3.7AOverhead

Analyzing Errors



pages 173-176. Generate an example of each to present to a partner. Do this by

• thinking of an experience in which you heard the error used ormaking up a story in which such an error is used, or

• role-playing a situation illustrating the type of error in thinking.

In a few minutes, you and your partner will present one or two of yourexamples to another pair, and they will try to determine which error inthinking you are illustrating.

<Allow preparation time. Then have each pair present one example. After both pairshave presented, if there is time have them repeat the activity and present again.Although this takes some time, it is helpful for each pair to hear other examples, andit is usually interesting for them to present their examples.>

<For groups of at least 34: Have participants count off to 17. Have 1’s together, 2’stogether, etc. Then give each pair or group a letter (a through q, randomly distributed, notin order). Have each pair prepare a role-play or skit to demonstrate the error its letteraddresses. Ask the remainder of the group to guess which error is being demonstrated.>

What did you discover or find interesting during that activity?

<Typical answers: Some errors in thinking are less obvious than others. Differentpeople label the same example as different types of errors.>


As explained earlier, the first key point emphasizes that the first goal inteaching the process of analyzing errors is to help students develop the habitof looking for errors. However, as highlighted in the second key point,helping students become familiar with the types of errors we have just beenusing here will help them to recognize errors in information they arereceiving. Finally, as discussed in Key Point 3, it is important for students to realize that good thinkers know that there are some situations in whicherror analysis is not appropriate. Good thinkers accept some information onfaith or because of the credibility of the information source.


Take a look at the graphic organizer on page 172. Help students tounderstand that those two “stop sign” symbols remind them that not allinformation needs close scrutiny.

As with each of the reasoning processes, strategy 5 simply suggests usingboth teacher-structured and student-structured tasks. After spending timewith the process of analyzing errors, ideally students will begin to recognizesituations in which the process is necessary.

Alternative Activity



Dimension 3

3.7FOverhead

3.7GOverhead

Analyzing Errors



Individual Task

Closure


Dimension 3

<At this point, if you would like to provide a final practice activity to enableparticipants to experience using the process with information from a different medium,you might show a video segment of a televised debate or a panel news program. Askparticipants to describe any errors in thinking that they notice.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of analyzing errors. See page 9 for explanations of eachof these formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Analyzing Perspectives

<If you are starting your training here, remember to review the introduction toDimension 3, which identifies the major goals of these training segments and providessuggestions for helping participants understand the organization of the Teacher’sManual for each of the reasoning processes in this dimension.

As explained in the introduction to the training for Dimension 3, you may want toplan the training so that the processes of constructing support, analyzing perspectives,and analyzing errors are examined as a cluster. This will help participants to see thatthese three processes can complement and supplement each other in the classroom. Forexample, when students are analyzing perspectives, they may want to use the process ofanalyzing errors to scrutinize the reasons underlying a perspective, or they may wantto take a perspective and construct support for it.>

In a moment, I’m going to bring up an issue about which people havedifferent opinions. Note your reaction to the issue, and indicate that reactionby putting your thumb up, down, or to the side. “Thumbs up” means youhave a positive reaction to the issue; “thumbs to the side” means you areneutral, and “thumbs” down means you feel negatively about it.

The proposal is year-round schooling <or another current controversial topic suchas vouchers for private and parochial schools, national standards, women pastnatural-child-bearing age having children, etc.>.

<Allow time for each participant to react.>

Now, jot down the reasons for your reaction. Next, consider a differentreaction. For example, if your reaction was negative, consider either apositive or neutral reaction. Now, predict what reasons someone might givefor that reaction.

Next, find someone whose initial position was different from yours. Then,compare their recorded reasons with what you predicted. As you talk with



your partner, ask questions about the reasons he or she gave. Remember thatthe goal of analyzing perspectives is not to accept, agree with, or toleratesomeone else’s perspective or the reasons for that perspective. The goal is tofully understand the reasons for another’s position. Analyzing perspectives isthe process of identifying multiple perspectives on an issue and examiningthe reasons or logic behind each. It is about understanding various points ofview. It is not about changing anyone’s perspective.

<Allow time for participants to interact.>

Why do you think it is valuable for students to learn the process ofanalyzing perspectives?

<Take time to hear several answers from participants. If the following points are notmade, emphasize them as follows.>

It is, of course, valuable to listen to and be sensitive to others’ points of view.Students will be developing a skill they can use later when faced withemotionally charged situations. As a result of identifying and understandingtheir own reasons for a perspective as well as the reasons for a differentperspective, they will find that sometimes they change their perspectives butthat often they strengthen their points of view.

The academic value to students’ learning how to analyze perspectives is thatit can help them to extend and refine academic content knowledge. Becausethe emphasis is on analyzing the perspectives, the goal is understanding.This often means that students have to seek additional information and seekclarity in that information to explain various perspectives.

As with all Dimension 3 complex reasoning processes, it is important topresent and model the steps in the process of analyzing perspectives.


These steps are described on pages 179-180 of the Teacher’s Manual. Take acouple of minutes to read them.

<Allow a couple of minutes for reading.>

You may now realize that these steps parallel the thumbs up/thumbs downactivity we did. Following my first instruction (to put your thumb up,down, or sideways) required you to select a perspective. This part is oftenfairly easy. The second instruction (to jot down your reasons) was probably alittle more difficult because it might have been a while since you thoughtabout the reasons for your point of view. It may be that you never have hadto clearly articulate the reasons for your perspective.




Dimension 3

3.8A 3.8BOverheads




The third and fourth instructions (to identify a different perspective and toidentify the reasons for that perspective) might have been even moredifficult, especially if you felt strongly about the topic. This is because wesometimes attend most closely to information that supports our own point ofview. When teaching the process of analyzing perspectives, it is important toemphasize to students that the goal is to seek understanding of the reasonsor logic underlying multiple perspectives, including their own.

To help us gain a deeper understanding of the process of analyzingperspectives, we are going to spend some time reviewing four key pointsdiscussed on pages 180-181 of the Teacher’s Manual. First, read over thefollowing anecdote about a potential display at the Smithsonian Institute.


With a partner, identify the probable perspectives of the diverse groups.

<Allow time for pairs to complete this activity and to have several share answers withthe whole group.>

<Target answers: A human rights group wanted to display the airplane as a symbolof death and destruction to show the dangers and horrors of war. Military leaderswanted to display it as a war trophy and a symbol of victory and strength. Airplaneenthusiasts wanted to display it as an example of the “flying machine of the time.”>

Now, with your partner, review the key points.


Let’s discuss each, using the perspectives of the groups that wanted todisplay the Enola Gay.

We actually have already discussed the first point: that the goal of analyzingperspectives is not just to acknowledge other perspectives but to gain anunderstanding of multiple perspectives. If you were analyzing perspectivesabout displaying the Enola Gay, it would be important for students to domore than state, for example, that some people wanted to display it as areminder of the horrors of war. Students would need to explore why peoplefelt that it would serve as such a reminder.

The second key point explains one of the challenges of teaching the processof analyzing perspectives: helping students to recognize and be able togenerate good reasons and valid logic. Articulating good reasons for aperspective is an ability that can be developed starting in kindergarten.Examine the kindergarten example in the margin on page 181. These youngstudents are learning that a good reason must provide information or



Dimension 3

3.8COverhead

3.8DOverhead




evidence; it can’t just be a restatement of the perspective, such as, “I likewinter because I love it.”

Using the Enola Gay example, generate some examples of weak reasons forbelieving that the airplane should be displayed. In other words, generatereasons that really do not provide information or evidence. For example,“The plane should be displayed because it is the right thing to do.”

<Ask for several examples from the small groups.>

Key Point 3 states that most issues have multiple perspectives and thatstudents should learn to dig deeply to search them out. What otherperspectives not yet mentioned could increase our understanding of the issueof displaying the Enola Gay?

<Allow time for discussion with the large group. Be sure to elicit some of the reasonsfor each of the perspectives presented.>

There are several ways to engage students in the process of analyzingperspectives. One common classroom activity is to set up a role-playingsituation in which students argue one side of a controversial issue and thenthe other. Another approach is to ask students to describe the thinking ofseveral people involved in a situation in which there are differences inperspectives. Students can practice with real-life issues (e.g., a family feudbetween a sister, a brother, a mother, and the family dog; a planning sessionfor a school dance from the perspectives of a student, a custodian, and ateacher).

Let’s practice. Consider the topic “nuclear reactors as the major source ofpower for large cities,” which might be brought up in a science unit. Insmall groups, take a few minutes to identify the reasons that someone mighthave who strongly opposes the use of nuclear reactors as the major source ofenergy for large cities. Then take an equal amount of time to identify thereasons that someone might have who supports this use of nuclear reactors.

<Give participants several minutes to generate the two lists.>

What did you learn as a result of doing this activity? What knowledge mightbe extended and refined as a result of using the activity in the classroom?

<Allow time for discussion. Ask several participants to share.>

One way to analyze perspectives is to ask students to place positive, negative,or neutral values on a topic and then to specify reasons for their assignment ofvalue in a structured format using a Perspective Examination Matrix or aConflict Clarification Matrix like those that have been filled in on page 182.



Dimension 3






<Put up Overheads 3.8E and 3.8F.>

In small groups, try filling in a Conflict Clarification Matrix for thefollowing issue: All employees in a school district should be subjected tomandatory drug testing.

<Allow time for participants to fill out the matrix and to share some examples withthe large group.>

What did you learn, discover, or think about as a result of doing this activity?

<Ask participants to share.>

Notice the last row in the Conflict Clarification Matrix in which studentsare asked to identify a conclusion they drew or an awareness they gained as aresult of analyzing perspectives in this way. Teachers report that sometimesstudents’ responses are fairly trivial. For example, they sometimes say thatthey concluded that “there are other ways of looking at things” or “there aretwo sides to every argument.” It takes some encouragement to get studentsto think about what they learned about the issue being examined. But it isworth the time to encourage them to do this thinking. It is the key to theirextending and refining their knowledge.

Let’s apply this process to the classroom. First, skim the information onteacher- and student-structured tasks on page 183. Then, look at theclassroom examples on pages 183 and 184. Discuss what you’ve read with apartner, and then, using that information, together design an analyzingperspectives task for the classroom, preferably one that one or both of youcould use.

<Allow time for participants to read the information and to construct a task. Haveseveral people share their tasks with the large group.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of analyzing perspectives. See page 9 for explanations ofeach of these formats for completing this portion of the training.>



Dimension 3



Closure

3.8E 3.8FOverheads






Planning for Dimension 3 requires asking and answering the followingoverarching question:

What will be done to help students extend and refine knowledge?

By following the three steps outlined in the Teacher’s Manual, pages185-187, you will answer this question. Each step requires you to answera specific key question or provide information. There is a place on theplanning guide to record your decisions.

We will look at the planning guide for Dimension 3 for the sample ColoradoUnit (page 188) while considering the planning questions for this dimension.

Step 1 asks you to respond to the following question:

What knowledge will students be extending and refining?Specifically, students will be extending and refining theirunderstanding of . . .

As you answer this question, it is important to remember that the goal ofextending and refining knowledge is to deepen and broaden students’understanding of information that is important enough to warrant the extratime and emphasis. In most cases, it is generalizations/principles andconcepts that will be selected as important enough to extend and refine. Forexample, students might not need to deepen their understanding of the factsabout the life of an artist, but it might be important for them to deepentheir understanding of the following generalization that is related to thesefacts: An artist’s body of work reflects his or her life experiences.

The best way to identify the knowledge that you want students to extendand refine is to examine the declarative knowledge that was identifiedduring the planning process for Dimension 2 and then to simply askyourself, “What information that I have identified in this unit do I wantstudents to understand in greater depth?”

Turn back to page 87 in Dimension 2. You will see the Unit PlanningGraphic for declarative knowledge for the Colorado Unit.



Dimension 3

3.P1Overhead

Planning


<Put up Overhead 2.P5 (planning graphic) to verify for participants that they areon the right page. Note that we are suggesting that you use the graphic that isorganized without standards and benchmarks. Using this graphic (rather than thegraphic for planning with standards and benchmarks) will make it easier forparticipants to see that the knowledge selected for extending and refining is from theconcept patterns and generalization/principle patterns.>

Keeping your hand on that page, look at the planning guide for Dimension3 on page 188.

<Put up Overhead 3.P2 (the filled-in planning guide from page 188). This overheadis not large enough for participants to be able to read, but putting it up can verify forthem that they are looking at the right page in their manuals. They should also beable to see it well enough to see the columns that you point out as you discuss the steps.>

Notice the knowledge that is being extended and refined, which is identifiedin the first column.

<Allow time for participants to read this column.>

Now go back to the Dimension 2 Planning Graphic for the Colorado Unit,page 87. You can see that the knowledge being extended and refined in thisunit was selected from the concept and generalization/principle patterns. Youcan also see that not all of the information in these patterns is being extendedand refined. The teachers planning the unit have decided which informationis going to be a major focus of the unit and then have designed tasks that willhelp students develop an in-depth understanding of that knowledge.

<Put up Overhead 3.P1 again (the major planning questions and steps).>

Step 2 asks you to identify the reasoning process that students will use toextend and refine the important knowledge you have identified. The specificprocess selected should be driven by the information that you think shouldbe extended and refined. Some processes are better suited to certaininformation than to others.

<Put up Overheads 3.P3 and 3.P4 (the stimulus questions from pages 186 and 187).>

On pages 186 and 187, you will find a set of questions for each of the eightDimension 3 reasoning processes. These questions are intended to be usedduring planning to stimulate ideas for tasks and to help you designinteresting tasks that engage students in complex reasoning and that lead tostudents’ extending and refining the knowledge they are learning. Let’sexamine the process used to design the tasks for the Colorado Unit.



Dimension 3

3.P3 3.P4Overheads

3.P2Overhead

3.P1Overhead

2.P5Overhead

Planning



The third step of the planning process simply asks you to describe the tasksthat students will be doing. Take a minute, if you haven’t already done so, toread the first task in column 3, a classification task, as well as the secondtask, an inductive reasoning task, both of which were designed using theseplanning steps.


Let’s walk through this planning process once more. Both of these tasks weregenerated as a result of the teachers first asking themselves the Step 1 and 2questions. To plan the first task, for example, they obviously decided thatstudents would be increasing their understanding of how topography,natural resources, and climate influence settlement patterns. They might notat first have known exactly what they wanted students to do, but perhapsthey knew that they wanted students to apply the knowledge in situationsother than those directly related to Colorado. With these goals in mind, theythen used the questions for the complex reasoning processes (on pages 186and 187) to help stimulate ideas for the task. They might have consideredtwo or three ideas before designing the classification task described on theplanning guide.

Picture the students doing these two tasks. Discuss at your tables how thesetasks would extend and refine students’ understanding of the identifiedknowledge.


<Put up Overheads 3.P3 and 3.P4 again.>

Read over these stimulus questions. Then look again at the processes selectedfor the Colorado Unit. Select two different processes that might have beenused and then, using the blank Dimension 3 planning guide you have beengiven in your handout, try to design tasks that would extend and refine theidentified knowledge.

<Give participants time to read the stimulus questions and to come up with some oftheir own ideas for the unit. Take a few ideas from the large group.>

Note that there is room on the planner for two processes. This isn’t a magicnumber. You might have only one or, perhaps, even three. The idea here isnot “the more the merrier.” When deciding how many tasks to include in aunit, you should consider the length of the unit, how much of theinformation students need to understand in-depth, and how many reasoningprocesses you might have to teach in the unit. If students are not already





Dimension 3

3.P1Overhead

3.P2Overhead

3.P3 3.P4Overheads

Planning


proficient at using the reasoning processes the tasks require, you must allowtime in the unit to teach these processes.

Now let’s practice using this planning process for a unit you are planning ormight plan. First, identify some important declarative knowledge that youwant students to extend and refine. Then select one or two complexreasoning processes, and design tasks that might help students extend andrefine that knowledge.

<Allow time for participants to plan and to share a few examples with the largegroup. Some may want to use blank Dimension 3 planning guides, so you should havesome extras available to them. In order to become more comfortable teaching thesereasoning processes and using them in units, participants will need multipleopportunities to study and practice writing tasks. Depending on your training schedule,allow as much time as possible for them to design tasks and share them with others.>




Dimension 3

Planning Activity

Closure

Planning


D i m e n s i o n 4

DIM

ENSIO

N 4



4

Dimension 4Use Knowledge Meaningfully

To the Trainer

This portion of the training deals with Dimension 4, which is covered inChapter 4 of the Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual. As a result of thistraining, participants will understand that the ultimate purpose of acquiringknowledge is to be able to use it in a meaningful way. This means thatstudents must be able to use what they have been learning by engaging intasks that they perceive to be relevant, interesting, and engaging. Thesetasks often take a significant amount of time to complete. However, whenthey are used in instruction, they allow students to achieve a higher level ofunderstanding and proficiency; when they are used for assessment, theyallow students to demonstrate their understanding and proficiency. Ideally,educators will use tasks that ask students to use knowledge meaningfully forinstruction as well as assessment.

When designing tasks that ask students to use knowledge meaningfully,participants should learn to use the complex reasoning processes so that theemphasis is on students’ thinking about the content knowledge rather thanon the product that they are to create. Six reasoning processes have beenidentified and defined within Dimension 4. They are

• Decision making: Generating and applying criteria to select fromamong seemingly equal alternatives.

• Problem solving: Overcoming constraints or limiting conditionsthat are in the way of pursuing goals.



Use Knowledge Meaningfully

Dimension 4

• Invention: Developing unique products or processes that fulfillperceived needs.

• Experimental inquiry: Generating and testing explanations ofobserved phenomena.

• Investigation: Identifying and resolving issues about which thereare confusions or contradictions.

• Systems analysis: Analyzing the parts of a system and the mannerin which they interact.

During this training, participants will be in the process of gainingunderstanding about the complexity of constructing tasks that requirestudents to use knowledge meaningfully. They will be in the processof learning

• that teachers can help students use knowledge meaningfully bymaking sure that students engage in tasks that they perceive to berelevant, interesting, and engaging and that require them to applycomplex reasoning processes to content knowledge;

• that when students perceive tasks as meaningful and relevant, theyare motivated to acquire the knowledge needed to complete thetasks, which, in turn, can result in a greater depth of understandingand proficiency relative to that knowledge;

• that six specific complex reasoning processes should be explicitlytaught to and modeled for students: decision making, problemsolving, invention, experimental inquiry, investigation, and systemsanalysis;

• how to model and teach the six complex reasoning processes to helpstudents use knowledge meaningfully;

• how to help students learn to use the processes independently in waysthat are meaningful to them;

• how to create tasks that involve these processes; and





Dimension 4



Most people would agree that learning does not end with acquiring andintegrating knowledge or even with extending and refining knowledge.Ultimately, learning is about being able to use knowledge in meaningfulways.

Dimension 4, Use Knowledge Meaningfully, suggests that students can gobeyond acquiring and integrating or even extending and refining knowledge.They can gain an even greater understanding of declarative knowledge andproficiency with procedural knowledge by engaging in tasks that requirethem to use their knowledge in novel, meaningful contexts. Dimension 4tasks should be designed around one of the complex reasoning processes;These processes help students to think in ways that go beyond simple recall,recognition, or reiteration. Focusing on the reasoning process helps them toengage in thinking that results in the generation of ideas, such as decisions,solutions, and clarifications. Specifically, students should be asked to engagein the following reasoning processes: decision making, problem solving,invention, experimental inquiry, investigation, and systems analysis.


Tasks that require students to use these reasoning processes as well as theircontent knowledge often are perceived as quite challenging. For this reason,the emphasis in this dimension is not only on students’ rigorously usingknowledge but also on using this knowledge in contexts that are meaningfulto them. When students find tasks to be meaningful, they, like anyone else,are more likely to tackle the challenges presented by these tasks.

Because Dimension 3 activities also require students to engage in complexreasoning processes, it is useful to note how the Dimension 3 processes aresimilar to and different from those in Dimension 4. A major similaritybetween the processes in these dimensions is that when students use them theymust move beyond simply recalling, recognizing, or reiterating knowledge. Byvirtue of conducting a comparison, analyzing a perspective, solving a problem,or analyzing a system, for example, students are called upon to generateknowledge rather than to reproduce it. In addition, the processes in bothDimensions 3 and 4 require what many people consider to be higher levelthinking. Therefore, in some respects, the distinction between the processes inDimensions 3 and 4 is somewhat artificial; that is, all fourteen of the processesin these two dimensions could have been included in one list.

O.13Overhead

O.14Overhead


Think/Pair/Share



Dimension 4

However, there are some general differences between the processes inDimensions 3 and 4. First, the Dimension 3 processes are less cognitivelycomplex than those in Dimension 4; in other words, it takes fewer mentaloperations to complete a comparison, for example, than it does to conduct asystems analysis. Second, it usually takes less time to complete an activity ora task that is constructed around a Dimension 3 process than it does tocomplete one that is constructed around a Dimension 4 task. For example, astudent might classify items in just a few minutes, whereas he might takehours or days to invent something. Third, the Dimension 3 processes requirestudents to analyze content in some way; the Dimension 4 processes tend toprovide opportunities for students to apply knowledge of content in specificways. Finally, Dimension 4 tasks are typically more student directed thanmost Dimension 3 activities or tasks.

<If the Dimensions of Learning videotapes are available, show the tape for Dimension4, which runs about six minutes. Then ask for any other comments regarding thedifferences between Dimensions 3 and Dimension 4.>

Just as completing a task that requires students to use knowledgemeaningfully can be perceived as a major challenge, designing these tasks, orsetting up opportunities for students to design them, can pose majorchallenges to teachers. There are several points to keep in mind whenconstructing tasks designed in this dimension.

We’re going to take a few minutes to go over some suggestions forconstructing Dimension 4 tasks. Turn to page 191 in the Teacher’s Manual.Starting at the bottom of the page and continuing to the top of page 193,there are several suggestions, each preceded by a bullet. Buddy up withsomeone, divide the bulleted sections between you, read your sections, andthen share and discuss your information with your partner.

<Allow time for participants to complete the assignment. Ask for and respond toquestions and comments from the whole group.>

It is important to note that tasks that require students to use knowledgemeaningfully can be constructed with reasoning processes other than or inaddition to the Dimension 4 processes. For example, two or more Dimension3 processes may be used together in a combination task that requires studentsto do more than simply extend and refine knowledge. Take a moment toread an example of such a task on page 194.


The emphasis in the Dimensions of Learning model is not on trying todecide if a task is a Dimension 3 or a Dimension 4 task. It is on



Dimension 4


understanding that some tasks simply help students to increase theirunderstanding and some tasks require them to also use their understanding.In both situations, it is important to emphasize the thinking students aredoing. Many times, projects involve the creation of products that simplyhave students reproduce knowledge, albeit often in a creative, fancy, or evenglitzy manner. Incorporating a Dimension 4 complex reasoning process orone or more Dimension 3 processes moves the project to a completelydifferent level by requiring students to generate knowledge and apply it in ameaningful context.

Chapter 4 of the Teacher’s Manual is structured to provide you with thedirection and information needed to understand and use the identifiedcomplex reasoning processes to construct tasks that require students to useknowledge meaningfully. For each of the six reasoning processes, thefollowing organizational format is used.

<Put up Overhead 4.0A. If participants have already studied Dimension 3, pointout that this is exactly the same format as for each of the reasoning processes inDimension 3. If this is the first set of reasoning processes they have studied, you willneed to explain the following.>

On page 193, you will find an explanation of Roman numeral 2, the fivesections that are included for each reasoning process. Take a couple of minutesto scan through these reasoning processes in the Teacher’s Manual so that youare familiar with the format. Please notice that for each process, you will findin section 2 a set of steps for the process, followed by a version of the samesteps in simplified language. This simpler version is often used with youngerstudents or with students who are just beginning to learn the process.


Closure

4.0AOverhead



Dimension 4


Decision Making

I am going to present you with a decision that I want you to make fairlyquickly. You are going on a vacation at your own expense. You must selectone of the following:

• two weeks in London for $4,000

• two weeks in Hawaii for $2,000

• two weeks in a cabin in the Adirondacks for $700

<Allow a few moments for participants to decide, and then ask how many selectedeach alternative. Ask individuals why they chose what they did. As they answer,identify the criteria implied in what they say. For example, if they say they choseHawaii because of the sunshine, then an important criterion for them is “warm, mildweather.” If they chose London because they want to attend plays, then “culturalactivities” is probably an important criterion, whereas “money” probably is not.>

What you have just done is use a decision-making process. For some of you,this may have been a fairly easy decision because one of the choices seemedfar superior to you than any of the other choices. For others, it may havebeen a more difficult decision because all of the choices were equallyappealing or unappealing. In either case, most of you probably did not give agreat deal of thought to the criteria you would use to make the decisionbecause you realized that this decision was being made only to make a point;it wasn’t going to lead to your going on that trip. Certainly, the importanceof the decision and the degree to which the choices are equal affects the rigorwith which we approach the decision-making process.

When used to construct meaningful use tasks, the process of decisionmaking requires a great deal of rigor and thought. Decision making isdefined as the process of generating and applying criteria to select fromamong seemingly equal alternatives. Stated more simply, it is the process ofdeveloping and using criteria to select from choices that seem to be equal.

On pages 196 and 197 of the Teacher’s Manual is an explicit model of thesteps involved in the decision-making process.


<Allow participants time to read through the steps in the process.>

Notice the level of rigor required for students to engage in this process.When considering seemingly equal choices, they must clearly define thecriteria they consider to be important and then apply those criteria to

Individual Task

4.1A 4.1BOverheads

Decision Making




Dimension 4

alternatives in order to make a selection. It is a more methodical and rigorousprocess than the one you probably used to determine which trip to take.

To teach students this process, introduce the process to them bydemonstrating each step, perhaps as a think aloud. Select a decision-makingsituation that uses fairly simple content knowledge or a real-life situation,like deciding what car you should purchase. This modeling experienceshould involve the use of a matrix to help students organize the largeamount of information needed to generate criteria and alternatives and toapply each criterion to each alternative.


<Just for fun, you might use the blank matrix to do the following activity. Tellparticipants that you are going to give an award for the best participant in theworkshop due to the extensive and critical nature of the information being discussed.Have them determine criteria they think you should use to select the winner of thisaward. After participants have had a few minutes to generate criteria, compare theircriteria with criteria such as

• the number of treats the participant brings and the quality of those treats;

• the degree to which the participant takes care of your wants and needs;

• the frequency with which the participant smiles and exhibits positive bodylanguage; and

• the extent to which the participant agrees with what you are presenting andtries to convince others around them that you are one of the best, mostintelligent presenters he or she has encountered.

Help participants to see that generating criteria has a profound effect on the outcome ofthe decision-making process and that changing criteria can lead to different choices.>

Now let’s go through an entire example together, using each step of theprocess.

<Fill out the matrix on Overhead 4.1C as you walk participants through the process.The following car example works. However, if you have a personal example, feel freeto substitute your own.>

4.1COverhead

Decision Making




Dimension 4

Decision Making

Suppose I am trying to decide which car to buy. I have narrowed my choicesto four:

• the Kia

• the Saturn

• the Explorer

• the Lexus

<Acknowledge that these alternatives aren’t equal; they are being used to clearlydemonstrate the process.>

Next, I determine the criteria I want to consider in this decision. I include

• cost

• mileage

• safety

• roominess

• style

But these criteria are much too vague. In other words, I have not defined mycriteria very well. What exactly do I mean by “cost”? Vague, ill-definedcriteria are often the reason people have trouble making clear decisions. Thefirst key point, on page 200, talks about the importance of clear, precisecriteria. Take a minute to quickly skim Key Point 1.


Now let’s go back and better define my criteria.

By “cost” I mean the car must cost under $15,000. By “mileage” I mean itmust get approximately 15 miles per gallon in the city.

<Continue defining criteria, letting participants contribute.>

Now I can assign each criterion an importance score, using a scale of 1-3. Imight assign cost and safety a score of 3, meaning they’re very important,mileage and roominess a 2, and style a 1.

<Place importance scores beside the criteria on Overhead 4.1C. Acknowledge that thevalue scores could be the same for two alternatives but are different here to clearlydemonstrate the process.>

Next, I determine the degree to which each alternative possesses each criterion.On a scale of 0 to 3, to what degree does the Kia meet the cost criterion?

4.1DOverhead




Dimension 4

Decision Making

I decide that because the Kia is fairly inexpensive, it gets a 3. The Saturn alsogets a 3, the Explorer a 1, and the Lexus a 0. When I finish filling out all thecells, I multiply the two numbers in each cell and add up the column totals.

<Continue to fill out the cells. When you have finished, do the necessary calculationsto determine which alternative has the highest point score.>

But something doesn’t feel right to me; I’m disappointed. This is probably anindication that I should go back through the process and make some changes.I might add or change criteria or I might reassign importance scores.

Some people, when they reach this last step, say, “Why bother goingthrough this whole process if you’re just going to decide using your initialintuition?” But it is this last step that makes the process particularlypowerful because it combines the rational with the intuitive. If the decisiondoesn’t feel right, I use that information to push myself to further examinemy criteria and their relative importance. What sometimes happens, if Istick with the process, is that I discover a criterion that is really importantbut has not been identified or articulated. Once it is added to the matrix andgiven its appropriate importance, I redo the process and come to a decisionthat feels right and takes into account what I know is important.

You can see that the decision making matrix can guide you through thesteps of the process. However, some teachers report that students can beginto have the misperception that decision making is a process of filling out amatrix. Take a minute to read the second key point (on page 201), whichdiscusses the use of the matrix.

Alternatives

Criteria Kia Saturn Explorer Lexus

cost (3) 3 × 3 9 3 × 3 9 3 × 1 3 3 × 0 0

mileage (2) 2 × 3 6 2 × 3 6 2 × 1 2 2 × 2 4

safety (3) 3 × 1 3 3 × 2 6 3 × 3 9 3 × 3 9

roominess (2) 2 × 1 2 2 × 2 4 2 × 3 6 2 × 3 6

style (1) 1 × 1 1 1 × 2 2 1 × 2 2 1 × 3 3

TOTALS 21 27 22 22




Dimension 4

Decision Making

<Put up Overhead 4.1D again. Allow time for reading.>

Although you can see how the matrix can guide students through the steps, itis critical that as you monitor their work, you reinforce the idea that decisionmaking is a process, not just an exercise of putting numbers into boxes.

It is relatively easy at first to provide students with opportunities to practiceusing this decision-making process. Just select decisions students might makeabout familiar things, such as choosing a pet, a vacation destination, acollege, or a career. Practicing with information with which students arefamiliar allows them to concentrate on the process itself. Then, as theybecome more familiar with the process, they can begin to use it in themeaningful use of academic content knowledge. An example of such a task, inthink-aloud form, may be found on pages 197-200 in the Teacher’s Manual.

There are several suggestions under the final key point (on pages 201 and202) for using the process of decision making to enhance student learning.Take a minute to read these bulleted suggestions on pages 201 and 202.

<Put up Overhead 4.1D again. Allow time for reading.>

Obviously, engaging in the process (rather than simply seeing it modeled) isa more meaningful experience. Pretend that you are in my social studies classand that we are in the middle of a unit about the 1960s. In this unit, Imight ask you to engage in the following decision-making task.

<Put up Overhead 4.1E (with “Person of the Decade” task). Have participants breakinto small groups.>

Take a minute to form groups of three or four with those around you. Thenin your small groups, follow the steps of the decision-making process, andperform this decision-making task. Be ready to report on

• the criteria you used and the importance scores you applied to each,

• the individuals you considered and the extent to which they metyour criteria, and

• your final selection.

<Allow 10 to 15 minutes for groups to complete the task. During this period, try tointeract with each group, asking at least one content-related question and one process-related question. For example, “How did you decide which individuals to includeamong your alternatives?”, “Why did you include ____?”, and “What happenswhen your criteria are not clearly defined?” Your goal is to model the kinds ofinteractions that should be in the classroom. In addition, listen for examples ofparticipants engaging in meaningful discussions about the content. You can share theseexamples later with the entire group.


4.1DOverhead

4.1DOverhead

4.1EOverhead





Dimension 4

Decision Making

If participants have already studied Habits of Mind (Dimension 5), you may wish toappoint a “process observer” for each group. (See Strategy 4 in Dimension 5 of theTeacher’s Manual, page 269.) Process observers should be called aside as a group andasked to observe participants’ use of specific habits of mind, such as maintaining anopen mind or being clear and seeking clarity. Explain that you will ask them to reporttheir observations later when Dimension 5 is discussed.

When the task is completed, ask several people to report on their alternatives, criteria,and final selections. Encourage dialogue among the groups about their selections.>

What did you learn about the 1960s as a result of doing this activity? Whatevidence is there that this activity encourages the meaningful use ofknowledge?

<Target answers: Evidence might include statements like the following: Thediscussions in the group reflected an in-depth understanding of the content. Groupmembers often took ownership of their selections and freely defended their ideas indiscussions. The criteria that were selected demonstrate what people value in terms ofthe decision. In addition, because people value different things, they may makedifferent decisions; however, they all may be good decisions if they were based on thecriteria that were identified.>

As students become more comfortable with the decision-making process,encourage them to construct their own tasks around the process relative tothe content knowledge they are learning. Give them direction, asappropriate, about how to do this.

On page 203 there are several suggestions for helping students to constructtheir own decision-making tasks. As you read this information, keep inmind the 1960s decision-making task you just completed. Would youconsider it to be more student structured or more teacher structured asdefined in the reading? Discuss this with your partner. Be ready to supportyour answer with what you’ve learned about each type of task.

<Give participants a few minutes to read and discuss. Then take two or threeresponses from the large group. Participants’ answers should reflect the information inthe reading. The 1960s task was more student structured because, although you gavethem the decision question, they selected criteria and choices, etc.>

There are three examples of Dimension 4 decision-making tasks on page 204of the Teacher’s Manual. Read the examples, and then create a decision-making task for a current, past, or future unit of study. Be sure that yourtask provides students with the opportunity to use important contentknowledge in a way that will be meaningful to them.

Think/Pair/Share

Individual Task


Closure



<Give participants time to complete this assignment. Then have several people sharetheir examples with the large group.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of decision making. See page 9 for explanations of eachof these formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Problem Solving

Now we’re going to do some problem solving, another way to useknowledge meaningfully. First, form groups of three or four with thosearound you. In your groups, make a paper airplane. You must

• use exactly one-half sheet of 8 1/2” x 11” paper and no other materials;

• make four folds, no more, no fewer; and

• make sure your airplane can fly at least ten feet.

<Allow time for participants to solve the problem. Circulate to identify examples ofgroups using the steps of the problem-solving process. At the end of the time you haveallotted, determine who was successful; perhaps announce a winner based on design ordistance criteria.

A similar task is used to introduce invention. You may want to divide your group inhalf and give each side one of the tasks, either the problem-solving version or theinvention version. This is a good way to discuss the differences between the processes ofproblem solving and invention.>


Take a moment to examine the steps involved in the problem-solving processand to determine the extent to which you followed the steps as your groupsolved the airplane problem. Are there any steps that you left out? Whatmight have been different if you had included those steps?

<Ask groups to share their conclusions. You might point out behaviors that illustrateproblem-solving strategies that you observed as you circulated during the airplaneactivity.>

When people solve problems, they must use their knowledge in very specificways. The problem you just solved is similar to problems provided forstudents participating in the Odyssey of the Mind program, a national,competitive problem-solving program. Unfortunately, experiences with



Dimension 4

4.2A 4.2BOverheads

Problem Solving




Dimension 4

Problem Solving

programs like this are often limited to a few students, frequently those whohave been identified as gifted and talented. This is unfortunate because mostpeople believe that all students should learn to be good problem solvers.

The term problem solving is used in many different ways. In fact, students, aswell as teachers, frequently refer to any difficult task as a “problem-solvingtask.” Because some difficult tasks require using the processes of decisionmaking or experimental inquiry, referring to them as “problem-solvingtasks” does not guide students to a process that will help them completethese tasks. In the Dimensions of Learning model, the term problem solving isonly used to refer to a process that helps students with tasks that requirethem to solve unstructured problems. This means that students are trying toovercome a constraint or limiting condition in order to achieve a goal. Take afew minutes to read the introduction to problem solving on pages 205 and206. Pay particular attention to the descriptions of structured andunstructured problems. Be ready to distinguish between the two types andto discuss the type focused on in Dimensions of Learning.


Now, get a partner. Together discuss the definitions of structured andunstructured problems and the difference between them. As you should dowhen crafting any good definition, do not use the terms themselves (i.e., thewords structured or unstructured) in your explanation. Then, create an exampleof each type of problem. Finally, discuss the type of problem—unstructuredproblems—that is the focus of the process of problem solving as defined inthe Dimensions of Learning model.

<Allow time for discussion, and then ask for responses from the group.>

As explained, one important characteristic of an unstructured problem is thatit involves a constraint or limiting condition. In the task you just finished(discussing structured and unstructured problems), I put a constraint on yourdiscussion of the two types of problems: You could not use the termsunstructured or structured. In effect, I created a problem-solving task.

How did having to overcome the constraint (not using the words structuredor unstructured) affect your use of knowledge, in this case your knowledge ofthe types of problems?

<Target answer: The constraint forced them to define the two types of problems byusing language that explained the terms unstructured and structured. Participantshad to use precise language to explain exactly what these terms mean. If they did notunderstand the terms, they probably struggled with this task.>






Problem solving, then, as defined in Dimensions of Learning, is the processof overcoming constraints or limiting conditions that are in the way ofpursuing goals. Stated more simply, it is the process of overcoming limits orbarriers that are in the way of reaching goals.

<Put up Overheads 4.2A and/or 4.2B again.>

Students should be introduced to the steps in the problem-solving processwith a demonstration of how they might use the steps as they go throughthe process. Let me model what that might look like.

<You might choose to model this process using the example found on page 208 in themanual or using your own content-area example. In either case, use a think-aloud tohelp participants understand the thinking involved in the process. Ask participants toengage in the demonstration as if they were students.>


What I’d like you to do next is to use the demonstration we just wentthrough to create and fill in a graphic organizer like this one, which can alsobe found on page 211. You may work together with one or two other people.

<Allow time for this activity. Have one or two groups put their graphic organizers ontransparencies and share them with the group.>

After introducing the problem-solving process to students and presenting themwith the model, give them opportunities to observe others engaged in problemsolving and to practice and reflect on their own experiences solving problems incontent-related situations. Let’s spend a little time right now practicing someproblem solving. Try to be aware of yourself as a problem solver as you attemptone of the problems I’m about to give you. Be ready to reflect on the aspects ofproblem solving that are easiest or most difficult for you.

You may work with a partner, by yourself, or in small groups. First, read thethree classroom examples on page 213. Because the third example poses aproblem that would be difficult to solve in this workshop setting, select oneof the first two and begin to solve the problem described.

<Give participants time to solve their problems and to share their solutions betweengroups or with the entire group. Then ask them to share within their groups thosethings they noticed about themselves as problem solvers. What was difficult? Easy?What other things did they notice?>

Let’s look at the key points related to problem solving on pages 209 and 210and apply them to the problems you just solved.



Dimension 4

Problem Solving

4.2A 4.2BOverheads

4.2COverhead




Dimension 4

Problem Solving


The first key point discusses the importance of step one of the process:identifying the goal you are trying to accomplish. In the problems you werejust solving, the goal was provided for you. It is not unusual for the goal tobe defined when a problem is presented in the classroom. However, in real-life situations, defining the goal is critical.

If you are part of a school district that is dealing with parents who arecomplaining about test scores, but, in a time of budget cuts, you can’t spendany additional funds to address this issue, you clearly have a problem. Thereare at least two ways of defining the goal. What are they?

<One goal: Raise test scores. Another goal: Stop the complaining.>

Notice that the way you define the goal will provide direction for theremainder of the problem-solving process. It is important for students tohave opportunities to engage in problem-solving tasks in which the goal isnot provided so that they can practice this step of the process.

Read the second key point on page 209.


As you were solving the problems from the classroom examples, to whatextent did you carefully examine the constraints or limiting conditionsbefore generating alternatives? Discuss this with your group.

<Allow time for discussion.>

The third key point explains that when solving a problem, you may have toshift to the processes of decision making or invention. If, for example, youcan’t decide which alternative to try, you may need to engage in decisionmaking. If you are unable to generate a good alternative solution to yourproblem, you may have to invent one. As you can see, as students becomefamiliar with using each reasoning process, there are ever-increasingopportunities for them to use knowledge meaningfully.

The final key point emphasizes the importance of students understandingthat the process of problem solving should be used to help them find the bestsolution, not just a solution. Reflect once more on the problems you weresolving earlier. If you were using these problems in the classroom, howmight you encourage students to search for the best solution (as opposed tojust “getting the assignment done”)? Discuss this in your group, and beready to share your ideas.




4.2DOverhead



Closure

<Allow time for discussion and sharing.>

Assuming you have taught and reinforced the problem-solving process, oneof your biggest challenges will be setting up problems around content. Takea few minutes to read the section in the Teacher’s Manual on teacher-structured and student-structured tasks (pages 211-213) and to quickly scanthe classroom examples on page 213.


Working with a partner or in small groups with those around you, constructa teacher-structured problem-solving task that you might use in a particularcontent area. Be sure to consider the steps in the process as you construct thetask. Keep in mind that you need a clear idea of the content knowledge thatyou would like students to meaningfully use and a clear idea of how theproblem solving-process will help them use that knowledge.

<Allow participants time to construct their problem-solving tasks. Then have eachgroup share its task with another group. Ask the other group to first consider thedegree to which the task requires students to engage in the steps of the process and tomeaningfully use the identified content knowledge and then to give feedback to thegroup that created the task. You might want to ask one or two of the groups to sharetheir tasks with the group. Point out the strengths and weaknesses of the tasks, andsuggest revisions as necessary.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of problem solving. See page 9 for explanations of eachof these formats for completing this portion of the training.>



Dimension 4

Problem Solving






Dimension 4

Invention

Invention

We are now going to spend some time looking at the process of invention.As we will discuss a little later, not all inventions are successful.

<Put up Overhead 4.3A (Goggles for Fowls). This is a humorous way to start thissection.>

Find a partner, or get into small groups with a few other people. I am goingto provide you with paper, paper clips, rubber bands, and tape <or any othermaterial you would like to make available>. I’d like each pair or group to inventa paper airplane that is better in some way than the typical paper airplane.Before you construct this airplane, set a standard that you will work toward.In other words, specify how it will be better than the typical paper airplane.Will it look better? Will it be able to fly farther? Turn at certain angles?Carry cargo?

<Allow some time for participants to complete and then to share their inventions. Ifthey have previously done the problem-solving paper-airplane activity, discuss thedifferences between problem solving and invention. Then have participants read themiddle paragraph on page 214 in the Teacher’s Manual as well as the last twoparagraphs on page 215. The differences between problem solving and invention arediscussed on these pages.>

Invention is the process of developing unique products or processes thatfulfill a perceived need. The invention might be a procedure, a product, aspeech, a game, a campaign, a machine, or a show. Whatever is beinginvented, the process of creating includes the following steps.


Successfully completing this process requires a major commitment to a task.The U.S. Patent Office has expressed the concern at times that fewer andfewer people are willing to make such a commitment, as evidenced by thedecreasing number of patent applications.

<You might ask participants to speculate on how complex a patent application mightbe for an invention like the FAX machine or another technological breakthrough.>

Have you ever seen an invention that is incredibly successful and lucrativefor the inventor and thought to yourself, “I had that idea a long time ago,”“Why didn’t I think of that?”, or “I can’t believe that’s popular.”

Try to think of something you would like to invent or create. If it helps,complete one of these sentence stems.

4.3AOverhead

4.3B 4.3COverheads

Individual Task


<Write the following on a blank overhead:

I wish I could think of a new way to __________________________.

I would really like to create a new __________ that would ________.

Give participants time to generate ideas. Ask several people to share their ideas.>

Even when people have good ideas, they often do not follow through onthem. On the other hand, some people do follow through and createsomething new but then find that their invention is a flop. Consider thesesituations in which new products or procedures were created but failed togain popularity.

<Show top half of Overhead 4.3D. Give participants the handouts entitled “TheBetter Mousetrap” and “Improvement in Fire Escapes.”>

In small groups, discuss the three inventions that didn’t make it in light ofthe steps in the invention process.

<Have participants pair up, and provide some time for them to interact, but do notask for conclusions yet.>

Now, use the model for the invention process to analyze the three inventionsthat did make it.

<Show bottom half of Overhead 4.3D.>

What conclusions can you draw from these analyses?

<After participants have shared ideas related to the inventions on Overhead 4.3D,make the following general points about failed inventions, if they have not been made.>

1. Inventors may identify what they want to improve but don’t stop todetermine what their goal or purpose is. Identifying the goal orpurpose—the first phase of the invention process—is importantbecause it reflects an understanding of the situation that created theneed for the invention in the first place. Without this knowledge,the invention might be unique but may fail to meet the perceivedneed or fail to improve the situation for which it was created.

2. Ideas also may fail either because the identified need was vague orinaccurate or because the inventor did not continually revise andpolish it to make it meet the identified standards. In some cases, theinventor identified no standards or poor standards, and, therefore, thefinal steps did not produce the best invention.



Dimension 4

Invention



4.3DOverhead

4.3DOverhead





Dimension 4

Invention

3. Finally, inventors might not attend to step 5, which asks them to beflexible in looking for alternatives and to revise the standards asnecessary.

Coming up with invention tasks is sometimes difficult. Although theTeacher’s Manual does not really provide suggestions for coming up withideas for invention tasks, let’s look at one powerful way to do this. One wayto stimulate ideas for student invention tasks and to stimulate students’thinking about potential invention ideas is to use analogical reasoning.Using analogies to come up with ideas for inventions might look like this.

<Write the following on a blank overhead:

I would like to invent something for____ that would do what _________did for _________. For example, I would like to create a television showfor opera that would do what MTV did for modern music or what AMCdid for old movies.>

When applied to content, analogical reasoning can help teachers andstudents generate ideas for invention tasks. Here are some more examples.


To develop a better sense of the steps in the invention process, we’re going tobreak into small groups for the next 10 minutes and engage in the process ofinvention. Take a look at the suggestions on this overhead.


Before working on the task, read the key points on pages 218-219 in theTeacher’s Manual.


Let’s go over these points together briefly.


Each of these points reminds the teacher that students often want to jump inright away and start making their invention. It is important to monitorthem carefully to ensure that the invention process not only results insomething useful and creative, but that it also encourages students to useknowledge meaningfully.

<Put up Overhead 4.3F again.>

Now let’s go back to our task. Select one of the tasks, and, keeping in mindthe key points, start to move through the steps of the invention process. Getas far as you can in 10 minutes. Use the graphic organizer on page 219 torepresent the invention process that you are engaged in.

4.3EOverhead

4.3FOverhead

4.3FOverhead

4.3GOverhead



Individual Task


Closure


<Have participants form small groups. Allow 10 minutes for groups to work on theirinventions. Circulate and listen for evidence that participants are using theirknowledge meaningfully. Ask several groups to share their graphic organizers and thethinking they did as they used the steps of the process.

You may want to assign each group a process observer who should be ready to give themembers of his or her group feedback on how well they exhibited specific habits ofmind, such as generating new ways of viewing situations that are outside theboundaries of standard convention, or generating and maintaining their ownstandards of evaluation.>

What did you learn, discover, or think about the topic you chose as a resultof engaging in this activity? What evidence was there that you were usingknowledge meaningfully? Knowledge about what?

<As participants share, describe what you noticed as you circulated.>

Let’s take a few minutes to think about and begin to create an invention taskthat you might use in your classroom. First, take a few minutes to read theteacher-structured and student-structured section on pages 220-221 of theTeacher’s Manual. Then, select one classroom example to read. Using theinformation you have read, begin to construct an invention task you mightbe able to use in the classroom.

Remember that the purpose here is for students to use knowledgemeaningfully. Make sure to clearly identify what knowledge is being used inthe invention task. As students work, you will want to hold themaccountable for two things: their use of the invention process and their levelof understanding of the knowledge they are using. This second part will beweak if you and your students do not know what knowledge is being used.When the knowledge piece is missing, students may work harder oncreating a “pretty project” than on using their knowledge.

<Have group members share their invention tasks by identifying the knowledgestudents would be using and then explaining the task. Ask for any new insights orunderstandings they might have had regarding the invention process as they worked onthese tasks.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of invention. See page 9 for explanations of each of theseformats for completing this portion of the training.>



Dimension 4

Invention

4.3HOverhead




Dimension 4

Experimental Inquiry


Experimental inquiry is the process of generating and testing explanations ofobserved phenomena. Stated more simply, it is the process of developing andtesting explanations of things we observe. Experimental inquiry is oftenassociated with science, specifically the scientific process or method.However, the steps involved in this process can be applied to any contentarea and can be useful to anyone, not just scientists and researchers. Beforewe explore some examples, let’s examine the steps of the process.

<Read through the steps with participants. Use Overheads 4.4A and 4.4B, or seepage 226 of the Teacher’s Manual.>

A real-life example might make these steps seem more familiar to you.Consider a mother observing the behavior of her two-year-old son.

<Put up Overhead 4.4C. Relate the elements of the example to the steps of the process.>

At a certain level, even young children engage in experimental inquiry. Theywonder why, they hypothesize, they test, they regroup and try somethingelse. For example, they may wonder why their toy doesn’t work and think tothemselves, “Maybe it’s the batteries. I’ll turn the batteries around and try itagain. . . . Nope, it still doesn’t work. Maybe it’s because. . . .” In essence,these children—and all who engage in the process of experimental inquiry—are trying to address the questions identified in the simplified version of thisprocess.

In a science classroom, there are obvious opportunities for teaching theprocess of experimental inquiry and for explicitly applying it to content.What are some science-related examples that you have seen or used?

<Take examples from the group.>

Experimental inquiry is less commonly used in other subject areas within theliberal arts, fine arts, or the humanities. This is unfortunate because the sameprocess that is applied to physical phenomena in the sciences can be appliedto psychological phenomena related to a wide variety of content areas. Forexample, by conducting an experimental inquiry, students can attempt toexplain why people react to specific pieces of literature, art, or music.

As explained on page 225 of the manual, when introducing experimentalinquiry to students, that is, before you even introduce the steps, you mightconduct an actual experiment or discuss an example of a famous experiment.Then ask students to think of examples of famous or important experimentsand to discuss how people’s lives have been impacted by these experiments

4.4COverhead

4.4A 4.4BOverheads


and by experiment inquiry in general. As you go through your example oran example offered by a student, help students to identify what they thinkare the key aspects of the experimental inquiry process. Guide them to theawareness that the process involves answering the four basic questions: Whatdo I observe? How can I explain what I observe? What do I predict based onmy explanations? How can I test my predictions?

In order for students to engage in experimental inquiry tasks, they need amodel of the steps of the process and opportunities to practice each step.

<Put up Overhead 4.4A or 4.4B again. You may use the original language orsimplified language, as you choose. If you are using two overhead projectors, you maywant to put up both versions.>

It is important when illustrating the steps to demonstrate each oneconcretely. The think-aloud on pages 226 and 227 provides an example ofhow you might do this. Take a couple of minutes to read it. Notice how theteacher models the steps of the process in a very concrete way.

<Allow time for reading. Optional: Rather than having participants read the think-aloud, you might perform the same experimental inquiry task, doing the think-aloudyourself as you go through the steps of the process.>

Let’s review the steps of the process again. As we do this, I will discuss eachof the key points about experimental inquiry. These can be found on pages228-229.


The first step of experimental inquiry—“Observe something that interestsyou, and describe what has occurred.” or “What do I see or notice?”—implies that someone engaged in asking this question has observedsomething that has piqued his or her interest or curiosity or that isinherently meaningful to him or her. Key Point 1 emphasizes that it isimportant for students to be interested in the phenomenon that they areexploring. In fact, this first step of experimental inquiry highlights theintent of all Dimension 4 tasks: that students use knowledge in ways thatare meaningful to them.

To help students with this first step, teachers who have used theexperimental inquiry process report that it is important to help studentsbecome better observers and to encourage them to wonder. As a result,students begin to notice and wonder about things that they might like toexplore through experimental inquiry.



Dimension 4


4.4DOverhead

4.4A 4.4BOverheads




Dimension 4


Take a couple of minutes to think about what makes you wonder. In otherwords, try to think of things you might like to explore throughexperimental inquiry. For example, I wonder why people don’t exercise, whypeople get sick at high altitudes, and why so few people read Shakespeare.

<Allow time for participants to identify examples, and then have them share theirexamples with the group.>

Students initially enjoy the second step of the experimental inquiry processbecause trying to explain the reason for what they have observed can seem abit like a guessing game. They soon realize, however, that to conduct aneffective inquiry, they must slow down and think, rather than guess orthoughtlessly make up explanations. In order to be successful, students mustbring with them an understanding of the concepts, generalizations, andprinciples that could help them explain the phenomenon. In fact, this is thepoint in the process that they use what they have previously learned in orderto understand an observed phenomenon. In the think-aloud you read in theTeacher’s Manual (about the feather and rock), what knowledge would studentsneed to use to try to explain why the rock fell faster than the feather? KeyPoint 2 discusses the necessity of providing opportunities for students to learnthe knowledge they will be asked to use in the experimental inquiry.

Similarly, students often find that generating a hypothesis or prediction isfairly simple (step 3) but that setting up an activity or an experiment to testit (step 4) can be quite challenging. Step 4 requires a great deal of modelingand guidance in how to set up an experiment.

The final step in the experimental inquiry process, step 5, reinforces the ideathat invalidating your hypothesis can be as enlightening as finding supportfor it. Key Point 4 discusses the importance of students understanding theinteractive nature of the steps of the experimental inquiry process; that is, ifthe results of an experiment indicate that their explanation of thephenomenon was incorrect, they must go back and either try to set upadditional experiments or, perhaps, go all the way back to step 2 andconsider different explanations.

Let’s take some time now to practice the experimental inquiry process. Pretendwe are in a social studies class and that we are in the middle of our 1960s unit.Get into groups of three or four, and read over these experimental inquiry tasks.


In your groups, select one of the two tasks, state your hypothesis, and beready to describe the experiment you would set up to test your hypothesis.See if you can use the graphic organizer on page 229 to help you organizeyour ideas.



4.4EOverhead


<Put up Overhead 4.4F. Allow time for groups to work, about 5-10 minutes. Circulateand note the kinds of discussions that are occurring, looking for specific indications thatparticipants are using their knowledge meaningfully. To help in debriefing, thefollowing is an example of an experiment participants might create for Task 1:

You might be examining the phenomenon that the experiences people hadin the ’60’s seemingly have little effect on them today. But you know thepsychological theories that explain how people’s earlier experiences canaffect them later but that the effect might be subtle or hidden. If that istrue, then you should be able to determine that if people had significantexperiences in the ’60’s that these experiences will somehow connect totheir belief systems today. So you set up an activity to determine if thereis such a connection. You decide to survey people who are in their 50s,asking them two sets of questions. They do not put their names on thesurveys. One set of questions has them rate the degree to which theyparticipated in the “1960s” culture of hippies, protests, peace, love, androck and roll. (Some people call this the “hippie factor.”) When thesurveys are analyzed, you designate each person as “participant” or“nonparticipant” in the 1960s culture. The other set of questions askspeople to rate themselves as liberal or conservative on a specific politicalissue (e.g., capital punishment or more social welfare). You tally theresults in a matrix like the following:

If the upper left and lower right quadrants contain the largest numbers ofpeople, then there is evidence that there is a relationship between the 1960sand whether people have liberal or conservative political views today. Ofcourse, no cause-effect relationships can be established, but a direction hasbeen set for further study.

Have several groups share their own ideas from this activity. Don’t be surprised ifgroups have trouble with the task. It is complex. Their experiences should reinforce theidea that tasks for making meaningful use of knowledge are demanding.>

What did you learn as a result of doing the activity? As you worked, whatevidence was there that your group was using knowledge meaningfully?

<Have participants respond as a large group.>

Participant

Nonparticipant

Liberal Conservative



Dimension 4


4.4FOverhead





Dimension 4


As students begin to use the experimental inquiry process, give them fairlywell-structured tasks. Then, as they have practiced with structured tasks,allow them to participate in designing and structuring tasks. Even whenthey help create their own tasks, however, students need some guidance inthe process.

Now, get together in groups of three. Each of you read one of the threeclassroom examples on pages 231-232. Identify the extent to which theexperimental inquiry process was teacher structured or student structured.Then identify the knowledge that students were using in the tasks.

<Allow time.>

Each of you now share with the other two a summary of the task, youranalysis of how it was structured, and the knowledge that students werebeing asked to use. After sharing, quickly sketch out a teacher-structuredexperimental inquiry task that relates to important content that one of youteaches or has taught.

<Allow time for participants to generate examples and then to share a fewwith the whole group.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of experimental inquiry. See page 9 for explanations ofeach of these formats for completing this portion of the training.>


Closure


Investigation

What is the difference between what reporters do when they are reporting astory and what they do when they are engaged in investigative reporting?

<Ask several participants to describe differences. If the following differences are notidentified, make these points.>

Reporting a story requires gathering information from several sources andorganizing it in some cohesive way; investigative reporting involves diggingfor information and trying to resolve inconsistencies, contradictions, or otherindications that the entire truth has not been exposed. The goal ofinvestigation is to gather and use information to clear up inconsistencies andconfusions, or to uncover or generate information that is missing orotherwise unknown.

Just as reporting is different from investigative reporting, investigation isdifferent from doing an information-gathering research report.

Which of the five dimensions of learning are students using when they do aninformation-gathering research report?

<Target answer: Most students are involved primarily in acquiring and integratingknowledge (Dimension 2). They generally use several sources (e.g., two or threeencyclopedias) and select pieces of information from each. This can be a very productiveactivity, but it is frequently limited to the acquisition and integration of knowledge.>

The process of investigation requires students to go beyond the acquisitionand integration of knowledge. To understand what is required of students,read the descriptions on page 235 of the three types of investigation.


Then look at the steps of the process on page 237.


What specifically are students required to do in an investigation that theytypically are not required to do in more traditional research reports?

<Allow time for participants to read and respond. Target answers: Investigationfocuses on questions or topics for which there are no known or agreed-upon answers orexplanations.>

Students cannot simply go to a resource and find the resolution to aninvestigation topic. Instead, they must use what they have already learned



Dimension 4

Investigation




4.5AOverhead

4.5B 4.5COverheads




Dimension 4

Investigation

that is relevant to the issues they are investigating and then seek out and usea variety of resources, often primary sources, to understand the confusion orcontradiction. The process then requires them to take what they already knowand what they have learned and use this knowledge to craft a resolution tothe contradictions or confusions. Investigation requires research, as do mostresearch reports, but the process also requires students to use their thinkingabilities, often their creative thinking abilities, to provide plausibledefinitions or scenarios about which there is confusion or to provide answersto questions for which there are no known answers. To illustrate, take acouple of minutes to read the classroom examples on pages 243-245.


Now, in your groups, for each of the examples you read, describe what theassignment might have looked like if students had been asked to do a moreconventional research report related to the topic. Remember, for manyresearch topics, students are asked to look up information and present it in aparticular format, such as a written report or an oral presentation.

<Allow time for participants to do the activity and to share.>

Again, there are three types of investigation: definitional, historical, andprojective. Take a few minutes to reread the definitions of these three typeson page 235 and to skim over on pages 235-236 the suggestions for helpingstudents understand these three types.


Now, take a look at these investigation topics. See if you can identify thetype of investigation each task exemplifies: definitional, historical, orprojective. Refer to page 235 of the Teacher’s Manual if you need clarificationof the types of investigation.

<Target answers:

1. What specifically is a “cold war?” Is it anytime there is nonmilitary tensionbetween countries?

Answer: Definitional

2. How did the strange scoring system of tennis evolve?

Answer: Historical

3. How many plagues were there before the Exodus? Why do some sources referto the Red Sea and some to the Reed Sea?

Answer: Historical



4.5DOverhead


4. What would happen if we became a cashless society?

Answer: Projective

5. Was Edgar Allan Poe really a deranged alcoholic? Or was thatcharacterization created by a biographer who was jealous of him?

Answer: Historical

6. How and when did Hitler die?

Answer: Historical

7. What is the “Third World”? Is it a socioeconomic, political, cultural, orgeographical distinction?

Answer: Historical

8. What would have happened if Columbus had landed on America’s WestCoast?

Answer: Projective

9. What is cooperation? Is helping a friend with his or her homework anexample of cooperation? Is letting a friend copy your homework an example ofcooperation?

Answer: Definitional

10. What would happen if genetic engineering resulted in processes that could beused to easily clone humans?

Answer: Projective

When participants are finished, have them report to the large group.>

You may have noticed that many of the topics in the investigation examples,both on the overhead we just used and the classroom examples provided inthe Teacher’s Manual, are appropriate for upper elementary and secondarystudents. Of all of the reasoning processes in Dimensions 3 and 4,investigation is probably the most difficult one to use with primarystudents. The ability of young students to conduct research is somewhatlimited, thus topics for investigation are limited. However, the process canbe taught to students as they seek to define concepts like friendship orcommunity or as they project into the future with ideas that start with, “Whatwould happen if…?”

The challenge of identifying topics for investigation—whether identified bythe teacher or by students—is the focus of the first key point in this process.These key points are described on pages 239-240.



Dimension 4

Investigation




Dimension 4

Investigation


Again, as explained in the first key point for this process, recognizing topicsfor investigation may be somewhat difficult because we are not accustomedto looking for confusions or contradictions in our content areas. Teachershave reported that it takes some practice to become aware of topics aboutwhich there are such inconsistencies. The practice is worthwhile, however,because the tasks that are developed around such confusions are usuallyintriguing and motivating and provide opportunities for students to usewhat they have learned in a meaningful and interesting context.

Let’s start practicing now. Form small groups with those around you, and seeif you can identify topics about which there are confusions or contradictionsworthy of investigation. Before generating your topics, take a couple ofminutes to read strategy 1 on pages 235 and 236. This section providesquestions and sentence stems that may help your thinking.

<Allow time for participants to read and then to generate topics. This activity oftenstimulates ideas that are worth sharing with the whole group. You may want to haveparticipants simply report about their ideas or you may want them to briefly explaintheir topics on large chart paper and then post them around the room.>

Students also need to increase their awareness of possible topics forinvestigation. Of course, they first need to become familiar with the threetypes of investigation and with the steps involved in the investigationprocess. Then, as suggested in Key Point 1, ask students to suggest examplesof each type. You might begin a class list of potential investigation topics ofeach of the three types.

<Put up Overhead 4.5E again.>

The second and third key points, on page 240, discuss some challenges inteaching the process of investigation. The second key point highlights theimportant role of resources in the investigation process. You may need towork closely with media specialists so that they understand the variety ofresources students will need and then work with students to help themeffectively access and use these resources.

The third key point notes that creating their own resolutions is creative andexciting for students. However, it also presents challenges. Can you see apotential problem with this aspect of investigation? Take a few minutes todiscuss your thoughts with a partner.

<Allow participants time to read and discuss. Target answer: Some teachers may beuncomfortable with the idea that there are many possible solutions. Some students, too,want to get the right answer and do not like the fact that there may be more than one.>


Think/Pair/Share

4.5EOverhead

4.5EOverhead





The graphic organizer presented on page 241 can be helpful to students asthey present their information and resolutions. Look at the think-aloudexample about the ozone layer on pages 237 and 238. In your groups, sharewhat information you might put in each of the boxes of the graphic organizer.

<Give participants time to share.>

Again, it is important to gradually move from teacher-structured to student-structured tasks. Find a partner. A’s, read the guidelines for teacher-structuredtasks (bullets at the bottom of page 241) and the teacher-structureddemocracy task at the top of page 242. B’s, read the guidelines for student-structured tasks (bullets on page 242) and the student-structured democracytask at the bottom of page 242. When you both have finished, share yourinformation and compare the teacher-structured and student-structureddemocracy tasks. How are they similar, and how are they different?

<Give participants time to complete this activity.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of investigation. See page 9 for explanations of each ofthese formats for completing this portion of the training.>

Systems Analysis

The world that surrounds us is composed of many systems: families, theinterstate highway system, factories, schools, etc. Many of these systems arepart of even larger systems. For example, a factory might function as asystem, but, it also might be part of a larger business system that has otherparts such as a marketing department, a retail outlet, and so on. Each part ofany system is dependent on other parts; when one part changes or stopsfunctioning, other parts of the system are influenced.

Take a minute to identify other systems you encounter regularly or that youknow about.

<Have participants share examples they have identified.>

It is often said that the key to understanding the present, and even topredicting the future, is to use “systems thinking.” This means that as youanalyze any situation, you carefully attend to all of the systems that are relevantto the situation and analyze each system to try to understand the relationships



Dimension 4

System Analysis

Closure


4.5FOverhead




Dimension 4

System Analysis

among the parts within the system. If you develop an understanding of how asystem works, you will be better able to describe or predict the effect of anycourse of action on any of its parts. The ability to do this type of thinking iscalled systems analysis in the Dimensions of Learning model.

Your first goal, when using systems analysis, is to make sure that studentsunderstand what a system is. Strategy 1, on pages 247-248, suggests waysyou might introduce the concept of a system to students. This sectionmentions some software that, if available to you, provides an excellent wayto help students understand systems. However, if you are unable todemonstrate the software to your class, other suggestions are included forhelping students become aware of the systems around them.

One of these suggestions describes a simulation that you might stage in theclassroom using students to create a system. Have a few students stand in acircle, and ask each student to make a particular robot-like movement overand over. One student might turn his head, another might lift her arm,another might bend from side to side. Make sure each student’s movementdoes not influence the movement of the others. Next, give each student anew movement to perform repetitively, but make sure that the first student’smovement influences the next student’s movement and that his or hermovement, in turn, influences the next. For example, a student’s hand mightmake a circle, which knocks the arm of the next student, which spins thenext student, and so on. In effect, you are making a “human machine.” Pointout that the first series of movements is not a system because if you pull onestudent out or change a movement, the other students will not be affected;conversely, the second series of movements is a system because if you pull astudent out, the “machine” stops.

Let’s try this together now so that you will have had some practice in settingup this simulation in your classroom. Get in to groups of at least five. Youhave three or four minutes for each member to begin repeating a robot-likemovement that does not influence anyone standing near him or her. Begin.

<Allow a few minutes for participants to begin their movements.>

Stop. You have created a group that is not a system. Now, you have fiveminutes to create a human machine that is a system. Each person’smovement must affect one or more other people in the circle. I will askseveral groups to demonstrate their systems. Begin.

<Allow time for the groups to work. Then have several groups demonstrate theirsystems. As they demonstrate, remove one person or ask someone to change his or hermovement. This models what participants should do when students are creatingsimulated systems in the classroom.>




This activity helps students to have a clear image of what a system lookslike. You might then have them begin a list of systems that they understandfairly well and then have them discuss how the parts interact.


Next, introduce to students the definition and the steps of the process ofsystems analysis. Systems analysis is defined as the process of analyzing theparts of a system and the manner in which they interact. Stated more simply,it is the process of describing how the parts of a system work together. Let’slook at the steps. We will examine them together as you might do in theclassroom, by modeling with a specific example.

Let’s take a system we’re all familiar with, and see if we can use the systemsanalysis process to analyze it using what we know about this system. Howabout a school district? Step 1 of the process asks us to identify the parts ofthe system. What are the parts of a school district?

<Target answer/examples: Schools, teachers, students, the school board,administrators, transportation services, food services, etc.>

Let’s do step 2. What are the boundaries of the system? This requires us todefine the role of the system and to describe where it begins and where itends. For example, a school district includes all of the parts that worktogether to offer formal education to children within given boundaries,which are usually mandated by the state. Its physical boundaries, areas ofjurisdiction, responsibilities, and powers are fairly well delineated in statedocuments. In this way the boundaries are clear.

Some boundaries might be a little more difficult to delineate. For example, areparents part of the school system, or are they members of another system—thefamily—that can influence the school system? What do you think?

<Answers will vary.>

You can see that defining the boundaries of some systems might requirecareful analysis and that, in the end, everyone might not agree.

Step 3 asks how the parts of the system affect one another. You are familiarenough with a school district to define the roles of many of its parts, forinstance, the role of the school board, of teachers, of administrators, etc.However, even when you are familiar with a system, this can be achallenging part of the process. Take a couple of minutes to read the two keypoints for systems analysis on pages 250-251. Both key points are related tothis third step of the process. Notice the term functional relationship as it isdefined in the second key point.



Dimension 4

System Analysis

4.6A 4.6BOverheads






Dimension 4

System Analysis



With two or three people around you, describe the functional relationshipbetween at least two parts of the respiratory system. Then select at leastthree parts of a school system—whatever parts you wish—and try toverbalize the functional relationships among them. Be ready to share one ofthe relationships you defined. In addition, be ready to identify what youlearned as you engaged in this step of the process first with a physical system(the respiratory system) and then with a system involving humaninteractions.

<Allow time for groups to work, and then ask them to share their insights. Typically,they conclude that a well-defined physical system is easier to analyze than oneinvolving complex human interactions.>

Let’s move on to Step 4. You may work in small groups for this step. Step 4requires identifying the various parts of the system and, for each part,explaining what would happen if it changed or stopped working.

Let’s do this step with both of our examples: the respiratory system and aschool district. What happens if one part of the school district changes? Thepossibilities here are endless, but let’s consider it, anyway. Think of either areal situation in which you have been involved or make one up.

Describe specifically how a part of the system might change. For example,using the respiratory system, you might hypothesize a situation in which thelungs are suddenly working at only 75% capacity. Relative to a schoolsystem, you might speculate how other parts of the system would be affectedif the school board decided to meet only twice a year or if it decided that theteachers in the system no longer need to be certified. For each example,describe what and how other parts of the system would be influenced.

<Allow time for groups to work. Ask for several to share their examples aloud.>


Look at this graphic representation of a system, which is also on page 252.This visual is meant to help students create a mental picture of a system. Itcan also be used as a graphic organizer. The number of circles, of course, willbe a function of the complexity of the system. Keep in mind, however, thatif there are many interacting parts in the system being analyzed, this graphicmight begin to contain too many arrows and become too visually confusingto be of use.

4.6COverhead

4.6DOverhead




You will find a discussion of the use of teacher-structured and student-structured tasks on pages 252 and 253. Although the philosophy underlyingDimensions of Learning is to increasingly shift responsibility for thesethinking processes to students, you still might need to model the process forthem and guide them as they engage in it. When the system being analyzedis quite complex and involves human interactions, the process of systemsanalysis is challenging even to those experienced in using the process.

Systems analysis, like the other complex reasoning processes, can provide ameaningful context within which students can use what they have beenlearning by engaging in tasks that are relevant, intriguing, and authentic. Atthe same time, effective systems analysis tasks are tied strongly to contentknowledge. Turn to pages 253-254 in the Teacher’s Manual, and read theexamples provided. Notice how each example has students use contentknowledge meaningfully.

<Give participants time to read the examples.>

Let’s look at the elementary example in which students began to realize howparts of a story are a system. This strategy is sometimes called characterrelationships, but the thinking process underlying it is systems analysis.Students are trying to understand that plot, character, and setting create asystem. But characters in a story, together, are also a system. Let’s look at therelationships among the characters as depicted on page 253.


Notice that the teacher is guiding students through the first three steps ofsystems analysis. The parts of the system are identified and the relationshipsare described. Now try doing the last step of the process (as students areasked to do in this example). Change just one relationship, and then discusshow the story or plot would change. Then select a different story, and try touse the same process.


To help build your understanding of the systems analysis process, work witha partner or with two or three other people to identify systems within yourown content area or within units of study you now teach. Suggest ways ofapplying systems analysis to that content in order to help students use theirknowledge of the system in a meaningful way. Be ready to share your ideaswith the large group.

<Allow participants time to complete this task and to share their ideas. Typicallythey are astounded at how much of what they teach involves systems.>



Dimension 4

System Analysis

4.6EOverhead


<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to the process of systems analysis. See page 9 for explanations of eachof these formats for completing this portion of the training.>



<Put up Overhead 4.P1 (the major planning questions and steps).>

Planning for Dimension 4 requires asking and answering the followingoverarching question:

What will be done to help students use knowledge meaningfully?

By following the three steps outlined in the Teacher’s Manual, pages 255-259, you will answer this question. Each step requires you to answer aspecific key question or provide information. There is a place on theplanning guide to record your decisions.

<Put up Overhead 4.P2 (the filled-in planning guide as it appears on page 259).This overhead is not large enough for participants to be able to read, but putting it upcan verify for them that they are looking at the right page in their manuals. Theyshould also be able to see it well enough to see the columns that you point out as youdiscuss the steps.>

We will look at the planning guide for Dimension 4 for the sample ColoradoUnit (page 259) while considering the planning questions for this dimension.


Step 1 asks you to respond to the following question:

What knowledge will students be using meaningfully? Specifically, studentswill be demonstrating their understanding of or ability to . . .

You will notice that you are given a sentence stem to begin answering thisquestion. This stem suggests two important points to keep in mind as youare planning. First, the stem states “students will be demonstrating theirunderstanding or ability to….” This is a reminder that you might beplanning for students to use either declarative knowledge, thus requiringstudents to demonstrate their understanding of information, or procedural



Dimension 4

Planning

Closure

4.P1Overhead

4.P1Overhead

4.P2Overhead


knowledge, which requires students to demonstrate their ability to use a skillor process. It is important to be clear exactly what knowledge students willbe using as they do the task and to make sure that it is importantknowledge, whether declarative or procedural, that is worth the time thatDimension 4 tasks often take students to complete.

Second, this sentence stem reminds you that students are “demonstrating”knowledge, implying that they have had an opportunity to learn theknowledge that they are being asked to use. This emphasizes that these tasksshould not be designed as independent studies. Although students might needto do some independent research, they should have had an opportunity toacquire the understanding or ability before they are asked to use it in the task.

Take a minute to read the first column on the planning guide, page 259,that identifies the knowledge students will be using in the Dimension 4 taskfrom the Colorado Unit.



Step 2 of the planning procedure (on page 256) asks, “What reasoningprocess will students be using?” This is followed by a list of the reasoningprocesses from Dimension 4. The “other” on the list provides a place toindicate if students are being asked to use reasoning processes other thanthose identified in Dimension 4. For example, students might be doing whatis referred to on page 193 as a “combination task.” This is a task thatrequires students to use a combination (usually two) of Dimension 3reasoning processes as they complete the task.

The second step of planning suggests that students should not only be usingcontent knowledge meaningfully, they also should be “using” a reasoningprocess. We recommend that many, although not all, tasks engage studentsin these reasoning processes as a way of providing direction for the task andensuring that students are doing some type of thinking that is not at thelevel of recalling, reiterating, or otherwise reproducing knowledge.

Again, not all tasks will focus on these reasoning processes. For a furtherexplanation of when they are included, please read the two paragraphs at thebottom of page 256.


The same point was made earlier in the introduction to this dimension.When students are using procedural knowledge, such as their ability tocalculate the area of a parallelogram or to play a piano concerto, it is not



Dimension 4

Planning

4.P1Overhead


necessary to provide a focus for the task by integrating the reasoning process.Students might simply be using their ability in a meaningful context.However, sometimes even when the knowledge being used is proceduralknowledge, you might need to provide a context or purpose for the task byrequiring students to also use their ability while, for example, solving aproblem or analyzing a system. For instance, students might bedemonstrating their ability to display data on various types of graphs—procedural knowledge—but the reason they need to use this proceduralknowledge might be to make a decision.

Although designing tasks around a reasoning process is not always necessarywhen students are using procedural knowledge, when they are using theirunderstanding of important declarative knowledge, we recommend that youselect one of these reasoning processes for the focus of the task. As we haveseen, the classroom examples at the end of each section for the reasoningprocesses in the Teacher’s Manual provide models for tasks that integrate thedeclarative knowledge and the reasoning processes. When these tasks wereplanned, the teachers first identified what type of reasoning students wouldbe engaged in; then they identified what product students would create. Theemphasis then is clearly on the thinking process.

To help you with this step in the planning process, whether asking studentsto use declarative knowledge or procedural knowledge, the manual providesyou with a set of questions (on page 257) that can stimulate your thinkingand guide you as you design these Dimension 4 tasks.

<Put up Overheads 4.P3 and 4.P4 (the stimulus questions).>

When trying to come up with an idea for a task or when trying to provide afocus for an idea you already have, let the questions help you determinewhich reasoning process would be best for guiding students in using theknowledge identified in Step 1.

Notice that on the planning guide (page 259) the process of experimentalinquiry has been selected. Notice also that only one process has been selected.The steps of the selected reasoning process should guide students through thetask. Thus, we recommend that you focus on only one process (or twoprocesses from Dimension 3 if you are designing a combination task). If youanalyzed many tasks, you could identify a number of types of thinking (atleast at a surface level) that students are engaged in. However, it is best toselect the one or two that will guide them as they work. For example, as youdesign an experimental inquiry task, you might notice that students will alsobe making some inferences, which is inductive reasoning, and identifyingsome similarities and differences, which really is comparing. However, even



Dimension 4

Planning

4.P3 4.P4Overheads


though these other types of thinking are going on, we advise you to focusstudents on the steps of the reasoning process—in this case, experimentalinquiry—that will guide them through the task.


Finally, Step 3 asks you to describe the tasks that students will be doing. Atthis point, you would take your initial ideas from Steps 1 and 2, and thencreate the task that will be given to students. As you draft and revise thetask, there are several other characteristics of the task that you shouldconsider. Read the questions under Step 3 (on page 258) that will furtherguide you as you design the Dimension 4 tasks.

<Allow time for reading. Put up Overhead 4.P5 (Step 3 questions from page 258).>

The first bullet reminds us that one of the major challenges in writing thesetasks is to make sure that students are using the identified knowledge. Thinkof a time that you assigned a major project—maybe a time from yourearliest years as a teacher—and, in hindsight, you would have to say thatstudents got caught up in making the product and never really used theknowledge that you had hoped they would. For instance, they producedcolorful maps but never really used their understanding of regions. Take aminute to think back to a situation like this from your own experience, thenshare with someone at your table.

<Allow time for discussion at tables.>

Before you practice planning these types of tasks, let me make one morepoint. Notice that the second bullet provides several ideas for ways of makingsure that the task is meaningful to students. Some people may believe that inorder for tasks to be meaningful, they must mirror real life or be perceived bystudents as being relevant to their future success. Actually, students can alsoconsider a task meaningful when it stimulates them intellectually, encouragesthem to express themselves artistically, or allows them some choice andcontrol. These suggestions certainly are not the only methods of making tasksmeaningful, but remember that the goal is for tasks to be meaningful andthat meaningfulness can be achieved in a variety of ways.

<Put up Overhead 4.P2 again (the filled-in planning guide).>

Now take a minute to read the brief description of the task in column threeof the planning guide on page 259. You will notice that criteria forevaluation are not included. We will discuss these criteria when we examinethe assessment section in Chapter 6.



Dimension 4

Planning

Think/Pair/Share

4.P1Overhead

4.P5Overhead

4.P2Overhead


Look again at column one in which the knowledge that is being used isidentified. At your tables, try to generate two alternative ideas for tasks thatwould also require students to use the identified knowledge. For eachalternative, use a different reasoning process. Be ready to share.

<Allow time for participants to work in groups, then ask several people to share.>

Now let’s practice using this planning process for a unit you are planning ormight plan. First, identify some important declarative knowledge that youwant students to use meaningfully. Then select one or two complexreasoning processes, and design tasks that might help students use thatknowledge meaningfully. Be ready to share your ideas.

<Allow time for participants to plan and to share a few examples with the largegroup. Some may want to use the Dimension 4 planning guide they have been given. Itis a good idea to have some extras available to them. In order to become morecomfortable teaching these reasoning processes and using them in units, participantswill need multiple opportunities to study and to practice writing tasks. Depending onyour training schedule, allow as much time as possible for them to design tasks and toshare them with others.>




Dimension 4

Planning


Planning Activity

Closure


D i m e n s i o n 5

DIM

ENSIO

N 5



5

Dimension 5Habits Of Mind

To the Trainer

This portion of the training covers Chapter 5 of the Dimensions of LearningTeacher’s Manual. Participants should understand that in this model higherorder thinking is a characteristic of the learner, not of the task. Students’performance on any task will be influenced by certain mental habits, ordispositions, referred to here as productive habits of mind. The dispositionslisted under the categories of Critical Thinking, Creative Thinking, and Self-Regulated Thinking can be the criteria for determining if learners areengaged in higher order thinking. No matter what the task, some emphasiscan be placed on helping students to develop these habits.

The process of helping students to develop productive habits of mind maytake some time away from academic content. However, when studentsdevelop and use these habits, their learning of academic content is enhancedand they learn more efficiently and effectively. These habits are also useful inlearning situations throughout life. Productive habits of mind of the typeidentified in Dimensions of Learning are the mark of successful learners inany context.


• that higher order thinking is a characteristic of the learner, not of thetask;

• that certain mental habits—habits of mind—characterize higher orderthinking and that teachers can help students to develop these habits;



204 Trainer’s ManualHabits of Mind

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

• that productive habits of mind enhance learning of academic contentin the classroom and learning in other situations in life;

• how to help students understand the habits of mind;

• how to help students identify and develop strategies related to thehabits of mind;

• how to create a culture in the classroom and the school thatencourages the development and use of the habits of mind;

• how to provide positive reinforcement to students who exhibit thehabits of mind; and



<Put up Overhead O.15 (from Overview section).>

<If you are exploring Dimension 5 after Dimension 1, ask participants the followingquestion.>

Why do you suppose we are going to look at Dimension 5 in conjunctionwith Dimension 1?

<Target answer: Dimensions 1 and 5 are similar in that they provide a foundationor backdrop for the other dimensions, which deal specifically with content knowledge.The degree to which positive attitudes and perceptions and productive habits of mindare present influences whether learning is enhanced or hindered.>

<If the Dimensions of Learning training tapes are available, show the tape forDimension 5, which runs about nine minutes. You may choose, instead, to show thetape at the end as a summation.>

Let’s explore the habits of mind by applying them to students you have orstudents you had in the past. Identify a current or past student whom youconsider to be a successful learner. With that student in mind, review thehabits of mind on page 264 <or put up Overhead O.16 (from Overview section)>,and answer this question: Which of the habits would you say the studentexhibits? Then discuss with a partner how you think the student developedthese habits.

<Allow several minutes for reflection and paired sharing. Then take a few responsesfrom the large group. Participants probably will conclude that successful learners havemany, if not most, of the habits of mind. They also may conclude that these studentsdeveloped productive habits of mind as a result of influences at school and at home.>

Think/Pair/Share

O.15Overhead

O.16Overhead




Habits of Mind

Of course, many students develop productive mental habits as a result ofinfluences at home. However, because these habits significantly influencestudent learning, it is also important to teach and reinforce them at school.

<In place of the above activity, you might have participants work in pairs to prepareto “write a letter of recommendation” for a student to enter college. Ask them to listthe student’s characteristics that they would include in the letter and then to sharetheir list with another pair. Next, ask participants to write the name of a teacher intheir school who specifically teaches and assesses that characteristic.

Most participants will list characteristics like sticks to a task, is honest, and worksaccurately. They also typically will identify teachers who value these characteristicsbut may not be sure who teaches and assesses them. In your discussion, make the pointthat although we value these characteristics, often we do not directly teach and assessthem. Dimension 5 suggests that we should consider teaching these skills, and evenassessing them, by giving feedback and reinforcement to students who exhibit them.>

It is important to remember that although the list of mental habits on page262 is considered important in much of the educational literature, the list isnot sacred. As explained in the introduction, we encourage you to modifythe list, if necessary, to match your own perspective on mental habits. Someteachers have made changes, additions, and deletions to this list; some haveencouraged students to create their own individualized lists of importantmental habits. Further, a district may prefer teachers to use its own list ofthe characteristics of “lifelong learners” instead of the habits of mind listedin Dimensions of Learning. Recommendations in the Teacher’s Manual forhelping students to develop habits of mind also apply to these customizedindividual or district lists.

As explained in the introduction to this dimension, it should be noted thatthe word habits might be misleading. There are instances when the use of aparticular habit is critical, but there are other situations in which aparticular habit may not be appropriate or useful. For example, you probablydo not want to restrain impulsivity while brainstorming, and it could bedangerous to seek clarity if you smell smoke and someone yells “Fire!” Canyou think of other situations in which specific habits might not be useful orneeded?


To maximize the chance that all students develop productive habits of mind,we recommend that these habits be explicitly and overtly introduced,defined, taught, practiced, and reinforced. It is not enough to model themand then hope that students use them and appreciate their importance.

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5



Teaching productive habits of mind is different from teaching mathematicsor reading, both in the nature of the knowledge involved and the perceivedimportance and resulting buy-in on the part of students. Students know theymust learn to read, add, and subtract and that they will be graded on theseabilities; they even see the importance of learning them. This is notnecessarily the case with the habits of mind. Thus, the Teacher’s Manualincludes a section, which begins on page 264, on specific suggestions forhelping students to develop productive habits of mind. This section includesthe following subsections.


There is also a resource section for teachers who plan to use the specifichabits identified in Dimension 5. The section includes


• a brief explanation of each habit,

• examples of situations in which it might be beneficial to have eachhabit of mind, and

• examples of strategies recommended by people who exhibit eachhabit.

The first step in helping students to develop productive habits of mind is tohelp them “understand habits of mind” (Teacher’s Manual, page 264) and geta sense of their value or benefit. Students cannot be expected to develop thehabit of persevering, for example, if they don’t know what it means, andthey probably won’t develop the habit unless they see an advantage tohaving it.

Find a partner. Then take a couple of minutes to look over the strategies onpages 264-265 for helping students understand the habits of mind. Withyour partner, decide which of the strategies each of you will read. Then readthe strategies and share your information with your partner.

<Allow time for reading and sharing.>

These suggestions range from simply discussing the habits to havingstudents create pictures that reflect their understanding of the habits. Let’slook at how these suggestions might play out in the classroom.

One group of first-grade teachers suggested changing the language of thehabits of mind to make it simpler for young children to discuss but decidedto stick with the original language because the children could understandthe habits and liked the big words! A case in point is illustrated in this

Think/Pair/Share

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

5.1Overhead

5.2Overhead



“Happy Gram” written by a first-grader to a student teacher, Mrs.McDermott, during their class party the day the student teacher was to leave.


It is clear that the students were beginning to understand that these habitsare positive and important.

Another teacher asked students to set goals based on the list of habits and todraw pictures of what achieving those goals might look like. One example ofthese pictures is in the margin on page 265. Here are several others.

<Put up Overheads 5.4 through 5.8.>

One of the suggestions for helping students to understand the habits ofmind is to share personal anecdotes with them. This takes some planningand reflection. Let’s try it.

First, identify one of the habits in any of the categories (critical, creative, orself-regulated thinking) that is a strong one for you and that has beenbeneficial; or, identify one that is weak or missing, the absence or weaknessof which has been costly or a problem. Try to think of an example of a timeyou used the habit or would have benefited if you had. Make sure yourexample is one you would feel comfortable sharing with students. Be veryspecific. This is good practice for the classroom. Share your example withone or two other people around you.

<Share a personal example to model the activity. Allow several minutes forparticipants to read and share their examples. Ask for questions, reactions, and anexample or two.>

Once students understand the habits and have a sense of their benefit orimportance, you can begin to help them develop strategies for effectivelyusing them. The Teacher’s Manual includes several suggestions (pages 265-266) for helping students identify and develop strategies related to thehabits of mind.

One suggestion is to demonstrate a strategy by using a think-aloud. I’ll dothis now using the PMI strategy from Edward de Bono’s CoRT program.(The citation for this program is on page 266 of the Teacher’s Manual.) Thisstrategy encourages open mindedness.

PMI stands for plus, minus, and interesting. When an issue or suggestioncomes up about which you might feel close-minded, you can disciplineyourself to go through the PMI process. That is, first identify something


Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

5.3Overhead

5.4 5.5

5.75.6 5.8

Overheads

Habits of Mind



about the subject that is a “plus,” or positive idea, then something that is a“minus,” or negative idea, and then something that is “interesting” aboutthe subject. So, if I were considering, for example, the suggestion thatstudents wear school uniforms, I would do the following.

<Do a think-aloud with this issue or one that is relevant to your audience.>

“Let’s see. A ‘plus’ idea about school uniforms is that it wouldtake some of the social pressure off of students. A ‘negative’ ideaabout school uniforms is that they don’t allow students toexpress their individuality. It might be ‘interesting’ to see ifstudents would start looking for other ways to individualizetheir appearance.”

Now I’d like you to try this. Here’s a topic for you to practice with:Marriage licenses should be issued with a five-year expiration date; thelicense would have to be renewed by both parties to be valid.

<Allow a few minutes for participants to list a plus, a minus, and, finally, aninteresting idea. Elicit a few responses each for P, M, and I. Provide enough time forthis activity inasmuch as the purpose of the PMI strategy is to consider all sides longenough to generate ideas and write them down. In fact, de Bono suggests going backand allowing additional time for a second round of P, M, and I. Often the best ideascome after some reflection.>

Another recommendation is to have students share strategies that they use tofoster the habits. Sometimes this involves asking students to share theirstrategies. Other times it requires you to interact with students to help thembecome aware of strategies that they have used but may not be conscious ofusing.

For example, if you notice a student restraining herself from shouting outduring class (e.g., you see her halfway out of her seat, red in the face, lipspursed; then she suddenly sits down, relaxes, and waits for her turn beforespeaking), you might acknowledge that you noticed that she restrainedimpulsivity and ask her to reflect on the thoughts and feelings that helpedher to restrain herself in this instance. She might say that she noticed shewas out of her seat, remembered being embarrassed the last time she spokeout without thinking, and reminded herself that she had promised herself tothink before she speaks. You then might make explicit for her and for herclassmates the strategy she used: She became aware of what she was doing,recalled the negative consequences she had suffered when she did the samething in the past, and reminded herself of her decision to change thisbehavior.

Individual Task

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

Habits of Mind


209Trainer’s Manual Habits of Mind

With a partner, take a few minutes to look over the ways to help studentsidentify and develop personal strategies. These are on pages 265-266. Dividethem between you, skim them, and then share the information with yourpartner.

<Allow time for reading and sharing.>

<Put up Overhead 5.1 again.>

The third set of suggestions for helping students develop productive habitsof mind addresses the importance of creating a culture that encourages thedevelopment and use of the habits of mind. Students will not learn to plan,for example, if teachers do not give them long-term tasks. Similarly, it isunlikely that they will learn to generate new ways of viewing a situationthat are outside the boundaries of standard conventions if their teachers onlyaccept one view and one right way of doing or seeing something. Therefore,this section discusses ways in which to create a culture that nurtures andencourages the development of productive habits of mind.

Creating this kind of culture includes modeling the habits, displayingposters or other representations of them, and explicitly focusing on them inspecific units or tasks. As explained on page 267, creating this culture doesnot mean creating completely new activities. It often means simplyintegrating the habits into daily routines and activities. Three suggestionsfor doing this are provided on pages 267-268. Let’s consider each briefly.


<After you’ve reviewed Overhead 5.9, put up Overhead O.16 again. Then ask thefollowing questions and elicit responses from the whole group after each question.>

1. How does debate help students develop the critical thinking habitsof mind?

<If participants have been solving structured academic problems throughout the training,pose the following questions. If not, ask participants to solve a structured academicproblem (see Appendix B for sample problems), and then pose the questions.>

2. How does solving these kinds of problems provide opportunities forstudents to become more aware of and develop the habits of creativethinking?

3. How does having students set goals relate to the awareness anddevelopment of the mental habits that exemplify self-regulatedthinking?

<Allow time for participants to identify habits of mind from each cluster that couldbe reinforced and emphasized during these activities.>

Think/Pair/Share


Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

5.1Overhead

5.9Overhead

O.16Overhead



In addition to integrating habits into these daily routines and activities, youwill find that long-term tasks that require students to use knowledgemeaningfully, as recommended in Dimension 4, also provide opportunitiesfor reinforcing these habits of mind. When engaged in these tasks, studentshave a chance to plan, be clear, push the limits of their knowledge andabilities, use necessary resources, persevere, generate and maintain standards,and so forth.

The activities listed above (debate, solving academic problems, and settinggoals), as well as Dimension 4 tasks, are ongoing activities that can offer youopportunities to communicate to students the importance of becomingcritical, creative, and self-regulated thinkers; these activities can also givestudents opportunities to develop and practice the habits involved in eachtype of thinking. The Teacher’s Manual provides other suggestions forcreating this culture. Take a couple of minutes to scan these ideas on pages268 and 269.

<Put up Overhead 5.1 again.>

The fourth set of suggestions for helping students to develop productivehabits of mind (page 269) gives ideas for providing positive reinforcement tostudents who exhibit the habits of mind. Reinforcing the habits, whetherinformally or formally, communicates to students and parents that thesehabits are valued and important.

Reinforcement may be as informal as telling a student who asks you torepeat directions that you noticed that she sought clarity or telling a studentwho usually gives up when he doesn’t immediately get an answer that younoticed that he persevered this time. Positive reinforcement also might bemore formal.


Some districts have replaced sections of their report cards called “studyhabits” or “work habits” with sections that indicate their perceptions ofstudents’ strengths and weaknesses related to the habits of mind. Take acouple of minutes to skim the strategies on pages 269-270 for positivelyreinforcing the habits of mind.


Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

5.1Overhead

5.10Overhead


211Trainer’s Manual Habits of Mind

<Put on Overhead 5.2 again.>

A major portion of the chapter on Dimension 5 is a resource for teacherswho are using the specific habits listed in this model. This section includes

• explanations of each habit,

• examples of situations in which it might be beneficial to have eachhabit, and

• examples of strategies recommended by people who exhibit each habit.


To become familiar with this section, as well as some of the specific habits,we’re going to spend a few minutes reading and sharing about some of theinformation by using a jigsaw process.

First, get into groups of three. Within your groups, choose an A, a B, and aC. A’s will focus on critical thinking; B’s on creative thinking; and C’s onself-regulated thinking. Your job is to select one of the habits from yourcategory to major in, so to speak.


You will read (1) the explanation of that habit, (2) the examples of situationsin which it might be beneficial, (3) one or more of the strategiesrecommended by people who exhibit the habit, and (4) one or more of theclassroom examples for your category from the selection on pages 270-273.Notice how the teacher deals with the habit or habits of mind. What is yourreaction to his or her ideas? What else might be done? When everyone inyour group has finished, share the information, the classroom examples, andyour reactions to the examples. Then, if time permits, see if your group cangenerate examples of situations in which any of the habits has beenbeneficial or share strategies developed from your own experiences.

What comments or questions do you have about Dimension 5 or about thissection of the manual?

<Allow about 15-20 minutes for the jigsaw and any comments or questions from thelarge group following the jigsaw.>

Jigsaw

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

5.2Overhead

5.11Overhead

5.12Overhead


212 Trainer’s ManualPlanning



As with the other four dimensions, if you don’t consider the habits of mindduring planning, you often unwittingly leave them out of students’experiences. Planning for Dimension 5 requires asking and answering thefollowing question:

What will be done to help students develop productive habits ofmind?


In order to answer this question, a step-by-step process is provided on pages298-302 in the Teacher’s Manual. Each step requires you to answer a keyquestion or provide information, which is then recorded on the Dimension 5planning guide. Let’s look at the Dimension 5 planning guide for the sampleColorado Unit on page 302.


Step 1 asks you whether there are any goals or concerns related to students’habits of mind in general or related to the specific unit being planned.During planning, you would note any general or specific concerns in the firstcolumn. Take a couple of minutes to look at the entries in the first columnon page 302.

<Allow time for participants to study the planning guide.>

The next question, which has two parts to it, asks what will be done toaddress the identified goals or concerns. The first part of this question relatesto the productive habits of mind and asks whether anything will be done tohelp students develop any of the specific habits of mind under critical,creative, and self-regulated thinking. Again, look at the planning guide onpage 302, and note what has been checked and how it relates to the goalsand concerns.


The second part of the second question asks you to describe what will bedone. Read the descriptions on the Colorado planning guide.

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5

5.P1Overhead

5.P2Overhead



Planning Activity

Closure

Planning


What questions or comments do you have about the planning guide or anyof the entries?

<Allow time for questions and comments.>

Now, working alone or with one or two others, identify a unit you areplanning or might plan in the future. What general and/or specific goalsand/or concerns might you have? Identify at least one productive habit ofmind you might focus on to address that goal or concern. Describe what youmight do.

<Allow time for participants to work and then to share as a large group.>

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented related to Dimension 5. See page 9 for explanations of each of these formatsfor completing this portion of the training.>

Habits of Mind

Dimension 5


P u t t i n g I t A l l T o g e t h e r

PU

TTING

IT A

LL TOG

ETHER


Putting It All Together


6


This section of the training covers Chapter 6 of the Dimensions of LearningTeacher’s Manual. After participants have explored each dimension in somedepth, they may perceive the model as being a series of fragmented pieces.The goal of this part of the training is to pull these “pieces” back together.


• that planning units of study is rarely a linear process; although it isimportant to ask the key planning questions for each dimension, thesequence of planning will vary greatly from person to person andfrom unit to unit;

• that after setting goals for students in each dimension, teachers mustsequence instruction;

• that assessing each dimension of learning requires selecting fromamong different types of assessment tools, such as forced-choiceitems, essay questions, performance tasks and portfolios, teacherobservations, and student self-assessments;

• that assessment requires teachers to use specified criteria in order tomake judgments about students’ levels of performance;

• that grading is not a process of compiling scores but a process ofdetermining how well students have demonstrated their knowledge;

• that teacher-student conferences provide important opportunities forcommunication, clarification, and support that can enhance students’learning;

• how to sequence instruction; and

• how to assess and keep records of students’ performance.

PIAT chapter 9/10/07 3:21 PM Page 215



<This chapter of the Teacher’s Manual contains a great deal of information.Whenever possible, have participants read through Chapter 6, pages 303-328, beforecoming to the training session.>


This final chapter of the Teacher’s Manual will help you to pull together thedimensions that we have been examining separately. We will take a look atthe entire planning process as a unified whole and examine issues anddecisions to consider as you plan and implement curriculum units.


A word of caution at this point. Three of the five sections in this chapter—Content, Sequencing Instruction, and Conferences—cover information withwhich you probably are comfortable. However, two of the sections—Assessment and Grading—make recommendations that you might perceiveas a significant departure from what you currently do as you assess and gradestudents. Keep in mind that these are only recommendations; they do nothave to be followed in order to use the Dimensions of Learning model toplan and implement curriculum units. These recommendations are includedbecause they are useful for schools and districts that are working withstandards and benchmarks.

Let’s begin by becoming familiar with the explanations and recommendationsin the first section of this chapter, Content (pages 303-309). This sectionincludes a review of the planning questions for each dimension as well assuggestions for sequencing these questions as you plan the content for acurriculum unit. First, turn to pages 304-305, and review the entire list ofplanning questions, which includes one set for each dimension.

<Allow time for participants to review the questions.>

Listing the questions like this allows you to review them together. However,we do not mean to imply that you need to plan for each dimension in thisorder. Turn to page 306, where you will see explanations of three commonlyused models for planning. Each of these models describes a different order inwhich you might plan for the dimensions. Let’s look at these models onpages 306-309.

We are going to explore these sections by using a jigsaw strategy. Organizeyourselves into groups of three, and assign someone to be an A, someone tobe a B, and someone to be a C. As we have done earlier in this training, eachof you will be given a section to read and then will be expected to shareinformation from your section with the other two members of your group.

O.3Overhead

6.1Overhead

Jigsaw





<Allow time for participants to organize into groups and to assign letters.>


If you are an A, read the section entitled “Model 1: Focus on Knowledge,”starting on page 306. If you are a B, read “Model 2: Focus on Issues,”starting on page 307. If you are a C, read “Model 3: Focus on StudentExploration,” starting on page 308. When your group is ready, you maybegin to share the information in your group.


You will notice that the order in which you plan for each dimension implieswhere you want students to focus: on the knowledge, on issues, or onexploration. Think a minute about these three models, and select the one thatbest matches where you typically want students to focus. In other words, ifyou had to select your preferred model right now, which of the three bestdescribes how you would plan? Why do you think you prefer that model?

<Take several answers.>

When you plan using the Dimensions of Learning model, you probably willfind that at different times and for different units you will plan in differentways. Wherever you begin, however, it is important to know where you wantto focus your unit and to ask yourself the planning questions for each dimension.

Let’s skip the Assessment and Grading sections of the chapter for now andlook instead at the Sequencing Instruction section, which begins on page322. All of the planning up to this point has been aimed at carefullyidentifying the knowledge that students will be learning and the experiencesthat they will have in order to learn this knowledge. Before implementingyour unit, however, you also may want to decide how to sequence theseplanned experiences. The order in which you plan for each dimension doesnot necessarily indicate how you will sequence your instructional lessons.Just because you planned Dimension 4 first, for example, does not mean thatstudents will be presented with Dimension 4 tasks at the beginning of the unit.

To understand the recommendations in this section, we first need tounderstand the two types of classes that are recommended: presentationclasses and workshop classes. Take a couple of minutes to read thedescriptions of these two types of classes on pages 322-324.


Those of you who are accustomed to workshop classes commonly used in thelanguage arts probably found these descriptions to be very familiar. On pages324-326, there are four suggested questions, which can guide you through

6.2Overhead




the decisions you need to make about the sequence of presentation andworkshop classes.


The first question focuses you on the decisions you made in Dimensions 1and 5. This reminds you to decide when you will use the activities andstrategies identified on the planning guides for these dimensions.

The second, third, and fourth questions require you to determine how manypresentation and workshop classes you will need and how you will integratethese classes. Take a minute to examine the sequence of classes for theColorado Unit (Figure 6.9, page 326).


You will notice that the early part of the unit includes mainly presentationclasses. Gradually, workshop classes are added, until, finally, they dominatethe end of the unit. As explained, this is a common and recommended flow of classes: more presentation classes at the beginning of the unit and moreworkshop classes at the end of the unit. This implies that students areincreasingly using knowledge during workshop classes that they are acquiringin presentation classes.

In order to get a clear picture of what is happening during these workshopclasses, it is important to understand the role of the teacher. In the descriptionof workshop classes on page 324, the section entitled The Activity Periodexplains that while students are working on their projects, the teacher’s primaryrole is to coach students as they work and to have conferences with students.The fifth section of this chapter, Conferences (pages 327-328), provides afurther explanation of this role. Take a minute to read this section now.


Now, I’d like you to form small groups by getting together with one or two other people. One member of the group should be designated as the“teacher”; the others are the “students.” Teachers, your job is to have a briefconference with your students. Let’s make this conference have an “assessmentfocus,” as described on page 328. Try to determine how well the studentsthink they have been learning the information presented in this workshop,and then provide them with feedback on how well you think they have beendoing. You might not know each other well, so you may need to role-playthis activity. Whatever the case, be sure to identify the criteria you and thestudents are using as you assess their performance and as they self-assess theirown performance.

6.3Overhead

6.4Overhead






Whether you were really doing this or doing this as a simulation throughrole-play, what were some of the things you discovered by talking togetherin your pair or small group? Were there any surprises? Are these the kinds ofthings you discover when you have conferences with students?

<Take answers from several people.>

One reason that it is recommended that you plan to have workshop classesduring your unit is because they provide you with the opportunity to haveconferences with students. There is much you will find out about how wellstudents are learning and you will have an opportunity to giveindividualized feedback and even instruction if you have one-on-oneconversations with individual students or interactions with small groups ofstudents. These conferences can be a major source of data that you can use toassess students and to improve instruction.

Let’s spend some time now looking at the bigger picture of assessment andgrading. As mentioned earlier, some of the recommendations in thesesections might be fairly new to you. One last time, I am going to ask you totake time to read. This time, read these two sections of Chapter 6 on pages309-322. You need to read this all the way through in order to see the bigpicture. We will then explore some parts of these sections in more depth.

<If participants have read these two sections before the training session, you canmodify the directions in the previous paragraph by asking them to review what theyhave previously read. Although these two sections include quite a few pages, there aremany figures embedded in the text and it should not take them too long to read thesesections. Encourage participants to sit back, get comfortable, and take the opportunityto read and reflect. It is critical that they understand the flow of the informationpresented. Allow sufficient time for participants to complete the reading.>

As explained in these sections, the focus of assessment and grading is onDimensions 2, 3, 4, and 5. Let’s look at some of the recommendations forassessment. It probably did not surprise you that different knowledgerequires different types of assessment. Take a look at Figure 6.1 on page 311.


Using the recommendations in the figure for types of assessment tools thatare used with specific types of knowledge, answer the following questions:

<Ask the questions below, and then call on different people for the answers.>

Individual Task


6.5Overhead




What type of assessment tool is best if I want to find out if students

• know what happened at the battle of Gettysburg?

<Answer: Any of the types of assessments can be used.>

• understand how health issues influence communities, families, andindividuals?

<Answer: Any type of assessment can be used, except forced choice.>

• can add whole numbers?

<Answer: Any of the types of assessment can be used.>

• tend to be clear and seek clarity?

<Answer: Any of the types of assessment can be used, except forced choice.>

Although some people prefer performance tasks and portfolios and othersprefer to rely on teacher observations and student self-assessments, it isimportant to consider all of the types of assessment techniques as youdetermine which will provide you with the data you need to makejudgments about how students are doing.

On page 314, you read about the important role of teacher judgment indetermining students’ levels of performance. This perspective is based on thebelief that assessment cannot be seen as a process of compiling scores orcalculating averages. The planning process that has been recommended inthis manual emphasizes that we should help students not only acquireknowledge, but extend, refine, and use knowledge meaningfully. Thisimplies that our goal is to help students increase their understanding ofdeclarative knowledge and to develop their proficiency in using proceduralknowledge. If, in fact, this is our goal, then we must assess students’understanding and proficiency. This requires teachers to gather as muchevidence as possible and then to make judgments about students’ levels ofunderstanding and proficiency. These judgments are based on identifiedcriteria, as shown in the sample rubrics. Teachers apply these criteria, to theextent possible, and make judgments about students’ levels of learning.

Our level of commitment to assessing students’ learning is demonstrated inhow we give grades. The grading section of this chapter recommends thatwe make a significant commitment to assessment by assigning and recordinggrades that indicate students’ knowledge. What was your reaction to thesample page from the grade book on page 318?





<Put up Overhead 6.6. Encourage comments and questions about the grade book, butstructure this discussion by putting up the Perspective Examination Matrix, Overhead3.8E (from the section on analyzing perspectives, Dimension 3). Each time a commentis made, refer to the matrix in order to reinforce participants who offer clear reasonsfor their perspectives. When no reasons are offered for expressed opinions, encourageparticipants to provide reasons. Some people will react by saying that it looks like toomuch work. Others will probably support the grade book format either because theyalready keep grades in this way or because they believe that teachers should. Othersmay notice that keeping grades this way requires schools or districts to identifybenchmarks that could be used to organize grades in this way.>

As stated at the beginning of the training for Chapter 6, therecommendations made in this chapter are not essential to implementing theDimensions of Learning model. Assessing and grading in the ways that aresuggested here represent a major commitment to using Dimensions ofLearning to maintain a focus on learning and knowledge as you plancurriculum, instruction, and assessment.

This is a good way to close this training for Dimensions of Learning.


Remember that the Dimensions of Learning model can be used in manydifferent ways. It is a model of learning that can influence instruction, staffdevelopment, curriculum planning, and every part of a school system. Nomatter how it is used, keep in mind that the authors hope that it will alwaysbe seen as a way to study learning. If we increase our understanding oflearning, then we make better decisions in districts, schools, and classrooms.

<Use your preferred format for closure—table talk, pause and reflect, or learninglogs—to allow participants time to think about the information that has beenpresented. See page 9 for explanations of each of these formats for completing thisportion of the training.>

O.20Overhead

Closure

3.8EOverhead

6.6Overhead


H a n d o u t s


Dim

ensi

on 1

Att

itud

es a

nd P

erce

ptio

nsD

imen

sion

2A

cqui

re a

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nteg

rate

Kno

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ill

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don

e to

hel

p s

tud

ents

dev

elop

pos

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e at

titu

des

an

dp

erce

pti

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(p

. 39)

Step

1:

Are

the

re a

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oals

or

conc

erns

rel

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to

stud

ents

’ att

itud

esan

d pe

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gen

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rela

ted

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his

spec

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uni

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ep 2

:W

hat

wil

l be

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add

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the

se g

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?St

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a:Sp

ecif

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and

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Step

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Des

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wil

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at w

ill

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hel

p s

tud

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acq

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d i

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(p. 8

3)

Step

1:

Wha

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ativ

e kn

owle

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wil

l st

uden

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the

pro

cess

of

acqu

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. .

Step

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Wha

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act

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ies

wil

l be

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hel

p st

uden

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quir

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ate

this

kno

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Step

3:

Wha

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wil

l be

use

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p st

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Step

4:

Des

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hat

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Wh

at w

ill

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hel

p s

tud

ents

acq

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kn

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? (p

. 106

)

Step

1:

Wha

t pr

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kno

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will

stu

dent

s be

in t

he p

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ss o

fac

quir

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and

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As

a re

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unit

, stu

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s w

illbe

abl

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. . .

.St

ep 2

:W

hat

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and

/or

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ize

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Step

3:

Des

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hat

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Cla

ssro

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•H

elp

stud

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and

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. (p.

15)

•E

stab

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(p. 1

6)•

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. 17)

•E

ngag

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(p. 1

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Rec

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ind

ivid

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diff

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(p. 1

8)•

Res

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itiv

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to s

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inco

rrec

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spon

ses

or la

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. 19)

•V

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ive

the

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.(p.

19)

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(p. 2

0)•

Prov

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.(p

. 21)

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o us

e th

eir

own

stra

tegi

es f

orga

inin

g ac

cept

ance

fro

m t

heir

tea

cher

s an

d pe

ers.

(p. 2

1)•

Freq

uent

ly a

nd s

yste

mat

ical

ly u

se a

ctiv

itie

s th

at i

nvol

ve p

hysi

cal

mov

emen

t.(p

. 23)

•In

trod

uce

the

conc

ept

of “

brac

keti

ng.”

(p. 2

4)•

Est

abli

sh a

nd c

omm

unic

ate

clas

sroo

m r

ules

and

pro

cedu

res.

(p. 2

4)•

Be

awar

e of

mal

icio

us t

easi

ng o

r th

reat

s in

side

or

outs

ide

of t

hecl

assr

oom

, and

tak

e st

eps

to s

top

such

beh

avio

r.(p

. 26)

•H

ave

stud

ents

iden

tify

the

ir o

wn

stan

dard

s fo

r co

mfo

rt a

nd o

rder

. (p.

26)

Cla

ssro

om T

ask

s•

Hel

p st

uden

ts u

nder

stan

d th

at l

earn

ing

is i

nflu

ence

d by

att

itud

es a

ndpe

rcep

tion

s re

late

d to

cla

ssro

om t

asks

.(p.

29)

•E

stab

lish

a s

ense

of

acad

emic

tru

st.(

p. 3

0)•

Hel

p st

uden

ts u

nder

stan

d ho

w s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e is

val

uabl

e.(p

. 30)

•U

se a

var

iety

of

way

s to

eng

age

stud

ents

in

clas

sroo

m t

asks

.(p.

31)

•C

reat

e cl

assr

oom

tas

ks t

hat

rela

te t

o st

uden

ts’ i

nter

ests

and

goa

ls. (

p. 3

2)•

Pro

vide

app

ropr

iate

fee

dbac

k.(p

. 33)

•Te

ach

stud

ents

to

use

posi

tive

sel

f-ta

lk.(

p. 3

3)•

Hel

p st

uden

ts r

ecog

nize

tha

t th

ey h

ave

the

abil

itie

s to

com

plet

e a

part

icul

ar t

ask.

(p.

34)

•H

elp

stud

ents

und

erst

and

that

bel

ievi

ng i

n th

eir

abil

ity

to c

ompl

ete

ata

sk i

nclu

des

beli

evin

g th

at t

hey

have

the

abi

lity

to

get

the

help

and

the

reso

urce

s ne

eded

. (p.

34)

•H

elp

stud

ents

be

clea

r ab

out

the

dire

ctio

ns a

nd d

eman

ds o

f th

e ta

sk.

(p. 3

5)•

Pro

vide

stu

dent

s w

ith

clar

ity

abou

t th

e kn

owle

dge

that

the

tas

kad

dres

ses.

(p.

35)

•Pr

ovid

e st

uden

ts w

ith

clea

r ex

pect

atio

ns o

f per

form

ance

leve

ls fo

r ta

sks.

(p. 3

6)

Con

stru

ct M

ean

ing

•H

elp

stud

ents

und

erst

and

wha

t it

mea

ns t

o co

nstr

uct

mea

ning

. (p.

52)

•U

se t

he t

hree

-min

ute

paus

e. (

p. 5

3)

•H

elp

stud

ents

exp

erie

nce

cont

ent

usin

g a

vari

ety

of s

ense

s. (

p. 5

3)

•H

elp

stud

ents

to

cons

truc

t m

eani

ng f

or v

ocab

ular

y te

rms.

(p.

54)

•P

rese

nt s

tude

nts

wit

h th

e K

-W-L

str

ateg

y. (

p. 5

5)

•C

reat

e op

port

unit

ies

for

stud

ents

to

disc

over

or

figu

re o

ut t

he n

ewin

form

atio

n fo

r th

emse

lves

. (p.

56)

•U

se i

nstr

ucti

onal

tec

hniq

ues

that

pro

vide

stu

dent

s w

ith

stra

tegi

es t

ous

e be

fore

, dur

ing,

and

aft

er t

hey

rece

ive

info

rmat

ion.

(p.

58)

Org

aniz

e•

Hel

p st

uden

ts u

nder

stan

d th

e im

port

ance

of

orga

nizi

ng i

nfor

mat

ion.

(p. 6

1)•

Hav

e st

uden

ts u

se g

raph

ic o

rgan

izer

s fo

r th

e id

enti

fied

org

aniz

atio

nal

patt

erns

. (p.

62)

•P

rovi

de s

tude

nts

wit

h ad

vanc

e or

gani

zer

ques

tion

s. (

p. 6

8)•

Pre

sent

not

e-ta

king

str

ateg

ies

that

use

gra

phic

rep

rese

ntat

ions

. (p.

70)

•H

ave

stud

ents

cre

ate

phys

ical

and

pic

togr

aphi

c re

pres

enta

tion

s of

info

rmat

ion.

(p.

71)

•H

ave

stud

ents

use

gra

phs

and

char

ts. (

p. 7

2)

Stor

e

•H

elp

stud

ents

und

erst

and

the

proc

ess

of s

tori

ng i

nfor

mat

ion.

(p.

74)

•P

rese

nt s

tude

nts

wit

h th

e st

rate

gy o

f us

ing

sym

bols

and

sub

stit

utes

.(p

. 74)

•U

se t

he l

ink

stra

tegy

wit

h st

uden

ts. (

p. 7

5)

•U

se h

ighl

y st

ruct

ured

sys

tem

s fo

r st

orin

g in

form

atio

n w

ith

stud

ents

.(p

. 76)

•P

rovi

de s

tude

nts

wit

h m

nem

onic

s fo

r im

port

ant

cont

ent.

(p.

80)

Con

stru

ct M

odel

s

•H

elp

stud

ents

und

erst

and

the

impo

rtan

ce o

f co

nstr

ucti

ng m

odel

s fo

rpr

oced

ural

kno

wle

dge.

(p.

94)

•U

se a

thi

nk-a

loud

pro

cess

to

dem

onst

rate

a n

ew s

kill

or p

roce

ss. (

p. 9

4)

•P

rovi

de o

r co

nstr

uct

wit

h st

uden

ts a

wri

tten

or

grap

hic

repr

esen

tati

onof

the

ski

ll o

r pr

oces

s th

ey a

re l

earn

ing.

(p.

95)

•H

elp

stud

ents

see

how

the

ski

ll o

r pr

oces

s th

ey a

re l

earn

ing

is s

imil

arto

and

dif

fere

nt f

rom

oth

er s

kill

s or

pro

cess

es. (

p. 9

6)

•Te

ach

stud

ents

to

men

tall

y re

hear

se t

he s

teps

inv

olve

d in

a s

kill

or

proc

ess.

(p.

96)

Shap

e

•H

elp

stud

ents

und

erst

and

the

impo

rtan

ce o

f sh

apin

g pr

oced

ural

know

ledg

e. (

p. 9

7)

•D

emon

stra

te a

nd c

reat

e op

port

unit

ies

for

stud

ents

to

prac

tice

usi

ngth

e im

port

ant

vari

atio

ns o

f th

e sk

ill

or p

roce

ss. (

p. 9

8)

•P

oint

out

com

mon

err

ors

and

pitf

alls

. (p.

98)

•H

elp

stud

ents

dev

elop

the

con

cept

ual

unde

rsta

ndin

g ne

cess

ary

to u

seth

e sk

ill

or p

roce

ss. (

p. 9

9)

Inte

rnal

ize

•H

elp

stud

ents

und

erst

and

the

impo

rtan

ce o

f in

tern

aliz

ing

proc

edur

alkn

owle

dge.

(p.

101

)

•H

elp

stud

ents

set

up

a pr

acti

ce s

ched

ule.

(p.

102

)

•H

ave

stud

ents

cha

rt a

nd r

epor

t on

the

ir s

peed

and

/or

accu

racy

whe

npr

acti

cing

new

ski

lls

or p

roce

sses

. (p.

103

)

Dec

lara

tive

Pro

ced

ura

l

HANDOUTS 9/10/07 2:59 PM Page 223

Dim

ensi

on 3

Ext

end

and

Ref

ine

Kno

wle

dge

Dim

ensi

on 4

Use

Kno

wle

dge

Mea

ning

full

yD

imen

sion

5H

abit

s of

Min

dW

hat

wil

l b

e d

one

to h

elp

stu

den

ts e

xten

d a

nd

ref

ine

kn

owle

dge

? (p

. 185

)

Step

1:

Wha

t k

now

led

ge w

ill

stud

ents

be

exte

nd

ing

and

ref

inin

g?Sp

ecif

ical

ly, s

tude

nts

wil

l be

ext

endi

ng a

nd r

efin

ing

thei

run

ders

tand

ing

of. .

. .

Step

2:

Wha

t re

ason

ing

proc

ess

wil

l st

uden

ts b

e us

ing?

Step

3:

Des

crib

e w

hat

wil

l be

don

e.

Wh

at w

ill

be

don

e to

hel

p s

tud

ents

use

kn

owle

dge

mea

nin

gfu

lly?

(p. 2

55)

Step

1:

Wha

t k

now

led

ge w

ill

stud

ents

be

usi

ng

mea

nin

gfu

lly?

Spec

ific

ally

, stu

dent

s w

ill

be d

emon

stra

ting

the

ir u

nder

stan

ding

of o

r ab

ilit

y to

. . .

.St

ep 2

:W

hat

reas

onin

g pr

oces

s w

ill

stud

ents

be

usin

g?St

ep 3

:D

escr

ibe

wha

t w

ill

be d

one.

Wh

at w

ill

be

don

e to

hel

p s

tud

ents

dev

elop

pro

du

ctiv

e h

abit

s of

min

d?

(p. 2

98)

Step

1:

Are

the

re a

ny g

oals

or

conc

erns

rel

ated

to

stud

ents

’ hab

its

ofm

ind

in g

ener

al o

r re

late

d to

thi

s sp

ecif

ic u

nit?

Step

2:

Wha

t w

ill

be d

one

to a

ddre

ss t

hese

goa

ls o

r co

ncer

ns?

Step

2a:

Spec

ifica

lly, w

ill a

nyth

ing

be d

one

to h

elp

stud

ents

dev

elop

crit

ical

thi

nkin

g, c

reat

ive

thin

king

, and

sel

f-re

gula

ted

thin

king

?St

ep 2

b:D

escr

ibe

wha

t w

ill

be d

one.

Com

par

ing

(p. 1

17)

•W

ould

it

be u

sefu

l to

sho

w h

ow t

hing

s ar

e si

mil

ar a

nd/o

r di

ffer

ent?

•W

ould

it

be u

sefu

l fo

r st

uden

ts t

o fo

cus

on i

dent

ifyi

ng h

ow s

imil

arth

ings

are

dif

fere

nt a

nd h

ow d

iffe

rent

thi

ngs

are

sim

ilar

?•

Wou

ld i

t be

hel

pful

to

have

stu

dent

s de

scri

be h

ow c

ompa

ring

thi

ngs

affe

cts

thei

r kn

owle

dge

or o

pini

ons

rela

ted

to t

hose

thi

ngs?

Cla

ssif

yin

g(p

. 123

)•

Wou

ld i

t be

hel

pful

to

have

stu

dent

s gr

oup

thin

gs?

•W

ould

it

be b

enef

icia

l fo

r st

uden

ts t

o ge

nera

te a

num

ber

of w

ays

togr

oup

the

sam

e li

st o

f th

ings

?

Ab

stra

ctin

g(p

. 130

)•

Is t

here

an

abst

ract

pat

tern

tha

t co

uld

be a

ppli

ed?

•C

ould

som

ethi

ng c

ompl

ex o

r un

fam

ilia

r be

und

erst

ood

bett

er b

yge

nera

ting

an

abst

ract

pat

tern

and

app

lyin

g it

to

som

ethi

ng s

impl

e or

mor

e fa

mil

iar?

•A

re t

here

see

min

gly

diff

eren

t th

ings

tha

t co

uld

be c

onne

cted

thr

ough

the

gene

rati

on o

f an

abs

trac

t pa

tter

n?

Ind

uct

ive

Rea

son

ing

(p. 1

38)

•A

re t

here

im

port

ant

unst

ated

con

clus

ions

tha

t co

uld

be g

ener

ated

from

obs

erva

tion

s or

fac

ts?

•A

re t

here

sit

uati

ons

for

whi

ch p

roba

ble

or l

ikel

y co

nclu

sion

s co

uld

bege

nera

ted?

•A

re t

here

iss

ues

or s

itua

tion

s fo

r w

hich

stu

dent

s co

uld

exam

ine

the

indu

ctiv

e re

ason

ing

used

?

Ded

uct

ive

Rea

son

ing

(p. 1

46)

•A

re t

here

gen

eral

izat

ions

(or

rul

es o

r pr

inci

ples

) th

at c

ould

be

appl

ied

to r

each

con

clus

ions

and

mak

e pr

edic

tion

s?•

Are

the

re t

opic

s or

iss

ues

for

whi

ch s

tude

nts

coul

d ex

amin

e th

eva

lidi

ty o

f th

e de

duct

ive

reas

onin

g us

ed?

Con

stru

ctin

g Su

pp

ort

(p. 1

60)

•A

re t

here

im

port

ant

clai

ms

to b

e re

fute

d or

sup

port

ed?

•W

ould

it

be i

mpo

rtan

t to

exa

min

e ex

isti

ng a

rgum

ents

tha

t su

ppor

t or

refu

te a

cla

im?

An

alyz

ing

Err

ors

(p. 1

68)

•A

re t

here

sit

uati

ons

in w

hich

it

wou

ld b

e be

nefi

cial

to

iden

tify

err

ors

in r

easo

ning

?

An

alyz

ing

Per

spec

tive

s(p

. 178

)•

Wou

ld i

t be

use

ful

to i

dent

ify

and

unde

rsta

nd t

he r

easo

ning

or

logi

cbe

hind

a p

ersp

ecti

ve o

n a

topi

c or

iss

ue?

Dec

isio

n M

akin

g (p

. 195

)•

Is t

here

an

unre

solv

ed d

ecis

ion

impo

rtan

t to

the

uni

t?•

Is t

here

an

unre

solv

ed i

ssue

abo

ut w

ho o

r w

hat

is t

he b

est

or w

orst

?•

Is t

here

an

unre

solv

ed i

ssue

abo

ut w

ho o

r w

hat

has

the

mos

t or

lea

st?

Pro

ble

m S

olvi

ng

(p. 2

05)

•Is

the

re a

sit

uati

on o

r pr

oces

s th

at h

as s

ome

maj

or c

onst

rain

t or

lim

itin

g co

ndit

ion?

•Is

the

re a

sit

uati

on o

r pr

oces

s th

at c

ould

be

bett

er u

nder

stoo

d if

cons

trai

nts

or l

imit

ing

cond

itio

ns w

ere

plac

ed o

n it

?

Inve

nti

on(p

. 214

)•

Is t

here

a s

itua

tion

tha

t ca

n an

d sh

ould

be

impr

oved

on?

•Is

the

re s

omet

hing

new

tha

t sh

ould

be

crea

ted?

Exp

erim

enta

l In

qu

iry

(p. 2

24)

•Is

the

re a

n un

expl

aine

d ph

enom

enon

(ph

ysic

al o

r ps

ycho

logi

cal)

for

whi

ch s

tude

nts

coul

d ge

nera

te e

xpla

nati

ons

that

can

be

test

ed?

Inve

stig

atio

n(p

. 234

)•

Is t

here

an

unre

solv

ed i

ssue

abo

ut t

he d

efin

ing

char

acte

rist

ics

orde

fini

ng f

eatu

res

of s

omet

hing

? (D

efin

itio

nal)

•Is

the

re a

n un

reso

lved

iss

ue a

bout

how

som

ethi

ng o

ccur

red?

(His

tori

cal)

•Is

the

re a

n un

reso

lved

iss

ue a

bout

why

som

ethi

ng h

appe

ned?

(His

tori

cal)

•Is

the

re a

n un

reso

lved

iss

ue a

bout

wha

t w

ould

hap

pen

if .

. . o

r w

hat

wou

ld h

ave

happ

ened

if

… (

Pro

ject

ive)

?

Syst

ems

An

alys

is(p

. 246

)•

Are

the

re p

arts

of

a sy

stem

or

the

inte

ract

ions

of

the

part

s of

a s

yste

mth

at c

ould

be

anal

yzed

?•

Is t

here

som

ethi

ng t

hat

coul

d be

exa

min

ed i

n te

rms

of h

ow i

t be

have

sor

wor

ks w

ithi

n a

syst

em?

Hel

pin

g st

ud

ents

dev

elop

pro

du

ctiv

e h

abit

s of

min

d.

1.H

elp

stud

ents

und

erst

and

habi

ts o

f m

ind.

(p.

264

)•

Faci

lita

te c

lass

room

dis

cuss

ion

of e

ach

habi

t. (

p. 2

64)

•U

se e

xam

ples

fro

m l

iter

atur

e an

d cu

rren

t ev

ents

of

peop

le w

ho a

reus

ing

the

habi

ts i

n di

ffer

ent

situ

atio

ns. (

p. 2

64)

•Sh

are

pers

onal

ane

cdot

es t

hat

rela

te t

o a

habi

t. (

p. 2

65)

•N

otic

e an

d la

bel

stud

ent

beha

vior

tha

t de

mon

stra

tes

a pa

rtic

ular

habi

t. (

p. 2

65)

•A

sk s

tude

nts

to i

dent

ify

pers

onal

her

oes

or m

ento

rs a

nd d

escr

ibe

the

exte

nt t

o w

hich

the

y ex

empl

ify

spec

ific

hab

its

of m

ind.

(p.

265

)•

Hav

e st

uden

ts c

reat

e po

ster

s th

at i

llus

trat

e th

eir

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

habi

ts. (

p. 2

65)

2.H

elp

stud

ents

ide

ntif

y an

d de

velo

p st

rate

gies

rel

ated

to

the

habi

ts o

fm

ind.

(p.

265

)•

Use

thi

nk-a

loud

to

dem

onst

rate

spe

cifi

c st

rate

gies

. (p.

265

)•

Ask

stu

dent

s to

sha

re t

heir

ow

n st

rate

gies

. (p.

266

)•

Enc

oura

ge s

tude

nts

to f

ind

exam

ples

of

stra

tegi

es m

enti

oned

in

lite

ratu

re a

nd c

urre

nt e

vent

s. (

p. 2

66)

•A

sk s

tude

nts

to i

nter

view

oth

ers

(e.g

., pa

rent

s, f

rien

ds, o

rne

ighb

ors)

to

iden

tify

str

ateg

ies.

(p.

266

)•

Eac

h qu

arte

r or

sem

este

r, as

k st

uden

ts t

o id

enti

fy a

nd f

ocus

on

aha

bit

of m

ind

they

wou

ld l

ike

to d

evel

op. (

p. 2

66)

3.C

reat

e a

cult

ure

in t

he c

lass

room

and

the

sch

ool

that

enc

oura

ges

the

deve

lopm

ent

and

use

of t

he h

abit

s of

min

d. (

p. 2

67)

•M

odel

the

hab

its.

(p.

267

)•

Inte

grat

e th

e ha

bits

int

o th

e da

ily

rout

ines

and

act

ivit

ies

of t

hecl

assr

oom

. (p.

267

)•

Dev

elop

and

dis

play

pos

ters

, ico

ns, a

nd o

ther

vis

ual

repr

esen

tati

ons

to e

xpre

ss t

he i

mpo

rtan

ce o

f pr

oduc

tive

hab

its

of m

ind.

(p.

268

)•

Whe

n ap

prop

riat

e, c

ue s

tude

nts

to f

ocus

on

spec

ific

men

tal

habi

tsor

ask

the

m t

o id

enti

fy h

abit

s th

at w

ould

hel

p th

em w

hile

wor

king

on d

iffi

cult

tas

ks. (

p. 2

69)

4.P

rovi

de p

osit

ive

rein

forc

emen

t to

stu

dent

s w

ho e

xhib

it t

he h

abit

s of

min

d. (

p. 2

69)

•A

ppoi

nt “

proc

ess

obse

rver

s,”

stud

ents

who

wat

ch fo

r po

siti

ve e

xam

ples

of o

ther

stu

dent

s w

ho a

re d

emon

stra

ting

the

hab

its.

(p. 2

69)

•A

sk s

tude

nts

to s

elf-

asse

ss t

heir

use

of

spec

ific

hab

its.

(p.

269

)•

Giv

e st

uden

ts f

eedb

ack

on a

rep

ort

card

or

prog

ress

rep

ort.

(p.

270

)

A R

esou

rce

for

Tea

cher

s•

Cri

tica

l T

hink

ing

(p. 2

74)

•C

reat

ive

Thi

nkin

g (p

. 284

)•

Self

-Reg

ulat

ed T

hink

ing

(p. 2

90)


Are

ther

e an

y go

als

orco

ncer

ns re

late

d to

stu

dent

s’att

itudes

and p

erce

ptions

•

in g

ener

al?

•

rela

ted

to th

is s

peci

fic u

nit?

Wha

t will

be

done

to a

ddre

ss th

ese

goal

s or

con

cern

s?

Spec

ifica

lly, w

ill a

nyth

ing

bedo

ne to

hel

p stu

dent

s …

Cla

ssro

om

Clim

ate

❏fe

el a

ccep

ted

byte

ache

rs a

nd p

eers

?

❏ex

perie

nce

a se

nse

ofco

mfo

rt an

d or

der?

Cla

ssro

om

Task

s

❏pe

rcei

ve ta

sks

asva

luab

le a

nd in

tere

sting

?

❏be

lieve

they

hav

eth

e ab

ility

and

reso

urce

sto

com

plet

e ta

sks?

❏un

ders

tand

and

be

clea

r abo

ut ta

sks?

Des

crib

e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

Dim

ensi

on 1

Pla

nnin

g G

uide


Wha

t dec

lara

tive

know

ledge

will

stu

dent

s be

in th

e pr

oces

s of

acq

uir

ing a

nd in

tegra

ting

?A

s a

resu

lt of

this

uni

t, stu

dent

sw

ill k

now

or u

nder

stand

…

Wha

t ex

per

ience

sor

act

ivitie

s w

ill b

eus

ed to

hel

p stu

dent

sac

quire

and

inte

grat

eth

is k

now

ledg

e?

Wha

t stra

tegi

es w

illbe

use

d to

hel

p stu

dent

sco

nst

ruct

mea

nin

g

for,

org

aniz

e, a

nd/o

rst

ore

this

kno

wle

dge?

Des

crib

e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

Dim

ensi

on 2

, D

ecla

rati

ve K

now

ledg

e P

lann

ing

Gui

de


Wha

t will

be

done

to

help

stu

dent

s co

nst

ruct

model

s fo

r, s

hape,

and

inte

rnaliz

e th

e kn

owle

dge?

Des

crib

e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

Wha

t pro

cedura

l know

ledge

will

stu

dent

s be

in th

e pr

oces

s of

acq

uir

ing a

nd in

tegra

ting

?A

s a

resu

lt of

this

uni

t, stu

dent

s w

illbe

abl

e to

…

Dim

ensi

on 2

, P

roce

dura

l Kno

wle

dge

Pla

nnin

g G

uide


Wha

t kno

wle

dge

will

stu

dent

s be

exte

ndin

g a

nd r

efin

ing

?Sp

ecifi

cally

, the

y w

ill b

e ex

tend

ing

and

refin

ing

thei

r und

ersta

ndin

g of

…

Wha

t rea

soni

ng p

roce

ssw

ill s

tude

nts

be u

sing

?

❏Com

pari

ng

❏Cla

ssif

yin

g

❏A

bst

ract

ing

❏In

duct

ive

Rea

sonin

g ❏

Ded

uct

ive

Rea

sonin

g

❏Const

ruct

ing S

upport

❏A

naly

zing E

rrors

❏A

naly

zing P

ersp

ective

s

❏O

ther

___

____

____

____

__

Des

crib

e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

Wha

t kno

wle

dge

will

stu

dent

s be

exte

ndin

g a

nd r

efin

ing

?Sp

ecifi

cally

, the

y w

ill b

e ex

tend

ing

and

refin

ing

thei

r und

ersta

ndin

g of

…

Wha

t rea

soni

ng p

roce

ssw

ill s

tude

nts

be u

sing

?

❏Com

pari

ng

❏Cla

ssif

yin

g

❏A

bst

ract

ing

❏In

duct

ive

Rea

sonin

g

❏D

educt

ive

Rea

sonin

g

❏Const

ruct

ing S

upport

❏A

naly

zing E

rrors

❏A

naly

zing P

ersp

ective

s

❏O

ther

___

____

____

____

__

Des

crib

e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

Dim

ensi

on 3

Pla

nnin

g G

uide


Wha

t know

ledge

will

stu

dent

s be

usi

ng m

eanin

gfu

lly?

Spec

ifica

lly,

they

will

be

dem

onstr

atin

g th

eir

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

and

abi

lity

to …

Wha

t rea

soni

ng p

roce

ssw

ill th

ey b

e us

ing?

❏O

ther

___

____

____

____

___

Des

crib

e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

❏D

ecis

ion M

ak

ing

(sel

ectin

g fro

m s

eem

ingl

yeq

ual a

ltern

ativ

es o

r exa

min

ing

the

deci

sion

s of

oth

ers)

❏Pro

ble

m S

olv

ing

(see

king

to a

chie

ve a

goa

l by

over

com

ing

cons

train

ts or

limiti

ng c

ondi

tions

)

❏In

vention

(cre

atin

g so

met

hing

to m

eet a

need

or i

mpr

ove

on a

situ

atio

n)

❏Ex

per

imen

tal I

nquir

y(g

ener

atin

g an

exp

lana

tion

for a

phe

nom

enon

and

testi

ng th

e ex

plan

atio

n)

❏In

vest

igation

(reso

lvin

g co

nfus

ions

or

cont

radi

ctio

ns re

late

d to

a

histo

rical

eve

nt, a

hyp

othe

tical

past

or fu

ture

eve

nt, o

r to

the

defin

ing

char

acte

ristic

s of

som

ethi

ng)

❏Sy

stem

s A

naly

sis

(ana

lyzi

ng th

e pa

rts o

f a

syste

m a

nd h

ow th

ey in

tera

ct)

Dim

ensi

on 4

Pla

nnin

g G

uide


Des

crib

e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

Cri

tica

l Thin

kin

g

❏be

acc

urat

e an

d se

ek a

ccur

acy?

❏be

cle

ar a

nd s

eek

clar

ity?

❏m

aint

ain

an o

pen

min

d?

❏re

strai

n im

pulsi

vity

?

❏ta

ke a

pos

ition

whe

n th

esi

tuat

ion

war

rant

s it?

❏re

spon

d ap

prop

riate

ly to

oth

ers’

feel

ings

and

leve

l of k

now

ledg

e?

Cre

ative

Thin

kin

g

❏pe

rsev

ere?

❏pu

sh th

e lim

its o

f the

irkn

owle

dge

and

abili

ties?

❏ge

nera

te, t

rust,

and

mai

ntai

nth

eir o

wn

stand

ards

of e

valu

atio

n?

❏ge

nera

te n

ew w

ays

of v

iew

ing

asi

tuat

ion

outsi

de th

e bo

unda

ries

of s

tand

ard

conv

entio

ns?

Self

-Reg

ula

ted T

hin

kin

g

❏m

onito

r the

ir th

inki

ng?

❏pl

an a

ppro

pria

tely

?

❏id

entif

y ne

cess

ary

reso

urce

s?

❏re

spon

d ap

prop

riate

ly to

feed

back

?

❏ev

alua

te e

ffect

iven

ess

of th

eir a

ctio

ns?

Are

ther

e an

y go

als

or c

once

rns

rela

ted

to s

tude

nts’

habits

of

min

d

• in

gen

eral

?

• re

late

d to

this

spe

cific

uni

t?Sp

ecifi

cally

, will

any

thin

g be

done

to h

elp

stude

nts

…

Wha

t will

be

done

to a

ddre

ss th

ese

goal

s or

con

cern

s?

Dim

ensi

on 5

Pla

nnin

g G

uide


The Better Mousetrap“In the early part of the 20th Century, the Animal Trap Companyof America sold a five-cent mousetrap. For years, the president ofthe company, Chester M. Woolworth, had tried to improve it, andin 1928 he succeeded.

Yet, he couldn’t sell it. One problem was that it sold for twelvecents—almost two and one-half times as much as its predecessor.Another is explained at page 12 by A. Kelley et al. in VentureCapital, a book published by the Management Institute of BostonCollege (2nd ed. 1973):

Mr. Woolworth failed to look carefully at the way theaverage family used a mousetrap. The mousetrap wasnormally purchased by the husband who set the trap atnight after the children were in bed. In the morning, thehusband hurried off to work leaving the dead mouse in thetrap. The housewife did not want a dead mouse around allday so she would pick up the trap and dispose of themouse and the trap.

Unfortunately for Mr. Woolworth, the new trap looked tooexpensive to throw away. So, the wife was forced toremove the mouse and clean the trap. Obviously, theaverage housewife felt much happier with the old five-centtrap which could be thrown away. While the husband mightbuy the improved trap, the wife did not want it to be used.Thus, sales of the improved mousetrap were very low.”

From: Field, T. G., Jr. (1996) “So You Have An Idea.”Franklin Pierce Law Center. Http://www.fplc.edu/tfield/idea.htm.

Invention


Patented November 18, 1879221,855

UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICEImprovement In Fire Escapes

Specification forming part of LettersPatent, dated November 18, 1879Application filed March 26, 1879Serial No. 660,248

Improvement in Fire Escapes

This invention relates to an improved fire escape or safetydevice, by which a person may safely jump out of awindow of a burning building from any height, and land,without injury and without the least damage, on theground; and it consists of a parachute attached, in suitablemanner, to the upper part of the body, in a combinationwith overshoes having elastic bottom pads of suitablethickness to take up the concussion with the ground.

Invention


appendix A 9/10/07 2:49 PM Page 1

A p p e n d i x e s / R e f e r e n c e s



Appendix A

Appendix A: Other Examplesof Modeling the Model

Below are examples of training activities for each of the five dimensions thatmodel the Dimensions of Learning model. After you have gained experienceand confidence in training, substitute your own examples.

Dimension 1

It is important to help participants feel welcome and accepted so that theyfocus their energy on the training and are willing to openly shareexperiences. The first hour or so of training is often when participants formattitudes and perceptions that carry over into the remainder of the training.Therefore, you must begin to help participants establish positive attitudesand perceptions from the opening minutes of the session. There are severalways for you to do this:

• Personally greet as many participants as possible.

• Begin the training with brief warm-up activities.

• Ask participants to tell people at their tables about themselves,emphasizing that they should be sure to include one thing thatmost people don’t know about them.

• Provide each person with a list of interesting experiences (e.g.,serving on a jury, going on a cruise, seeing a famous musicianperform, traveling overseas). Have participants find other peoplein the room who have had one of the experiences and ask themto sign their name next to the experiences they’ve had.



Appendix A

• As the training proceeds, acknowledge times when people mightfeel frustrated or confused. Allow some discussion of the issue athand to reduce psychological blocks.

Dimension 2

Many of the activities for acquiring and integrating knowledge can be usedthroughout the training to enhance participants’ understanding of themodel. For example:

• From time to time during the training, ask participants to developgraphic organizers to represent what they have learned. For instance,ask them to represent on paper the main issues presented inDimension 1 without using words.

• At the beginning of an especially difficult section, use the K-W-L strategy. (See the Teacher’s Manual, pages 55-56, for anexplanation of this strategy.)

• At selected points in the training after Dimension 2 has beenpresented, have participants store some of the declarativeinformation they have learned using one of the techniques theylearned in the section on Dimension 2. (See pages 73-80 in theTeacher’s Manual for storing techniques.)

Dimension 3

Activities from Dimension 3 can be used to extend and refine participants’knowledge throughout the training. For example:

• When presenting important parts of the training, ask participants tomake comparisons. (See page 118 in the Teacher’s Manual for themodel for the process of comparing.) For example, you might askparticipants to compare declarative and procedural knowledge.

• Assign groups to compare staff development programs (such as thosefocused on learning styles and cooperative learning) in terms of theextent to which they reflect the different aspects of the Dimensionsof Learning model.

• Have participants analyze their perspectives on educational issues(such as the value of high school competency examinations) as theynaturally arise during training. (See pages 179-180 in the Teacher’sManual for the model for the process of analyzing perspectives.)



Appendix A

• Ask participants to use inductive reasoning to infer conclusions aboutcurriculum, instruction, or assessment based on their experiences withthe Dimensions of Learning model. (See pages 139-140 in theTeacher’s Manual for the model for the process of inductive reasoning.)

Dimension 4

Using the Dimensions of Learning model to plan a unit of instruction isparticipants’ primary activity for using knowledge meaningfully. In assistingparticipants with this activity, the trainer should do the following:

• Point out that when teachers work on curriculum in districts, thiswill be the activity for meaningfully using the knowledge that theyhave learned relative to the Dimensions of Learning model.

• As participants engage in some of the tasks for the Dimension 4processes, hold brief conferences to model conferencing duringworkshop classes. (See pages 327-328 in the Teacher’s Manual fordescriptions of how conferencing may be used.)

Dimension 5

The use of effective habits of mind—critical, creative, and self-regulatedthinking—should be supported by the trainer throughout the trainingexperience:

• Note instances of participants’ use of the productive habits of mind,and point them out as they occur.

• Periodically stop the training, and have participants review their ownuse of important habits of mind. See Overheads O.17, O.18, andO.19 in this manual for examples of self-assessment questions for thehabits of mind.



Appendix B

Appendix B:Structured Problems

The seven problems described on the following pages can beused as structured problems as suggested in the introductionto this manual. Each takes no more than five minutes tocomplete. The problems are tricky because they tend toprompt people to make certain assumptions that, if followed,would make the problems impossible to solve. Once peoplethink “outside” of their assumptions, the problems arerelatively easy. These problems have an “aha!” quality thatmakes them fun to solve.

Each problem includes a statement of the assumption thatmakes the problem tricky to solve, the correct answer to theproblem, and, if appropriate, a graphic representation of thesolution to the problem.

APPENDIX B 9/10/07 2:52 PM Page 247

Problem #1

You have three steaks that you want to cook on a grill. Each steak takesfive minutes to cook on each side. You have a grill that can cook onlytwo steaks at a time. What is the shortest amount of time that it willtake to cook all three steaks?

Assumption: Immediately after one side of a steak is cooked, the otherside must be cooked.

Answer: 15 minutes

#1

A

A

C

C

B

B

#2

5 minutessteaks A, B, Cgrill positions #1, #2

5 minutes

5 minutes

15 minutesTOTAL:


Problem #2

You have four separate chains (A, B, C, D), each with three links (see Figure Abelow). You want to connect them so that you have one continuous chain withno clasp (see Figure B). The jeweler tells you that it will cost $2 to open a linkand $3 to close a link. How can you combine the four chains in such a way as toobtain one continuous chain and spend only $15?

Assumption: Each chain must be linked to the end of another chain.

Answer: Use the three links in one chain (e.g., chain D) as the links or fastenersfor the other three chains.

A CA1 C1

A2 C2

A3 C3

B1 B1 B1

BStep #2:

D1 D2

D3

A

A1

A2

A3

B1

B2

B3

C1

C2

C3

B C DStep #1:

D1

D2

D3

Figure B

A B C D

Figure A


Problem #3

You have 24 quarters, one of which is defective and weighs more thanthe others. You also have a balance score (see figure below), which willtell you which of two stacks of coins is heavier. It will not provide youwith information about their actual weight. How can you identify theheavy coin using the balance scale only three times?

Assumption: You must break the pile of coins into two groups to usethe balance scale.

Answer: First break the 24 coins into three piles of 8 coins. Put twopiles on a balance scale. If these balance, then the heavy coin is in thethird pile of 8. If they do not balance, then the heavy coin is in the pileof 8 that is heaviest on the balance scale. Next, break the heavy pileinto three piles (3, 3, 2). Place the two piles of 3 coins on the balancescale. If they balance, the heavy coin is in the pile of 2 coins. If theydon’t, then the heavy coin is in the pile of 3 coins that is heaviest onthe scale. Either break the pile of 3 coins in three piles (1, 1, 1), orbreak the pile of 2 coins into two piles (1, 1) and use the scale for athird time.


Problem #4

Arrange 10 dots so that they form five straights rows of four dots each.

Assumption: A dot cannot be in more than one row, and rows must beparallel.

Answer:

Problem #5

You have 10 glasses, 5 of which are filled with chocolate milk and 5 ofwhich are empty (see Figure A). Moving only 2 glasses, arrange theglasses so they alternate between those containing chocolate milk andthose that are empty (see Figure B).

Assumption: When you move a glass, you change its position only.

Answer: Empty the milk in glass #2 into glass #9, and empty the milkin glass #4 into glass #7.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Figure BFigure A


Problem #6

Using six wooden matches, construct four equilateral triangles (equal sidesand equal angles). Every triangle must be connected to every other triangle.

Assumption: The figure must be two-dimensional.

Answer: Construct a three-dimensional figure.

Problem #7

Divide the area shown below into four equal parts.

Assumption: The figure will be divided by four straight lines.

Answer:

��

��


REFERENCES 9/10/07 2:47 PM Page 1


ReferencesBennett, B., Rolheiser-Bennett, C., & Stevahn, L. (1991). Cooperative

Learning: Where Heart Meets Mind. Toronto: Educational Connections.

Field, T. G., Jr. (1996). “So You Have An Idea.” Franklin Pierce Law Center.http://www.fplc.edu/tfield/idea.htm.

Fowlie, W. (1977). A Journal of Rehearsals: A Memoir. Durman, NC: DukeUniversity Press.

Johnson, D., Johnson, R., Roy, P., & Holubec, E. (1984). Circles of Learning:Cooperation in the Classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development.

Jones, B. F., Tinzmann, M., & Thelen, J. (1990). Can Music Hurt Me?Teacher Edition. Breakthrough Strategies for Thinking Series.Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.

Joyce, B., Murphy, C., Showers, B., & Murphy, J. (1989). “School Renewal asCultural Change.” Educational Leadership 47, 3: 70-77.

Joyce, B., & Weil, M. (1986). Models of Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.

Lipman, M., Sharp, A.M., & Oscanyan, F. S. (1980). Philosophy in theClassroom (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Louis, K. S., & Miles, M. (1990). Improving the Urban High School: WhatWorks and Why. NY: Teacher’s College Press.

Marzano, R. J. (1992). A Different Kind of Classroom: Teaching with Dimensionsof Learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment.

Marzano, R. J., Brandt, R. S., Hughes, C. S., Jones, B. F., Presseisen, B. Z.,Rankin, S. C., & Suhor, C. (1988). Dimensions of Thinking: A Frameworkfor Curriculum and Instruction. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development.



Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., Arredondo, D. E., Blackburn, G. J.,Brandt, R. S., Moffett, C. A., Paynter, D. E., Pollock, J. E., & Whisler,J. S. (1997). Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual (2nd ed.).Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Moffet, C. (May 1991). Telephone interview with Carlene Murphy.

Mullis, I. V. S., Owen, E. H., & Phillips, G. W. (1990). America’s Challenge:Accelerating Academic Achievement (A Summary of Findings from 20 Years ofNAEP). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Ponte, L. (1991, Feb.). “Why Our Hair Turns Gray.” Reader’s Digest.

“Silk, the Queen of Textiles.” (1984, Jan.) National Geographic.

References


O v e r h e a d s


O v e r v i e w


Overview Overhead O.1



Stud

ents

’Th

inki

ng a

nd L

earn

ing


InstructionalStrategies

and Programs

O.1 9/14/07 8:51 AM Page 1


InstructionalStrategies and

Programs


Programs

Inst

ruct

iona

lSt

rate

gies

and

Prog

ram

s


Programs

Students’Thinking

and Learning

O.2 9/10/07 3:09 PM Page 1


Habits of Mind

Attitudes and Perceptions

Use KnowledgeMeaningfully

Extend andRefine Knowledge

Acquireand IntegrateKnowledge

O.3 9/10/07 3:11 PM Page 1

Habits of Mind






O.4 9/10/07 3:12 PM Page 1


• Do I feel accepted?

• Am I comfortable?

• Am I safe?

• Is this information usefulor interesting to me?

• Can I do this?

• Do I know what isexpected?

O.5 9/10/07 3:12 PM Page 1




I. About Classroom Climate• Feel accepted by teachers and peers

• Experience a sense of comfort andorder

II. About Classroom Tasks• Perceive tasks as valuable and

interesting

• Believe they have the ability andresources to complete tasks

• Understand and be clear abouttasks

O.6 9/10/07 3:13 PM Page 1


Habits of Mind





O.7 9/10/07 3:14 PM Page 1




DeclarativeConstruct Meaning

Organize

Store

ProceduralConstruct Models

Shape

Internalize

O.8 9/14/07 8:54 AM Page 1


The procedure is actually quite simple. First, youarrange items into different groups. Of course, onepile may be sufficient depending on how muchthere is to do. If you have to go somewhere elsedue to a lack of facilities, that is the next step;otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is importantnot to overdo things. That is, it is better to do toofew things at once than too many. In the short run,this may not seem important, but complications caneasily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well.At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated.Soon, however, it will become just another facet oflife. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessityfor this task in the immediate future, but then, onenever can tell.

After the procedure is complete, you arrange thematerials into different groups again. Then you canput them into their appropriate places. Eventually,they will be used again, and the whole cycle will thenhave to be repeated. However, that is part of life.

O.9 9/10/07 3:17 PM Page 1


O.10 9/10/07 3:04 PM Page 1


Habits of Mind





O.11 9/10/07 3:05 PM Page 1



Extend & RefineKnowledge

ComparingClassifyingAbstracting

Inductive ReasoningDeductive ReasoningConstructing Support

Analyzing ErrorsAnalyzing Perspectives

O.12 9/10/07 3:05 PM Page 1


Habits of Mind





O.13 9/10/07 3:06 PM Page 1




Decision Making

Problem Solving

Invention


Investigation

Systems Analysis

O.14 9/10/07 3:06 PM Page 1


Habits of Mind





O.15 9/10/07 3:07 PM Page 1



Habits of Mind

Critical Thinking• Be accurate and seek accuracy• Be clear and seek clarity• Maintain an open mind• Restrain impulsivity• Take a position when the situation warrants it• Respond appropriately to others’ feelings and level

of knowledge

Creative Thinking• Persevere• Push the limits of your knowledge and abilities• Generate, trust, and maintain your own standards

of evaluation• Generate new ways of viewing situations that are

outside the boundaries of standard conventions

Self-Regulated Thinking• Monitor your own thinking• Plan appropriately• Identify and use necessary resources• Respond appropriately to feedback• Evaluate the effectiveness of your actions

O.16 9/10/07 3:07 PM Page 1

1. Am I actively seeking accuracy in the information I am receiving?not active very active

2. Am I actively seeking clarity in the information I am receiving?not active very active

3. Am I maintaining an open mind about information I amreceiving?

not open very open

4. Am I stopping to think before I speak or act? Am I restrainingimpulsivity?

not stopping stopping

5. Am I actively taking and defending positions when such action iswarranted?

not active very active

6. Am I responding appropriately to the feelings and level ofknowledge of others?

not responding responding appropriately appropriately

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4


O.17, O.18, O.19 9/10/07 3:08 PM Page 1


1. Am I persevering even when the task becomes difficult, or am Iwithdrawing?

withdrawing persevering

2. Am I pushing myself to my limits, or am I coasting?coasting pushing

3. Am I continually identifying standards that I want to meet?not continually

identifying identifying

4. Am I continually trying to see the situation in new and uniqueways?

not continuallytrying trying

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

O.17, O.18, O.19 9/10/07 3:08 PM Page 2


1. Am I aware of my thinking about what I am trying toaccomplish?

not aware very aware

2. Have I made a plan for what I want to accomplish?no plan complete plan

3. Have I collected all of the resources that I need? all necessary

no resources resources

4. Am I seeking out and responding appropriately to feedbackabout my actions?

not responding respondingappropriately appropriately

5. Am I evaluating how well this is going and what I would dodifferently next time?

alwaysnot evaluating evaluating

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

O.17, O.18, O.19 9/10/07 3:08 PM Page 3

Uses of Dimensions of Learning

• A Resource for InstructionalStrategies

• A Framework for PlanningStaff Development

• A Structure for PlanningCurriculum and Assessment

• A Focus for Systemic Reform


O.20 9/10/07 3:09 PM Page 1


Attitudes & PerceptionsI. Classroom Climate

A. Acceptance by Teachers and PeersB. Comfort and Order

II. Classroom TasksA. Value and InterestB Ability and ResourcesC. Clarity

Acquire & Integrate KnowledgeI. Declarative

A. Construct MeaningB. OrganizeC. Store

II. ProceduralA. Construct ModelsB. ShapeC. Internalize

Extend & Refine KnowledgeComparingClassifyingAbstractingInductive ReasoningDeductive ReasoningConstructing SupportAnalyzing ErrorsAnalyzing Perspectives

Use Knowledge MeaningfullyDecision MakingProblem SolvingInventionExperimental InquiryInvestigationSystems Analysis

Habits of MindCritical ThinkingCreative ThinkingSelf-Regulated Thinking

Resources for Improvement

Dimensions of Learning Outline

O.21 9/10/07 3:10 PM Page 1

D i m e n s i o n 1

DIM

ENSIO

N 1


How Might These Behaviors AffectAttitudes and Perceptions?

■ The teacher asks a student how his baseball gamewent the previous weekend.

■ The teacher describes what a project might look likewhen completed.

■ The student comes early to school to clean out herdesk.

■ The teacher places beanbag chairs in the classroomfor students to use while reading.

■ The teacher posts classroom rules and procedures on a chart.

■ The student reminds himself that even if he becomesa professional athlete, he’ll need math skills.

■ The teacher organizes students into cooperativegroups.

■ The teacher describes how the information studentsare learning might be useful in their day-to-day lives.

Dimension 1 Overhead 1.1

1.1 9/11/07 12:23 PM Page 1

Helping Students Develop PositiveAttitudes and Perceptions

About Classroom Climate1. Help students understand that attitudes and perceptions related

to classroom climate influence learning.2. Establish a relationship with each student in the class. 3. Monitor and attend to your own attitudes.4. Engage in equitable and positive classroom behavior.5. Recognize and provide for students’ individual differences.6. Respond positively to students’ incorrect responses or lack of

response.7. Vary the positive reinforcement offered when students give the

correct response.8. Structure opportunities for students to work with peers. 9. Provide opportunities for students to get to know and accept

each other.10. Help students develop their ability to use their own strategies for

gaining acceptance from their teachers and peers.11. Frequently and systematically use activities that involve physical

movement. 12. Introduce the concept of “bracketing.”13. Establish and communicate classroom rules and procedures. 14. Be aware of malicious teasing or threats inside or outside of the

classroom and take steps to stop such behavior.15. Have students identify their own standards for comfort and

order.


1.2 9/11/07 12:24 PM Page 1

Helping Students Develop PositiveAttitudes and Perceptions

About Classroom Tasks1. Help students understand that learning is influenced by

attitudes and perceptions related to classroom tasks.

2. Establish a sense of academic trust.

3. Help students understand how specific knowledge is valuable.

4. Use a variety of ways to engage students in classroom tasks.

5. Create classroom tasks that relate to students’ interests andgoals.

6. Provide appropriate feedback.

7. Teach students to use positive self-talk.

8. Help students recognize that they have the abilities tocomplete a particular task.

9. Help students understand that believing in their ability tocomplete a task includes believing that they have the abilityto get the help and the resources needed.

10. Help students be clear about the directions and demands ofthe task.

11. Provide students with clarity about the knowledge that thetask addresses.

12. Provide students with clear expectations of performancelevels for tasks.


1.3 9/11/07 12:25 PM Page 1

Vary Your Response to Students’Incorrect Answers

1. What is the most frequently brokenbone in the body?(The clavicle [the collar bone])

2. Spell broccoli.

3. What do you call a baby rabbit?(A kitten)

4. What is the name of the first shot in abilliards game?(The break)

5. What is Queen Elizabeth’s surname?(Windsor)


1.4 & 1.5 9/11/07 12:26 PM Page 1

Vary Your Response to Students’Incorrect Answers

6. The city of Singapore is in what country?(Singapore)

7. What is the second tallest mountain inthe world?(K2. It is next to Everest.)

8. How many items are in a gross?(144)

9. What book did Ken Kesey write thatwas turned into an Oscar Award-winning movie?(One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest )

10. Spell Albuquerque.


1.4 & 1.5 9/11/07 12:26 PM Page 2

Vary Your Response to Students’Correct Answers

1. Explain at least one cause of the Civil War.

2. Solve the following: 3 x 4 + 8 ÷ 2 = _____.

3. Identify an influential author (or scientist,artist, or athlete) of the 20th century, andexplain in what way he or she wasinfluential.

4. What is censorship?

5. __________ is to a tree as ___________isto a person.

Complete this analogy. Try not to use themost obvious relationships, such as,“Branch is to a tree as arm is to a person.”


1.6 9/11/07 12:27 PM Page 1

Planning: Dimension 1

What will be done to help students develop positive attitudes and perceptions?

Step 1 Are there any goals or concerns related to students’ attitudes and perceptions ingeneral? Related to this specific unit?

Step 2 What will be done to address these goals or concerns?

Step 2a: Specifically, will anything be done to helpstudents…

Classroom Climate• feel accepted by teachers and peers?• experience a sense of comfort and order?

Classroom Tasks• perceive tasks as valuable and interesting?• believe they have the ability and resources

to complete tasks?• understand and be clear about tasks?

Step 2b: Describe what will be done.Dimension 1 Overhead 1.P1

1.P1 Test 9/11/07 1:27 PM Page 1

Dimension 1 Overhead 1.P2

Dim

ensi

on 1

Pla

nnin

g G

uide

Uni

t:

Col

orad

o

Are

ther

e an

y go

als

orco

ncer

ns re

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d to

stu

dent

s’att

itud

es a

nd p

erce

ptions

•

in g

ener

al?

•

rela

ted

to th

is s

peci

fic u

nit?

Wha

t will

be

done

to a

ddre

ss th

ese

goal

s or

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Spec

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ill a

nyth

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bedo

ne to

hel

p stu

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s …

Cla

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om

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ate

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ted

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?

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a se

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ve ta

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?

❏be

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hav

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and

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plet

e ta

sks?

❏un

ders

tand

and

be

clea

r abo

ut ta

sks?

Des

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e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

I th

ink

I ha

ve b

een

in a

rut

late

lyw

hen

resp

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ng b

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to st

uden

tsin

corr

ect a

nsw

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nd to

thei

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The

last

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ip w

as n

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ndm

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ere

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slow

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stud

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I ne

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.

I w

ill g

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d th

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rul

esfo

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trip

s; I

thin

k I’

ll h

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tude

nts g

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ass

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1.P2 9/11/07 1:29 PM Page 1

D i m e n s i o n 2

DIM

ENSIO

N 2


1. Think about the field of science. If youlisted the declarative knowledge and theprocedural knowledge in science, whichlist would be longer?

2. If you were trying to determine how wellI understand music, why might Ijustifiably object to your assessing myunderstanding by asking me to sing?

3. A graduate student complained, “Ireceived an A in my statistics course. Infact, I think I could pass some of thosesame tests right now. However, when Istarted to plan data analysis for mydissertation, I had no idea how to set upmy statistical study; that is, I didn’t knowwhich of the formulas to use.” What typeof knowledge did the student lack? Howcould this happen, given that the studentreceived an A in the course?

Declarative Knowledge Overhead 2.1

2.1 9/11/07 12:36 PM Page 1

DescriptionsVocabulary Terms

Facts

Time Sequences

Process/Cause-Effect Relationships

Episodes

Generalizations/Principles

Concepts


2.2 9/11/07 12:40 PM Page 1

Time-Sequence Pattern

Even

t

Even

t

Even

t

Even

t

Even

t

Even

t

Fact Fact

Fact

Fact

Fact

Topic

Descriptive Pattern

Episode Pattern

person person

EFFECTCAUSE

person

Episode

time

place

duration

Process/Cause-EffectPattern

Effect


2.3 & 2.4 9/11/07 12:40 PM Page 1

Concept

Example

Example

Example

Example

Example

Example

Example

Characteristic

Characteristic

Characteristic

Concept Pattern

Generalization/Principle

Example

Example

Example

Generalization/PrinciplePattern


2.3 & 2.4 9/11/07 12:40 PM Page 2

Specific

Students will know

1. the major events in thebook 1984;

2. that people in England havedifferent types of housesand eat different food thanwe do;

3. that one cause of the CivilWar was that people wereoutraged by the oppressionsuffered by slaves in theSouth;

4. that diabetes occurs whenthe body cannot adequatelymetabolize glucose in theblood; and

5. that bar graphs are goodways of showing howsomething has changedover time.

General

Students will understand that

1. literature can both reflectand have an impact onsociety;

2. where you live influenceshow you live;

3. when oppression—social,economic, or political—meets resistance, conflictresults;

4. most health problems resultfrom a loss of the balance,or homeostasis, in a systemof the body; and

5. graphs and equations areboth ways of depictingrelationships among data.


2.5 9/11/07 12:42 PM Page 1


ConstructMeaning

Store

Organize

ConstructModels

Shape Internalize



2.6 9/11/07 12:48 PM Page 1



Construct MeaningLink new information to prior knowledge.

OrganizeIdentify patterns in the information.

StoreConsciously store the information inmemory.

ConstructMeaning

Store

Organize

2.7 9/11/07 12:49 PM Page 1

SilkOf the dozen platters artfully arranged on theluncheon table, only one commanded myattention—and apprehension—a dish ofsilkworms. Minutes before at the . . . ScientificResearch Institute near Dandong, I hadwatched a golden yellow silkworm crawlacross the back of my hand. Now it was onmy plate for lunch. . . . The eyes of myluncheon companions shift between me andthe shiny brown beast, the size of a mediumshrimp, on the plate in front of me. Clutchingit with my chopsticks, I took a crunchy bite. Asmooth, warm custard with a nutty flavorspilled over my tongue. I noticed my dinnerpartners spitting shells of the silkworm pupaeon the tablecloth and the floor. I swallowedthe thing whole.

—from “Silk, the Queen of Textiles”National Geographic (January 1984)


2.8 9/11/07 12:59 PM Page 1

Why Our Hair Turns GrayWhen hair is still forming, it is impregnatedwith thousands of tiny packets of melaninpigment. Cells called melanocytes produceand blend only two basic “paints” to producethe exotic palette of different colors we see inhuman hair. . . . One pigment, eumelanin,tints our locks deep black to the lightestbrown. The other, pheomelanin, turns the hairblond to golden brown or red.

As we pass our twenties, melanocyteproduction slows down. Emerging hairs,possessing only a tiny amount of their formerpigment, begin to appear gray. When themelanocytes go completely dormant, hairgrows out with no pigment at all and takeson the natural color of hair protein: white.

—Lowell PonteReader’s Digest (February 1991)


2.9 9/11/07 12:57 PM Page 1

K-W-L


What I KNOW What I WANTto Know

What ILEARNED

2.10 9/11/07 12:34 PM Page 1


EXAMPLES

treehouse

bedroom

backyard

streetcar

butterfly

NONEXAMPLES

kitchen

computer

lightning

engine

tornado

Attributes:

Concept:

2.11 9/11/07 12:37 PM Page 1


NonexamplesExamples

Attributes:

Concept:

2.12 9/11/07 12:43 PM Page 1


2.13 9/11/07 12:45 PM Page 1

How Do You Hear Sounds?Do you know how you hear sounds? When you hear,you use more than just the part of your ear that you seeon your head. Some parts of your ear are deep inside ofyour head, and those parts, along with your outer ear,help your brain to hear.

Pretend you are playing a drum. When you strike it, thespot you hit moves back and forth very quickly. Thatmovement is called vibration. You can’t see it, but if youput your hand on the spot you just hit, you can feel it forjust an instant.

The vibration shakes the air and makes an invisiblewave of sound. Your outer ear, the part you can see,collects the waves and passes them through a channel toyour eardrum. Then your eardrum vibrates and sendsthe sounds deeper inside your head to your inner ear.

When the sound wave gets to your inner ear, it movestiny hair cells. A healthy ear has over 15,000 hair cells.When the hair cells move, they send signals to yourbrain to tell it that you are hearing a drum.

—from Jones, Tinzmann, & ThelenCan Music Hurt Me? (1990)


2.14 9/11/07 12:46 PM Page 1

Noise Can Harm YouLouder sounds do more serious damage. Becausethey can be as loud as 130 decibels, live rockconcerts are dangerous to listen to for more thantwo hours. Some doctors think you couldpermanently lose some of your hearing after goingto just 10 live rock concerts.

Sounds that are over 140 decibels can even makeyour ears hurt. These sounds can damage yourhearing quickly if you are close to the source of thesounds. One of these sounds is a firecrackerexplosion.

Noise can do more than hurt your ears. If you hearnoise all the time, you can feel cranky. And anythingthat makes you feel cranky for very long is not goodfor your body. Listening to lots of noise can give youa headache and an upset stomach. You can becomeso upset that you can’t sleep well. Constant noise atschool will make it harder for you to study and learn.

—from Jones, Tinzmann, & ThelenCan Music Hurt Me? (1990)


2.15 9/11/07 12:50 PM Page 1

Generate a Symbol or Substitute


Australia

Asia

Europe

North America

South America

Africa

Antarctica

2.16 9/11/07 12:52 PM Page 1


one

two

three

four

five

six

seven

eight

nine

ten

bun

shoe

tree

door

hive

sticks

heaven

gate

line

hen

2.17 9/11/07 12:55 PM Page 1

Planning: Dimension 2,Declarative Knowledge

What will be done to help students acquire and integrate declarative knowledge?

STEP 1 What declarative knowledge will students be in the process of acquiringand integrating? As a result of this unit,students will know or understand…

STEP 2 What experiences or activities will be used to help students acquire and integrate this knowledge?

STEP 3 What strategies will be used to helpstudents construct meaning for, organize, and/or store this knowledge?

STEP 4 Describe what will be done.

Declarative Knowledge Overhead 2.P1

2.P1 9/11/07 1:00 PM Page 1


Wha

t dec

lara

tive

know

ledge

will

stu

dent

s be

in th

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oces

s of

acq

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ting

?A

s a

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lt of

this

uni

t, stu

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sw

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now

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nder

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. . .

Wha

t ex

per

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sor

act

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s w

ill b

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p stu

dent

sac

quire

and

inte

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eth

is k

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use

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ruct

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Text

, pp.

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hini

ng S

ea”

Rea

d na

tura

l

reso

urce

map

s

Fie

ld T

rip:

A

rgo

Gol

d M

ine

3-m

inut

e pau

se

Use

all

sens

es

Pic

togr

aph

Seve

ral t

imes

dur

ing

the f

ilm

, I w

ill s

top

and

ask

stud

ents

to id

enti

fy o

ne ty

pe o

f nat

ural

res

ourc

e. A

fter

th

e fil

m, I

wil

l ask

them

to tr

y to

crea

te m

enta

l pi

ctur

es o

f exa

mpl

es o

f nat

ural

res

ourc

es a

nd id

enti

fy

wha

t the

y se

e, sm

ell,

feel

, etc

. We t

hen

wil

l sta

rt o

ur

pict

ogra

phs o

f nat

ural

res

ourc

es-a

clas

s one

and

in

divi

dual

one

s. A

fter

rea

ding

the n

atur

al r

esou

rce

map

s, w

e wil

l add

info

rmat

ion

to th

e pic

togr

aphs

.

Dur

ing

the f

ield

trip

, stu

dent

s wil

l hav

e the

ir

pict

ogra

phs w

ith

them

so th

ey ca

n ad

d ex

ampl

es o

f the

na

tura

l res

ourc

es th

at w

e obs

erve

.

Step

1St

ep 2

Step

3St

ep 4

Con

cept

: Top

ogra

phy

—N

atur

al a

nd a

rtif

icia

l fe

atur

es in

clud

ing

land

form

s,

bodi

es o

f wat

er, r

oads

, bri

dges

, etc

.F

acts

des

crib

ing

Col

orad

o’s

topo

grap

hy w

ill d

eal w

ith

the

Roc

ky M

ount

ains

, san

d du

nes,

rive

rs, p

lain

s, pl

atea

us,

cany

ons.

Con

cept

: Nat

ura

l Res

ourc

es—

Mat

eria

ls fo

und

in n

atur

eth

at a

re u

sefu

l, ne

cess

ary,

or

attr

acti

ve.

Fac

ts d

escr

ibin

g C

olor

ado’s

na

tura

l res

ourc

es w

ill d

eal

wit

h sn

ow, g

old,

soil

, su

nshi

ne, f

ores

ts, o

il,

mou

ntai

ns.

Dim

ensi

on 2

Pla

nnin

g G

uide

: D

ecla

rati

ve K

now

ledg

e U

nit:

Col

orad

o

2.P2 9/11/07 1:03 PM Page 1

Knowledge for Colorado UnitPartial Brainstormed List

The Colorado Gold Rush

The history of the development of major citiesand towns

The geographical features of Colorado: mountains,rivers, plains (Names of mountain ranges)

Colorado’s culture of outdoor recreation: skiing, hunting, hiking, fishing, camping

The Native American culture and heritage

Famous Coloradans: Molly Brown, Zebulon Pike

Climate: weather is dry, large amount of snowfallin mountains

Denver’s history

Influence of solar industry

Western/cowboy culture

Anasazi IndiansDeclarative Knowledge Overhead 2.P3

2.P3 9/11/07 1:22 PM Page 1

Identify any organizationalpatterns that are importantin this unit:

Identify the important declarative knowledge that will be organizedinto these patterns.

When necessary, identify any additional or specific knowledge thatprovides support for, examples of, or further explanations of moregeneral knowledge.

Concepts?

Generalizations/principles?

Episodes?

Processes/cause-effects?

Time sequences?

Descriptions: facts,vocabulary terms?

Topography, natural resources, climate, culture

—facts about Colorado that are examples of each of these concepts

Topography, natural resources, and climate influence the culture ofa region.

—examples from Colorado (e.g., Mountains and snow influencewinter sports culture.)

Story of the Colorado Gold Rush, 1859-1900

Facts describing how Molly Brown, Zebulon Pike, and AlferdPacker interacted with their environments

Vocabulary terms: tourism, urban

Step 1What declarative knowledge will students be in the process of acquiring and integrating? As aresult of this unit, students will know or understand. . . . (Use worksheet below to answer this question.)

Sample Worksheet: Colorado UnitDeclarative Knowledge Without Standards and Benchmarks


2.P4 9/11/07 1:22 PM Page 1


Col

orad

opl

atea

u, u

rban

, rur

alto

uris

m,

Voca

bula

ry T

erm

s

Gen

eral

izat

ions

/ Pr

inci

ples

Tim

e Se

quen

ces

Fact

s

Un

ders

tan

ds t

hat

topo

grap

hy, n

atu

ral

reso

urc

es, a

nd

clim

ate

infl

uen

ce t

he

cult

ure

of

a re

gion

.

Un

ders

tan

ds t

hat

topo

grap

hy, n

atu

ral

reso

urc

es, a

nd

clim

ate

infl

uen

ce

sett

lem

ent

patt

ern

s.

(Uni

t Titl

e)

Kno

ws f

acts

des

crib

ing

Mol

ly B

row

n,

Zeb

ulon

Pik

e, an

d A

lfer

d P

acke

r.

Con

cept

sU

nde

rsta

nds

top

ogra

phy,

nat

ura

l res

ourc

es,

clim

ate,

cu

ltu

re.

Un

ders

tan

ds r

enew

able

, non

ren

ewab

le,

flow

res

ourc

es.

Kno

ws p

roce

ss b

y w

hich

foss

il fu

els a

re cr

eate

d.

Kno

ws f

acts

abo

ut C

olor

ado’

s ren

ewab

le (

e.g.,

tim

ber)

, non

rene

wab

le (

e.g.,

gold

, oil

), a

nd fl

ow

reso

urce

s (e.g

., w

ind,

suns

hine

).

Kno

ws f

acts

abo

ut C

olor

ado

that

are

ex

ampl

es o

f eac

h of

thes

e con

cept

s.

Kno

ws e

xam

ples

from

Col

orad

o (e

.g.,

mou

ntai

ns a

nd sn

ow ca

use w

inte

r sp

orts

em

phas

is; s

unsh

ine,

rive

rs, a

nd m

ount

ains

ca

use o

utdo

or r

ecre

atio

n; p

lain

s cre

ate

ranc

hing

, cau

sing

Wes

tern

cult

ure)

.

Kno

ws e

xam

ples

from

Col

orad

o (e

.g.,

mou

ntai

ns, g

old,

and

hot

spri

ngs

cont

ribu

ted

to se

ttle

men

t of C

olor

ado

Spri

ngs)

.

Kno

ws t

he st

ory

of th

e Col

orad

o G

old

Rus

h,

1859

-190

0.

Unit P

lannin

g G

raphic

: Colo

rado U

nit

Dec

lara

tive

Know

ledge

(Without

Standard

s and B

ench

mark

s)

2.P5 9/11/07 1:23 PM Page 1

Identify any organizationalpatterns that are importantin this unit:

For each benchmark, identify the important declarative knowledgethat will be organized into these patterns.

When necessary, identify any additional or specific knowledge thatprovides support for, examples of, or further explanations of moregeneral knowledge.

Concepts?

Generalizations/principles?

Episodes?

Processes/cause-effects?

Time sequences?

Descriptions: facts,vocabulary terms?

Benchmark: Understands the interactions betweenhumans and their physical environment within a region.

Topography, natural resources, climate, culture

—facts about Colorado that are examples of each of these concepts

Topography, natural resources, and climate influence the culture ofa region.

—examples from Colorado (e.g., Mountains and snow influencewinter sports culture.)

Story of the Colorado Gold Rush, 1859-1900

Facts describing how Molly Brown, Zebulon Pike, and AlferdPacker interacted with their environments.

Vocabulary terms: tourism, urban

Step 1What declarative knowledge will students be in the process of acquiring and integrating? As aresult of this unit, students will know or understand. . . . (Use worksheet below to answer this question.)

Sample Worksheet: Colorado UnitDeclarative Knowledge With Standards and Benchmarks


2.P6 9/11/07 1:23 PM Page 1


Col

orad

o

Oth

er d

ecla

rativ

e kn

owle

dge

not

rela

ted

to b

ench

mar

ks:

Kno

ws p

roce

ss b

y w

hich

foss

il fu

els a

re cr

eate

d.

Con

cept

s: U

nder

stan

ds r

enew

able

res

ourc

es, n

onre

new

able

re

sour

ces,

and

flow

res

ourc

es.

(Uni

t Titl

e)

Unit P

lannin

g G

raphic

: Colo

rado U

nit

Dec

lara

tive

Know

ledge

(With S

tandard

s and B

ench

mark

s)

Kno

ws t

he st

ory

of th

e Col

orad

o G

old

Rus

h,

1859

-190

0.

Con

cept

s: U

nder

stan

ds to

pogr

aphy

, nat

ural

re

sour

ces,

clim

ate,

cult

ure.

Gen

eral

izat

ion

s/P

rin

cipl

es: U

nder

stan

ds th

at

topo

grap

hy, n

atur

al r

esou

rces

, and

clim

ate

infl

uenc

e the

cult

ure o

f a r

egio

n.

Fac

ts: K

now

s how

Mol

ly B

row

n, Z

ebul

on P

ike,

Alf

red

Pac

kers

inte

ract

ed w

ith

thei

r ph

ysic

al

envi

ronm

ents

.

Voc

abu

lary

Ter

ms:

tour

ism

, pla

teau

Kno

ws f

acts

abo

ut C

olor

ado

that

are

exam

ples

of

each

of t

hese

conc

epts

.

Kno

ws e

xam

ples

from

Col

orad

o (e

.g.,

mou

ntai

ns

and

snow

infl

uenc

e win

ter

spor

ts cu

ltur

e).

Geo

grap

hy S

tand

ard

1, B

ench

mar

k 2(

D):

Und

ersta

nds

the

inte

ract

ions

am

ong

hum

ans

and

thei

r phy

sica

l env

ironm

ent

with

in a

regi

on.

Geo

grap

hy S

tand

ard

2, B

ench

mar

k 5(

D):

Und

ersta

nds

the

reas

ons

for h

uman

m

ovem

ent w

ithin

and

am

ong

regi

ons.

Gen

eral

izat

ion

s/P

rin

cipl

es: U

nder

stan

ds th

at

topo

grap

hy, n

atur

al r

esou

rces

, and

clim

ate

infl

uenc

e set

tlem

ent p

atte

rns.

Voc

abu

lary

Ter

ms:

urb

an, r

ural

Kno

ws e

xam

ples

from

Col

orad

o (e

.g.,

mou

ntai

ns,

gold

, and

hot

spri

ngs c

ontr

ibut

ed to

the s

ettl

emen

t of

Col

orad

o Sp

ring

s).

Geo

grap

hy S

tand

ard

3, B

ench

mar

k 2(

D):

Und

ersta

nds

char

acte

ristic

s an

d lo

catio

ns o

f re

new

able

and

non

rene

wab

le re

sour

ces.

Kno

ws f

acts

abo

ut C

olor

ado’

s ren

ewab

le (

e.g.,

tim

ber)

, no

nren

ewab

le (

e.g.,

gold

, oil

), a

nd fl

ow r

esou

rces

(e.g

., w

ind,

suns

hine

).

2.P7 9/11/07 1:24 PM Page 1

Procedural Knowledge Overhead 2.18

Time spent learningDeclarative Knowledge

Time spent learningProcedural Knowledge

Construct Meaning Construct Models

Store Internalize

Organize Shape

2.18 9/11/07 12:54 PM Page 1



Construct ModelsEnvision the steps of the process.

ShapeModify, adapt, and increaseunderstanding of the process.

InternalizePractice to achieve automaticity andfluency.

ConstructModels

Shape Internalize

2.19 9/11/07 12:38 PM Page 1

1. Grasp one chopstick in the valleybetween the thumb and forefinger.

2. Stabilize this chopstick with theupper part of the thumb and thelower part of the ring finger.

3. Place other chopstick between tipsof thumb and forefinger. Do NOTstabilize it. Rest chopstick on end ofmiddle finger.

4. Adjust small ends of chopsticks tomake them even.

5. Move second chopstick back andforth, making small ends touch.

6. Use step 5 to grasp a bite of food.Procedural Knowledge Overhead 2.20

2.20 5/5/10 11:44 AM Page 1

Practice Chart

1.

2.

3.

Large Items Small Items

Trial(30 seconds each)

Number of items picked up andmoved 12 inches without dropping


2.21 5/5/10 11:47 AM Page 1


Jigsaw Assignments

A. CONSTRUCT MODELS. Readstrategies 1-5, pages 94-96.Then read the second classroomexample, page 104—Ms. Hallfield.

B. SHAPE. Read strategies 1-4,pages 97-100. Then read thethird classroom example, page105—Coach Elway.

C. INTERNALIZE. Read strategies1-3, pages 101-103. Then readthe fourth classroom example,page 105—Mrs. Cliburn.

2.22 5/5/10 11:48 AM Page 1

Construct Models forProcedural Knowledge

1. Help students understand the importance ofconstructing models for proceduralknowledge.

2. Use a think-aloud process to demonstrate anew skill or process.

3. Provide or construct with students a written orgraphic representation of the skill or processthey are learning.

4. Help students see how the skill or processthey are learning is similar to and differentfrom other skills or processes.

5. Teach students to mentally rehearse the stepsinvolved in a skill or process.


2.23 5/5/10 11:48 AM Page 1

Shape Procedural Knowledge

1. Help students understand theimportance of shaping proceduralknowledge.

2. Demonstrate and create opportunitiesfor students to practice using theimportant variations of the skill orprocess.

3. Point out common errors and pitfalls.

4. Help students develop the conceptualunderstanding necessary to use theskill or process.


2.24 5/5/10 11:49 AM Page 1

Internalize Procedural Knowledge

1. Help students understand theimportance of internalizingprocedural knowledge.

2. Help students set up a practiceschedule.

3. Have students chart and report ontheir speed and/or accuracy whenpracticing new skills or processes.


2.25 5/5/10 11:49 AM Page 1

Planning: Dimension 2,Procedural Knowledge

What will be done to help students acquire and integrate procedural knowledge?

STEP 1 What procedural knowledge will students be in the process of acquiring and integrating? As a result of this unit,students will be able to…

STEP 2 What strategies will be used to helpstudents construct models for, shape,and/or internalize this knowledge?


Procedural Knowledge Overhead 2.P8

2.P8 9/11/07 1:25 PM Page 1


Wha

t will

be

done

to

help

stu

dent

s co

nst

ruct

model

s fo

r, sh

ape,

and

inte

rnaliz

e th

e kn

owle

dge?

Des

crib

e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

Wha

t pro

cedura

l know

ledge

will

stu

dent

s be

in th

e pr

oces

s of

acq

uir

ing a

nd in

tegra

ting

?A

s a

resu

lt of

this

uni

t, stu

dent

s w

illbe

abl

e to

. . .

read

and

inte

rpre

t phy

sica

l m

aps.

read

and

inte

rpre

t nat

ural

re

sour

ce m

aps.

I w

ill t

alk

thro

ugh

the s

teps

of r

eadi

ng a

map

, de

mon

stra

ting

the s

teps

wit

h ea

ch ty

pe. I

wil

l giv

eth

em a

set o

f wri

tten

step

s for

rea

ding

any

map

.

Wor

king

in g

roup

s, st

uden

ts w

ill r

ecei

ve se

vera

l var

iati

ons

in fo

rmat

(ta

ken

from

dif

fere

nt te

xtbo

oks)

for

both

phy

sica

l an

d na

tura

l res

ourc

e map

s. T

here

wil

l be q

uest

ions

for

the

grou

p an

d th

en fo

r in

divi

dual

stud

ents

to a

nsw

er a

s a w

ay

of b

ecom

ing

fam

ilia

r w

ith

each

var

iati

on. T

his a

ssig

nmen

t al

so w

ill r

einf

orce

the l

earn

ing

of th

e con

cept

s of t

opog

raph

y an

d na

tura

l res

ourc

es.

Step

1St

ep 2

Step

3

Not

e: T

hese

stra

tegi

es

wil

l be u

sed

to te

ach

both

type

s of m

aps.

Thi

nk-a

loud

Set o

f wri

tten

step

s

Pra

ctic

e wit

h va

riat

ions

Inte

rnal

izin

g is

not

a

goal

.

Dim

ensi

on 2

Pla

nnin

g G

uide

: P

roce

dura

l Kno

wle

dge

Uni

t: C

olor

ado

2.P9 9/11/07 1:25 PM Page 1

read and interpret physical maps

read and interpret natural resource maps

Skills/Processes (P)

Knows how to read and interpret physical and natural resource maps

Colorado

Identify the important procedural knowledge (skills and processes).

When necessary, identify specific skills that support more general processes.

What procedural knowledge (skills and processes) will students be in the process of acquiringand integrating? As a result of this unit, students will be able to. . . . (Use worksheet below toanswer this question.)

Sample Worksheet: Colorado UnitProcedural Knowledge Without Standards and Benchmarks

Unit Planning Graphic: Colorado UnitProcedural Knowledge Without Standards and Benchmarks


2.P10 9/11/07 1:01 PM Page 1

Sample Worksheet: Colorado UnitProcedural Knowledge With Standards and Benchmarks

Unit Planning Graphic: Colorado UnitProcedural Knowledge With Standards and Benchmarks

Benchmark: Uses thematic maps

Colorado

Knows how to read and interpret physical maps

Knows how to read and interpret natural resource maps

Geography Standard 6, Benchmark 1(P):Uses thematic maps

For each benchmark, identify the important procedural knowledge (skills and processes).

When necessary, identify specific skills that support more general processes.

read and interpret physical maps

read and interpret natural resource maps

What procedural knowledge (skills and processes) will students be in the process of acquiringand integrating? As a result of this unit, students will be able to. . . . (Use worksheet below toanswer this question.)


2.P11 9/11/07 1:01 PM Page 1


Content knowledgeto which students areexposed in the unit

Knowledge thatis targeted on unitplanning guide

2.P12 9/11/07 1:02 PM Page 1

D i m e n s i o n 3

DIM

ENSIO

N 3


Dimension 3 Overhead 3.0A

CIVIL WAR

CIVIL WAR

STATES’RIGHTS

VIETNAMWAR

3.0A 9/11/07 1:32 PM Page 1

Dimension 3 Overhead 3.0B

“We learn bydoing, if we

reflect on whatwe have done.”

—John Dewey

3.0B 9/11/07 1:33 PM Page 1

Dimension 3 Overhead 3.0C

Organizational Format for EachReasoning Process

I. A brief introduction to the process.

II. Five sections with suggestions for teaching theprocess:

1. Help students understand the process.

2. Give students a model for the process, andcreate opportunities for them to practice usingthe process.

3. As students study and use the process, helpthem focus on critical steps and difficult aspectsof the process.

4. Provide students with graphic organizers orrepresentations of the model to help themunderstand and use the process.

5. Use teacher-structured and student-structuredtasks.

III. Classroom Examples

3.0C 9/11/07 1:35 PM Page 1

Comparing

The process of identifyingand articulating similaritiesand differences among items.

1. Select the items you want tocompare.

2. Select the characteristics of theitems on which you want to baseyour comparison.

3. Explain how the items are similarand different with respect to thecharacteristics you selected.

Comparing Overhead 3.1A

3.1A/3.1B 9/11/07 1:38 PM Page 1

Comparing

The process of describinghow things are the sameand different.

1. What do I want to compare?

2. What is it about them that Iwant to compare?

3. How are they the same?How are they different?

Comparing Overhead 3.1B

3.1A/3.1B 9/11/07 1:38 PM Page 2

Item

s to

be

com

pare

d

Char

acte

ristic

s

#1#2

#3

1.Si

mila

ritie

s

2.Si

mila

ritie

s

3.Si

mila

ritie

s

4.Si

mila

ritie

s

Diff

eren

ces

Diff

eren

ces

Diff

eren

ces

Diff

eren

ces

Comparing Overhead 3.1C

3.1C 9/11/07 1:39 PM Page 1

Key Points: Comparing

1. Because the process of comparing can be

overused, it is important to ask if it is the

best process to use to help students extend

and refine the identified content knowledge.

2. Students need extensive modeling, practice,

and feedback in order to become skilled at

identifying meaningful and interesting

characteristics to use in comparison tasks.

3. Students should understand that the purpose

of doing a comparison task is to extend and

refine knowledge. A question such as “What

did you discover?” helps to reinforce this

understanding.

Comparing Overhead 3.1D

3.1D 9/11/07 1:39 PM Page 1

1. Football Baseball Chess Golf

Chances of playerssuffering from seriousinjury

Average annualcompensation

Percentage of womenplaying competitively

Average number ofyears players cancompete

2. Football Baseball Chess Golf

Size of crowdsattending events

Chances of playersappearing on aWheaties box

Numbers of peoplewatching or listeningvia the media

Chances of high schoolplayers winning ascholarship

Comparing Overhead 3.1E

3.1E 9/11/07 1:40 PM Page 1

Venn Diagrams

EnglandUnited States

Labor Day

Memorial Day

Fourth of July

Christmas

Easter

Birthdays

Boxing Day

Queen’sBirthday

Guy FawkesDay

HOLIDAYS AND CELEBRATIONS

EnglandUnited States

Beef

Peanut Butter

Popcorn

Potatoes

Bacon

Eggs

Lamb

Asian Food

Steak andKidney Pie

FOOD

Comparing Overhead 3.1F

3.1F 9/11/07 1:41 PM Page 1

Exercise: Life and DeathWould you classify the following as living, dead,or ? Explain.

Living Dead ?

1. Mummies

2. Fossils

3. Lightning

4. Bacteria

5. Seaweed

6. The Loch Ness Monster

7. Thoughts

8. Coral reefs

9. Petrified wood

10. Ghosts

11. Active volcanos

12. The sun

13. Fingernails

14. Pearls

15. Blood

From: Philosophy in the Classroom (1980)Lipman, Sharp, and Oscanyan

Classifying Overhead 3.2A

3.2A 9/11/07 1:42 PM Page 1

Blue Purple Red Yellow

Classifying Overhead 3.2B

3.2B 9/11/07 1:43 PM Page 1

HamletHuckleberry FinnWhere the Red Fern GrowsThe Scarlet LetterThe Grass Is Always Greener

over the Septic TankTo Kill a Mockingbird1984Catcher in the RyeA Tale of Two CitiesThe OutsidersHollywood WivesThe HobbitThe Grapes of WrathDimensions of LearningCrime and PunishmentGone with the WindDeath of a SalesmanIacoccaWuthering HeightsMoby DickThe Accidental Tourist

Classifying Overhead 3.2C

3.2C 9/11/07 1:44 PM Page 1

ClassifyingThe process of grouping thingsinto definable categories on thebasis of their attributes.

1. Identify the items you want to classify.

2. Select what seems to be an important item, describe itskey attributes, and identify other items that have thesame attributes.

3. Create the category by specifying the attribute(s) that theitems must have for membership in the category.

4. Select another item, describe its key attributes, andidentify other items that have the same attributes.

5. Create this second category by specifying the attribute(s)that the items must have for membership in the category.

6. Repeat the previous two steps until all items are classifiedand the specific attributes have been identified formembership in each category.

7. If necessary, combine categories or split them into smallercategories and specify the attribute(s) that determinemembership in the category.

Classifying Overhead 3.2D

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Classifying

The process of grouping thingsthat are alike into categories.

1. What do I want to classify?

2. What things are alike and could beput into a group?

3. How are these things alike?

4. What other groups can I make andhow are the things alikein each group?

5. Does everything now fit into a group?

6. Would it be better to split up any ofthe groups or put any groups together?

Classifying Overhead 3.2E

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Key Points: Classifying

1. Categories should be related to oneanother or parallel.

2. It is important to focus on attributes that are important and meaningful tothe content.

3. Students must understand the definingcharacteristics of the categories wellenough to justify placement of theitems–which gets more difficult withcomplex content.

4. Having students classify and thenreclassify is a key to helping them noticeunique distinctions and connections thatthey might not have noticed had theyclassified the items only once.

Classifying Overhead 3.2F

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Geography Terms

Classifying Overhead 3.2G

basinbaycanalcanyoncapechannelcontinentdeltadividefall linefjordfoothillglaciergulf

harborhighlandhillisthmuslowlandmarshmesamountainrangemouth(of a river)peakpeninsulaplain

plateauportprairierain forestreservoirsource(of a river)straitstreamswamptributarytundravalleyvolcano

3.2G 9/11/07 1:45 PM Page 1

Categories

Classifying Overhead 3.2H

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When C. L. Sholes was inventing a typewriting machinein the early 1870s, he found that the machine jammed ifhe typed too fast. So he deliberately arranged theposition of the letters in a way that forced typists towork slowly. Nevertheless, Sholes’s typewriter designwas still a great improvement over earlier models, andso it was soon in use all over the world.

Today, although typewriters have been improved inmany ways, nearly all of them have keyboards like theone Sholes devised in 1872. The letter arrangement iscalled QWERT, after the five left-hand keys in the topletter row. You can see QWERT keyboards on computerconsoles as well as on typewriters. Unfortunately, theQWERT arrangement slows typing, encourages errors,and causes greater fatigue than another arrangementdevised by August Dvorak in 1930, which has proved inseveral tests to be much faster and more accurate thanQWERT.

Millions of people have learned the QWERT keyboard,however, and it is being taught to students in schoolsright now. So it seems that we will continue to live withthis 19th-century mistake.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3A

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Abstracting

The process of identifying andarticulating the underlying themeor general pattern of information.

1. Identify what is considered important orbasic to the information or situation withwhich you are working.

2. Write that basic information in a moregeneral form by• replacing words referring to specific things

with words referring to more generalthings, and

• summarizing information wheneverpossible.

3. Find new information or a situation to whichthe general pattern applies.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3B

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Abstracting

The process of finding andexplaining general patterns inspecific information or situations.

1. What is important here?

2. How can I say the samething in a more generalway?

3. What else has the samegeneral pattern?

Abstracting Overhead 3.3C

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Lite

ral

Lite

ral

Abst

ract

Abstracting Overhead 3.3D

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Step 1: Specific/Literal

C.L. Sholes invented akeyboard, QWERT, thatwould slow down typists,thus solving the problemof the keys sticking.

Typewriter keys stoppedsticking.

Another keyboard wasinvented that was shownto be superior to QWERT.

QWERT is still useddespite the fact that keysno longer stick andanother keyboardconfiguration was shownto be better.

Step 2: General/Abstract

Someone invented/createdsomething to address anissue/problem.

The issue/problem wentaway.

Something else wasinvented that was shownto be superior to theoriginal invention.

The original invention isstill used/accepted eventhough the issue/problemis no longer present andsomething new is shownto be better.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3E

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The Emperor’s New ClothesThere once was an emperor who loved new clothes. One daytwo swindlers convinced him that they could make him veryspecial clothes that would be invisible to anyone foolish orunfit for office. The emperor placed an order immediately,thinking that he would now be able to distinguish wise menfrom foolish men.

As the swindlers set up their looms and began to work, manypeople stopped to see the fabric they were weaving.Each person, afraid to admit that he or she could see nofabric, raved about the beautiful color and texture.

Finally, one morning the clothes were ready. The swindlerspresented them to the emperor and pretended to dress himand put imaginary final touches on each piece. The emperor,staring at himself naked in the mirror, agreed that they werethe finest clothes he’d ever seen.

The emperor’s subjects had gathered from far and wide toview the new clothes they had all heard so much about. As theemperor marched through the streets, people talked of howbeautiful the clothes were. Then, a little boy, not knowing thathe would seem foolish if he could not see the clothes, shoutedout, “The emperor has nothing on!” Soon, everyone joined in,“The emperor is naked!”

The emperor now felt foolish, but he held his head high andtried to maintain his dignity. The crowd laughed and laughed.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3F

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An emperor who loved theway he looked in new clotheswas convinced by twoswindlers that they could makehim special clothes that wouldbe invisible to anyone foolishor unfit for office.

People who watched theswindlers work raved aboutthe color and texture of thefabric, afraid to admit theycould see nothing.

When the clothes were ready,the naked emperor paradedthrough the streets to show offhis new clothes.

A little boy shouted, “Theemperor has nothing on!”

Even though everyone thenlaughed at the emperor, hecontinued to pretend that hehad on clothes.

Step 2:General/Abstract

A person in power with a flawor an obsession is takenadvantage of by someone whopromises something unrealistic.

Other people see that whatwas delivered is not what waspromised but are afraid orreluctant to speak out.

The person in power, becauseof his flaw or obsession,refuses to acknowledge thereality of the situation.

An innocent person exposesthe truth.

Even though all of the otherpeople now speak out, theperson in power still refuses toacknowledge the truth.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3G

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Key Points: Abstracting

1. Step 1 of the process–identifying theimportant or basic literal information–is often the most challenging forstudents. They will need manyopportunities to practice this step.

2. Students often have questions abouthow general the language in theabstract pattern should be. The level ofgenerality that’s appropriate dependson the content and purpose of theassignment.

3. As students apply a general pattern tonew specifics and identify the obviousconnections, encourage them to makeconnections that are less obvious andmore interesting.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3H

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Cinderella lived with herwicked stepmother andspoiled stepsisters, all ofwhom disliked her andwere jealous of beauty.

The king announced thatthere would be a gloriousball held to find a princessfor his son, the handsomeprince.

The stepmother arrangedfor her daughters to go tothe ball but would not letCinderella attend.

A fairy godmother arrivedand provided Cinderellawith everything sheneeded to go to the ball.

Step 2: Too General?

A person lived with somemean people.

There was a party.

The person could not go tothe party.

Someone helped theperson go to the party.

Abstracting Overhead 3.3I

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InductiveReasoning

The process of inferring unknowngeneralizations or principles frominformation or observations.

1. Focus on specific pieces of information orobservations. Try not to assume anything.

2. Look for patterns or connections in theinformation you have identified.

3. Make a general statement that explainsthe patterns or connections you haveobserved.

4. Make more observations to see if yourgeneralization holds up; if it does not,change it as necessary.

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4A

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InductiveReasoningThe process of making generalconclusions from specific informationor observations.

1. What specific information do I have?

2. What connections or patterns can Ifind?

3. What general conclusions orpredictions can I make?

4. When I get more information, do Ineed to change my generalconclusions or predictions?

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4B

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What Conclusions Can You Draw?

Soap operas generally involve births, deaths,affairs, marriages, divorces, murders, and lies.

The most common types of productsadvertised during soap operas arehousehold cleaning products and health careproducts.

Many people who watch soap operas reportthat no matter how many episodes they havemissed, it is easy to pick up on the story line.

Many people who work all day record thesoap operas on their VCRs and watch themin the evening.

The soap opera format was once limited todaytime television but is now common inprime time.

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4C

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Key Points: Inductive Reasoning

1. Students should make sure theirconclusions are not just restatements of the information, descriptions ofobservations, or opinions.

2. Students should make sure they useobservations and information to maketheir conclusions and avoid usingassumptions and opinions.

3. Valid conclusions need to be supportedwith as many observations or as muchspecific information as possible.

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4D

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Concl

usi

on

Obse

rvation

Obse

rvation

Obse

rvation

Obse

rvation

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4E

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Whogoverns?

How aredecisionsmade?

What aresome earlyexamples?

CONCLUSIONS

Democracy

Republic

Monarchy

Dictatorship

CONCLUSIONS SUMMARYCONCLUSIONS

Inductive Reasoning Overhead 3.4F

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DeductiveReasoningThe process of using generalizationsand principles to infer unstated conclusionsabout specific information or situations.

1. Identify the specific situation that is beingconsidered or studied.

2. Identify the generalizations or principles thatapply to the specific situation.

3. Make sure that the specific situation meetsthe conditions that have to be in place forthose generalizations or principles to apply.

4. If the generalizations or principles do apply,identify what is known about the specificsituation, that is, what conclusions can bedrawn or what predictions can be made.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5A

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DeductiveReasoningThe process of using generalstatements to come to conclusionsabout specific information or situations.

1. What specific topic am I studying?

2. What general information do I alreadyhave that might help me understand myspecific topic?

3. Am I sure the general informationapplies to the specific topic I amstudying?

4. If it does, how did the generalinformation help me understand thespecific topic?

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5B

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1. Specific situation/topic

4. Conclusion/Prediction 4. No Conclusion/Prediction

2. Related generalization/principle

3. Does the specific situation/topic meet the conditionsthat make the generalization/principle apply?

Conditions that must be inplace for the generalization/principle to apply

Yes? No?

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5C

3.5C 9/13/07 8:35 AM Page 1

Spec

ific

topic

or

situ

ation

Pri

nci

ple

s or

gen

eraliz

ations

that

mig

ht

apply

.

Conditio

ns

that

would

mak

e th

epri

nci

ple

or

gen

eraliz

ation

apply

.

If t

he

pri

nci

ple

or

gen

eraliz

ation

applie

s, w

hat

can

you c

oncl

ude

or

pre

dic

t?

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5D

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Key Points: Deductive Reasoning

1. Be sure that the curriculum specifiesgeneralizations and principles thatstudents need to understand.

2. Make sure that students can state theconditions necessary for generalizationsand principles to apply.

3. Consider carefully whether studentsshould be discovering a generalizationor principle or whether they should betaught generalizations and principlesand asked to apply them in manydifferent situations.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5E

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1. All beans are vegetables. Some vegetablesare green. Therefore . . .a. Some beans are green.b. All beans are green.c. Some things that are green are beans.d. None of the above.

2. If your baby does not cry a lot, you should notworry. Joan’s baby cries a lot. Therefore . . .a. Joan should worry.b. Joan should not worry.c. Joan should cry a lot.d. None of the above.

3. Richard eats more than Keisha but less thanAlejandro. Ted eats more than Richard andKeisha. Therefore . . .a. Ted eats more than Alejandro.b. Ted eats less than Alejandro.c. Ted eats too much.d. None of the above.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5F

3.5F 9/13/07 8:37 AM Page 1

a. All men are mortal.b. Plato is a man.c. Therefore, Plato is mortal.

a. All commercial airlines havea fire extinguisher on board.

b. The airplane I am on is acommercial airplane.

c. Therefore, this airplane has afire extinguisher on board.

a. All bees have stingers.b. That is a bee.c. Therefore, that has a stinger.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5G

3.5G 9/13/07 8:38 AM Page 1

1. Help students see hiddencategorical syllogisms in theirreasoning and that of others.

2. Provide students with agraphic way of representingsyllogisms.

3. Present students with thevarious forms of valid andinvalid categorical syllogisms.

4. Have students examine thetruth of the premises incategorical syllogisms.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5H

3.5H 9/13/07 8:39 AM Page 1

STATEMENT

Oh, you say Mary wrotethis report? Then we don’thave to worry; it will beaccurate.

I know this is going to bea bad day. I have had twogood days in a row.

I can’t wait to get to thebeach in Mexico. I amgoing to just sit in thewarm sand and order amargarita.

SYLLOGISM

a. All reports that Marywrites are accurate.

b. This is a report thatMary wrote.

c. This is accurate.

a. All days that follow twogood days are baddays.

b. This is a day thatfollows two good days.

c. This will be a bad day.

a. All beaches in Mexicoare places I can order amargarita.

b. The beach I am goingto is a beach in Mexico.

c. The beach I am goingis a place I can ordera margarita.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5I

3.5J 9/13/07 8:42 AM Page 1

STATEMENT

She obviously has morefun; she’s a blonde.

They will vote in favor ofthe child-care bill becausethey have children.

You didn’t do well on thistest because you just don’tcare.

SYLLOGISM

a. All blondes are people whohave more fun.

b. She is a blonde.

c. She is a person who hasmore fun.

a. All people who havechildren are people whowill vote for the child-carebill.

b. They are people who havechildren.

c. They are people who willvote for the child-care bill.

a. All students who didn’t dowell on the test are studentswho don’t care.

b. You are a person whodidn’t do well on the test.

c. You are a person whodoesn’t care.

Deductive Reasoning Overhead 3.5J

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ConstructingSupportThe process of building systems ofsupport for assertions.

1. Identify whether you are stating factsor opinions.

2. If you are stating an opinion,determine whether the situationwarrants support.

3. When the situation warrants it,construct a supportive argumentthrough the use of a variety of devices,such as facts, evidence, examples, orappeals.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6A

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ConstructingSupport

The process of providingsupport for statements.

1. Am I stating a fact or anopinion?

2. If I am stating an opinion, do Ineed to offer support?

3. What will I include (Facts?Examples? Evidence? Appeals?)when I provide my support?

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6B

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Key Points: Constructing Support

1. Students should understand thedifference between facts and opinions.

2. Students should understand devicesused to construct an argument: facts,evidence, examples, and appeals. Theyshould also understand the four typesof appeals: personality, tradition oraccepted beliefs, rhetoric, and reason.

3. Students should understand the fourcomponents of an appeal to reason:evidence, claim, elaboration, andqualifier.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6C

3.6C 9/13/07 8:44 AM Page 1

Heart bypass surgery is one of themost common medical proceduresperformed on patients 65 years of ageor older. Clearly, it is used far toooften. In 1990, in Colorado alone, 600patients underwent bypass surgery,making it an incredible 37th amongthe 50 most common reasons forhospitalization. Total hospital chargesfor this one procedure reached awhopping $22 million. These shockingfacts definitely indicate that hospitalsare making money at the expense ofunsuspecting elderly patients.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6D

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Components of a Well-StructuredAppeal to Reason

EVIDENCE. Information that leads to a claim.For example, “Last night five crimes werecommitted within two blocks of one another.”

CLAIM. The assertion that something is true. Forexample, “The crime rate in our city is escalatingdramatically.”

ELABORATION. Examples of or explanations forthe claim. For example, “The dramatic increasecan be seen by examining the crime rates in thedowntown area over the past twenty years.”

QUALIFIER. A restriction on the claim orevidence counter to the claim. For example,“The crime rate has stabilized in some areas,however.”

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6E

3.6E 9/13/07 8:48 AM Page 1

An Appeal to Reason

EVIDENCE. In 1996 large, scheduled U.S. carriers flew anaverage of 14 million miles per day without incident. Froma statistical perspective, according to the Federal AviationAdministration’s Safety Office if you boarded an airlinerdaily, you would have to fly an average of 21,000 yearsbefore dying in a crash.

CLAIM. Air travel is the safest mode of transportation.

ELABORATION. Each year, over 40,000 people are killedin motor vehicle accidents, whereas only 200-300 peopleare killed in airplane accidents.

Each year, approximately 12,000 people die from falls and4,000 drown.

QUALIFIERS. These statistics only apply to U.S. carriers.Africa has become a trouble spot, and Asia, SouthAmerica, and Central America also have poor airplanesafety records.

All aircraft older than 20 years must be inspected moreoften than those planes less than 20 years old.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6F

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Nearly one-fifth of eighth graders and one-third oftwelfth graders admit that they smoke cigarettes.Addiction to drugs, cigarettes, and alcohol is thought toaccount for, either directly or indirectly, a third of allhospital admissions, a quarter of all deaths, and themajority of serious crimes. Yet research has shown thatdrug addiction can be prevented and cured successfully.All of this suggests that a larger proportion of moneyspent in the war on drugs should be directed towardprevention and treatment.

Two-thirds of the $15 billion spent on the war on drugsfunds efforts to catch and prosecute those who engage inthe illegal production and sale of drugs. Only one-thirdof the money goes to prevention and treatment. Onereason for this is the misperception that treatment ofdrug addiction is unsuccessful. In fact, the failure rate isno greater than, for example, the failure rate of peopletreated for diabetes and hypertension who do not followtheir diet, exercise, and medication regimens. Recentbreakthroughs in medical research suggest that if moreresources were spent on research, cures and treatmentsfor drug addiction could be even more successful.

This is not to suggest that we should stop prosecutingcriminals who are trafficking illegal drugs. However,there is strong evidence to suggest that the emphasisshould be shifted to prevention and cure.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6G

Drug use is out of control in this country. The war ondrugs has failed miserably. This is probably becauseof the emphasis on prosecuting criminals. In fact, two-thirds of the $15 billion spent for the war on drugs isdirected toward making it a criminal matter. Weshould spend less money on the criminals and moreon the prevention and cure of drug addiction.

The main reason that drugs are such a problem isthat lawyers have become involved. All that moneyspent prosecuting criminals involved in drugtrafficking actually goes into the pockets of lawyerseager to make a buck. Even more money goes to theshyster lawyers who defend these scum drugtraffickers, often successfully getting them acquittedon technicalities. All of this money should go insteadinto medical research to help prevent and cure drugaddiction.

This is not to suggest that we should stop punishingcriminals who sell drugs to our children. But weshould skip the lengthy trials and just throw theseguys in jail. Medical researchers can then get all thatmoney, not lawyers.

Constructing Support Overhead 3.6H

3.6H 9/13/07 8:52 AM Page 1

App

eal t

hrou

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ality

App

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cept

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elie

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App

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ppea

l thr

ough

rea

son

Evid

ence

:

Clai

m:

Elab

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Qua

lifie

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Opi

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Constructing Support Overhead 3.6I

3.6I 9/13/07 8:54 AM Page 1

1. How can you reasonably object to the newcurricular proposal? After all, it’s supported bythe president, the provost, and all of the topadministrators.

2. Every nation has the sovereign right to controlthe flow of people into its country, and mostnations do so rigidly. Only the United States hasa lax immigration policy.

3. Who can excuse the brutal slaughter of innocentbaby seals by greedy killers anxious to sell thepelts to furriers catering to the idle rich?

4. The idea that is prevalent throughout the UnitedStates is that the people of Northern Ireland donot want to be part of Great Britain. This is false.Anyone advancing such views is either totallyignorant of the facts or deliberately irresponsibleand mischievous.

5. No medical evidence or scientific endorsementhas proved any other cigarette superior to Sussex.

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7A

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Analyzing Errors

The process of identifyingand articulating errors in thinking.

1. Determine if the information beingpresented is important or is intended toinfluence your beliefs or actions.

2. If the information is important or intendedto influence you, identify statements orclaims that are unusual, violate what youknow to be true, or seem wrong.

3. Look for errors in the thinking underlyingthe statements or claims you have identified.

4. If you find errors, seek clarification or moreaccurate information.

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7B

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Analyzing Errors

The process of finding anddescribing errors in thinking.

1. Is the information I am receivingimportant or does it try to influencemy thinking or my actions?

2. Does something seem wrong withany of the information?

3. What is wrong?

4. How can I get more or betterinformation?

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7C

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Types of Errors in Thinking

Faulty Logica. Contradiction

b. Accident

c. False cause

d. Begging the question (circularity)

e. Evading the issue

f. Arguing from ignorance

g. Composition and division

Attacksh. Poisoning the well

i. Arguing against the person

j. Appealing to force

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7D

3.7D 9/13/07 9:03 AM Page 1

Types of Errors in Thinking

Weak Referencesk. Using sources that reflect habitual and

confirmatory biases

l. Using sources that lack credibility

m. Appealing to authority

n. Appealing to the people

o. Appealing to emotion

Misinformationp. Confusing the facts

q. Misapplying a concept or generalization

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7E

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Key Points: Analyzing Errors

1. Students need to be reinforced forattending to possible errors in thethinking underlying information that istrying to influence them in some way.

2. Students will be able to recognizeerrors more easily if they becomefamiliar with specific types of errorsthat commonly occur in information.

3. It is important to emphasize that there are times and situations in whichit is appropriate not to analyze errorsin information. For example, it isappropriate to accept some things as a matter of faith or trust.

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7F

3.7F 9/13/07 9:08 AM Page 1

Info

rmat

ion:

Is th

is in

form

atio

n im

porta

nt o

rin

tend

ed to

per

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e?

Yes

No

Yes

No

Wha

t is

wro

ng w

ith th

e th

inki

ng u

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lyin

g th

e in

form

atio

n?

Doe

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em w

rong

?

Mis

info

rmat

ion?

Atta

cks?

Wea

k re

fere

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?Fa

ulty

logi

c?

Ask

for

mor

e in

form

atio

n.

Stop

anal

ysis

Stop

anal

ysis

Analyzing Errors Overhead 3.7G

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AnalyzingPerspectives

The process of identifying multipleperspectives on an issue and examiningthe reasons or logic behind each.

1. When you are examining an issue aboutwhich people disagree, first identify andclearly articulate one perspective.

2. Once you have identified a perspective,try to determine the reasons or logicbehind it.

3. Next, identify and clearly articulate adifferent perspective.

4. Try to describe the reasons or logicbehind the different perspective.

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8A

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AnalyzingPerspectives

The process of describing reasonsfor different points of view.

1. What is one point of view?

2. What are the reasons for thispoint of view?

3. What is another point of view?

4. What might be some reasonsfor this other point of view?

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8B

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Around the time of the 50th anniversary

of the bombing of Hiroshima, someone

suggested that the Enola Gay (the plane

that carried the atomic bomb) be

displayed in the Smithsonian Institute.

Various groups—for example, human

rights groups, U.S. military leaders, air

travel aficionados—wanted the plane to

be on display but for very different

reasons.

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8C

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Key Points: Analyzing Perspectives

1. Students should be held accountable for understanding and clearlyarticulating reasons for perspectives.

2. Students should understand two concepts: reasons and logic.

3. Students should understand that most issues have multiple perspectives.

4. Students should keep the focus onhoning their skills of analysis ratherthan on changing people’s viewpoints.

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8D

3.8D 9/13/07 9:22 AM Page 1

Statement orConcept

AssignedValue

Reasoning or LogicBehind My Value

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8E

Perspective Examination Matrix

3.8E 9/13/07 9:23 AM Page 1

Issue

Personal perspective

Reasons/logic behind mypersonal perspective

Different perspective

Reasons/logic behinddifferent perspective

Conclusion/awareness

Analyzing Perspectives Overhead 3.8F

Conflict Clarification Matrix

3.8F 9/13/07 9:25 AM Page 1


What will be done to help students extend andrefine knowledge?

STEP 1 What knowledge will students beextending and refining? Specifically,students will be extending and refiningtheir understanding of…

STEP 2 What reasoning process will students be using?



3.P1 9/14/07 8:46 AM Page 1


Dim

ensi

on 3

Pla

nnin

g G

uide

Uni

t: C

olor

ado

Seve

ral t

imes

dur

ing

this

uni

t we w

ill,

as a

clas

s, se

lect

art

icle

s fro

m

“USA

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ay”

that

ref

lect

the c

ultu

re o

f a p

lace

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h w

hich

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re

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mil

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ed o

n w

hat w

e lea

rn fr

om th

e art

icle

abo

ut th

e cul

ture

of

the p

lace

(e.g

., is

sues

or

prob

lem

s peo

ple f

ace,

thei

r ce

lebr

atio

ns),

we w

ill

try

to in

duce

spec

ific

fact

s abo

ut th

e top

ogra

phy,

nat

ural

res

ourc

es, a

nd

clim

ate o

f the

loca

tion

.

Wha

t kno

wle

dge

will

stu

dent

s be

exte

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efin

ing

?Sp

ecifi

cally

, the

y w

ill b

e ex

tend

ing

and

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thei

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. . .

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t rea

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ng p

roce

ssw

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tude

nts

be u

sing

?

❏Com

pari

ng

❏Cla

ssif

yin

g

❏A

bst

ract

ing

❏In

duct

ive

Rea

sonin

g

❏D

educt

ive

Rea

sonin

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❏Const

ruct

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upport

❏A

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___

____

____

____

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?Sp

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, the

y w

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thei

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Wha

t rea

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?

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bst

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ive

Rea

sonin

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❏A

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❏O

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___

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Des

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Topo

grap

hy, n

atur

al r

esou

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, and

cl

imat

e inf

luen

ce se

ttle

men

t pat

tern

s in

a r

egio

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r w

e hav

e bee

n fo

cuse

d on

und

erst

andi

ng h

ow to

pogr

aphy

, nat

ural

re

sour

ces,

and

clim

ate i

nflu

ence

the “

appe

aran

ce”

of se

ttle

men

ts. S

hift

yo

ur fo

cus n

ow a

nd ex

amin

e how

thes

e fac

tors

infl

uenc

e the

“d

isap

pear

ance

” of

sett

lem

ents

. You

wil

l be g

iven

des

crip

tion

s of

situ

atio

ns w

here

pop

ulat

ions

thri

ved

and

then

dis

appe

ared

(e.g

., A

nasa

zi I

ndia

ns, s

ever

al g

host

tow

ns, d

inos

aurs

, and

the “

dust

bow

l”)

and

the r

easo

ns fo

r th

eir

dem

ise.

Cla

ssif

y ea

ch d

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ipti

on a

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ding

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the r

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ns fo

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appe

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ce h

ad m

ore t

o do

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h to

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aphy

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ural

res

ourc

es, o

r cl

imat

e. If

mor

e tha

n on

e pos

sibl

e re

ason

is g

iven

, you

may

hav

e to

plac

e the

exam

ple i

n m

ore t

han

one

cate

gory

.

Topo

grap

hy, n

atur

al r

esou

rces

, and

cl

imat

e inf

luen

ce th

e cul

ture

of a

re

gion

.

✓ ✓

Step

1St

ep 2

Step

3

3.P2 9/14/07 8:47 AM Page 1

Stimulus QuestionsComparing• Would it be useful to show how things are similar and/or

different?

• Would it be useful for students to focus on identifying howsimilar things are different and how different things aresimilar?

• Would it be helpful to have students describe how comparingthings affects their knowledge or opinions related to thosethings?

Classifying• Would it be helpful to have students group things?

• Would it be beneficial for students to generate a number ofways to group the same list of things?

Abstracting• Is there an abstract pattern that could be applied?

• Could something complex or unfamiliar be understood betterby generating an abstract pattern and applying it tosomething simple or more familiar?

• Are there seemingly different things that could be connectedthrough the generation of an abstract pattern?


3.P3 9/14/07 8:48 AM Page 1

Inductive Reasoning• Are there important unstated conclusions that could be

generated from observations or facts?

• Are there situations for which probable or likely conclusionscould be generated?

• Are there issues or situations for which students couldexamine the inductive reasoning used?

Deductive Reasoning• Are there generalizations (or rules or principles) that could be

applied to reach conclusions and make predictions?

• Are there topics or issues for which students could examinethe validity of the deductive reasoning used?

Constructing Support• Are there important claims to be refuted or supported?

• Would it be important to examine existing arguments thatsupport or refute a claim?

Analyzing Errors• Are there situations in which it would be beneficial to identify

errors in reasoning?

Analyzing Perspectives• Would it be useful to identify and understand the reasoning or

logic behind a perspective on a topic or issue?

• Would it be useful to analyze opposing perspectives on atopic or issue?


3.P3 9/14/07 8:48 AM Page 2

D i m e n s i o n 4

DIM

ENSIO

N 4


Dimension 4 Overhead 4.0A

Organizational Format for EachReasoning Process

I. A brief introduction to the process.

II. Five sections with suggestions for teaching theprocess:

1. Help students understand the process.

2. Give students a model for the process, andcreate opportunities for them to practice usingthe process.

3. As students study and use the process, helpthem focus on critical steps and difficult aspectsof the process.

4. Provide students with graphic organizers orrepresentations of the model to help themunderstand and use the process.

5. Use teacher-structured and student-structuredtasks.

III. Classroom Examples

4.0A 9/11/07 9:51 AM Page 1

Decision Making

The process of generating andapplying criteria to select fromamong seemingly equal alternatives.

1. Identify a decision you wish to make and thealternatives you are considering.

2. Identify the criteria you consider important.

3. Assign each criterion an importance score.

4. Determine the extent to which eachalternative possesses each criterion.

5. Multiply the criterion scores by thealternative scores to determine whichalternative has the highest total points.

6. Based on your reaction to the selectedalternative, determine if you want to changeimportance scores or add or drop criteria.

Decision Making Overhead 4.1A

4.1A/4.1B 9/11/07 10:23 AM Page 2

Decision Making

The process of developing andusing criteria to select from choicesthat seem to be equal alternatives.

1. What am I trying to decide?

2. What are my choices?

3. What are important criteria for making thisdecision?

4. How important is each criterion?

5. How well does each of my choices matchmy criteria?

6. Which choice matches best with thecriteria?

7. How do I feel about the decision? Do Ineed to change any criteria and try again?

Decision Making Overhead 4.1B

4.1A/4.1B 9/11/07 10:23 AM Page 1

Alte

rnat

ives

Crite

ria

TOTA

LS

Decision Making Overhead 4.1C

4.1C 9/11/07 10:24 AM Page 1

Key Points: Decision Making

1. Help students understand howimportant it is to generate clear criteriathat accurately identify the conditionsthat the selected alternatives need tomeet.

2. Hold students accountable for rigorouslyapplying criteria to alternatives.

3. Vary the way that you use decisionmaking to maximize its potential forencouraging students to use theknowledge they are learning in a unit of study.

Decision Making Overhead 4.1D

4.1D 9/11/07 10:25 AM Page 1

It is 1969. You are on the board of Timemagazine. For the cover of the Decemberissue, you want to select a Person of theDecade. Your job is to decide whichperson should be selected and justify yourdecision to the publishers by listing thepeople who were considered, the criteriayou used, and how each person wasrated under each criterion. Report on

• the criteria you used and theimportance scores you applied toeach;

• the individuals you considered andthe extent to which they met yourcriteria; and

• your final selection.

Decision Making Overhead 4.1E

4.1E 9/11/07 10:27 AM Page 1

Problem Solving

The process of overcoming constraintsor limiting conditions that are in theway of pursuing goals.

1. Identify the goal you are trying to accomplish.

2. Identify the constraints or limiting conditions.

3. Determine exactly how these constraints or limiting conditions are preventing you from reaching yourgoal.

4. Identify different ways of overcoming theconstraints or meeting the limiting conditions.

5. Select and try out the alternative that appears tobe the best.

6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the alternative youhave tried. If appropriate, try a differentalternative or identify additional ways ofovercoming the constraints or limiting conditions.

Problem Solving Overhead 4.2A

4.2A/4.2B 9/11/07 10:31 AM Page 2

Problem Solving

The process of overcominglimits or barriers that are inthe way of reaching goals.

1. What am I trying to accomplish?

2. What are the limits or barriers that arein the way?

3. What are some solutions forovercoming the limits or barriers?

4. Which solution will I try?

5. How well did it work? Should I tryanother solution?

Problem Solving Overhead 4.2B

4.2A/4.2B 9/11/07 10:31 AM Page 1

Problem Solving Overhead 4.2C

Prob

lem

Worked well. Did not work well.

Try

anot

her

solu

tion.

Cons

trai

nt/L

imiti

ng C

ondi

tion:

Goa

l:

Prob

lem

sol

ved.

Poss

ible

Sol

utio

n:Po

ssib

le S

olut

ion:

Sele

cted

Sol

utio

n:Po

ssib

le S

olut

ion:

4.2C 9/11/07 10:32 AM Page 1

Key Points: Problem Solving

1. Help students understand that the way thegoal is defined will determine the direction forthe rest of the steps in the problem-solvingprocess.

2. Make sure that students carefully analyze theconstraints or limiting conditions before theygenerate alternative solutions.

3. Help students understand that they may need to use the processes of decision makingor invention at various points in the problem-solving process.

4. Encourage students to try a number ofsolutions before concluding that the problem is solved. A major purpose for engaging inproblem solving is to find the best solution, not just any solution.

Problem Solving Overhead 4.2D

4.2D 9/11/07 10:38 AM Page 1

Invention Overhead 4.3A

Goggles for FowlsUnited States Patent OfficeEye Protector for Chickens

Specification formingpart of LettersPatent No. 780,918,dated June 16, l903.

Application filedDecember 10, 1902.Serial No. 134,679.(No model)

Goggles for Fowls

This invention relates to eye protectors, and moreparticularly to eye protectors designed for fowls, sothat they may be protected from other fowls thatmight attempt to peck them, a further object of theinvention being to provide a construction which maybe easily and quickly applied and removed andwhich will not interfere with the sight of the fowl.

4.3A 9/11/07 11:31 AM Page 1

InventionThe process of developing uniqueproducts or processes that fulfillperceived needs.

Choice1. Identify a situation you want to improve or a need to which

you want to respond.2. State your purpose or goal; write or say it several times in

several different ways to look at it from differentperspectives.

Drafting3. Identify specific standards for your invention. What

specifically do you want it to do? 4. Make a model, sketch, or outline of your invention.5. Start developing your product. Keep looking for

alternatives and even better ways of creating your product.Don’t be too easily satisfied.

6. Occasionally set your partially completed product aside soyou can be more objective when you return to it.

Revising7. Keep going over your invention with attention to detail.8. Stop when you have reached a level of completeness

consistent with the norms and standards you have set.

Invention Overhead 4.3B

4.3B/4.3C 9/11/07 11:32 AM Page 2

Invention

The process of developingoriginal products or processesthat meet specific needs.

1. What do I want to make, or what do Iwant to make better?

2. What standards do I want to set for myinvention?

3. What is the best way to make a roughdraft of my invention?

4. How can I improve on my rough draft?

5. Does my invention meet the standards Ihave set?

Invention Overhead 4.3C

4.3B/4.3C 9/11/07 11:32 AM Page 1

Inventions That Didn’t Make It (Why?)

1. The Better Mousetrap

2. The Fire Escape

3. New Coke

Inventions That Made It(Why?)

1. Wide slots in toasters

2. FAX machines

3. Post-it notes

Invention Overhead 4.3D

4.3D 9/11/07 11:32 AM Page 1

Using Analogical Reasoning toCreate Invention Ideas

1. Write a speech that will do for drugawareness what the “I Have a Dream”speech did for civil rights.

2. Create a character that would do formy story what Hercule Poirot did forAgatha Christie’s books.

3. Create an experiment for ____ thatwould do what Pavlov’s dogexperiments did for conditionedresponse.

Invention Overhead 4.3E

4.3E 9/11/07 11:33 AM Page 1

1. Invent a procedure or productthat is needed by teachers orthat exists now but needsimprovement.

2. Invent a procedure or productthat might be useful around thehouse.

3. Invent a procedure or a productthat might be useful in anautomobile.

4. Think of your own idea ofsomething that needs to beinvented.

Invention Overhead 4.3F

4.3F 9/11/07 11:34 AM Page 1

Key Points: Invention

1. During the first phase of invention,Choice, students need to be heldaccountable for clearly identifying theneed that their invention will address.

2. In the second phase, Drafting,students need to be encouraged to set clear, rigorous standards that will provide direction for their work.

3. During the third phase, Revising,students may need feedback andreinforcement to continue makingrevisions until the invention meets, orexceeds, the standards they have set.

Invention Overhead 4.3G

4.3G 9/11/07 11:35 AM Page 1

Invention Overhead 4.3H

Dra

ftD

raft

Nee

d:

Stan

dard

s:

Inve

ntio

n:CHOICE DRAFT AND REVISE

Dra

ft

4.3H 9/11/07 11:35 AM Page 1

ExperimentalInquiryThe process of generating and testingexplanations of observed phenomena.

1. Observe something that interests you, anddescribe what has occurred.

2. Explain what you have observed. Whattheories or rules could explain what you haveobserved?

3. Based on your explanation, make a prediction.

4. Set up an experiment or activity to test yourprediction.

5. Explain the results of your experiment inlight of your explanation. If necessary,revise your explanation or prediction orconduct another experiment.

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4A

4.4A/4.4B 9/11/07 11:37 AM Page 2

ExperimentalInquiryThe process of developingand testing explanations ofthings we observe.

1. What do I see or notice?

2. How can I explain it?

3. Based on my explanation, what can Ipredict?

4. How can I test my prediction?

5. What happened? Is it what I predicted?Do I need to try a differentexplanation?

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4B

4.4A/4.4B 9/11/07 11:37 AM Page 1

1. I wonder why he throws such frequent, wildtantrums?

2. I think I’ll do some reading—maybe Dr. Spock andDr. Mom—and increase my knowledge, which I canthen use to generate an explanation. . . .

I have a possible explanation: Maybe I reinforcehis tantrums by giving them attention. I amscolding and punishing, but maybe he stillperceives it as attention and continues the behavior.

3. If that is true, what if I stopped giving him attentionwhen he throws tantrums? He might stop.

4. I think I’ll test it. For two weeks I will turn my backor leave the room (as long as he is safe) as soonas a tantrum starts. I will give him lots of attentionthe second it stops.

5. I have tried this for two weeks, and there is nochange. In fact, his tantrums are worse and morefrequent. I’d better think of another explanation.(He’s just like his father?)

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4C

4.4C 9/11/07 11:37 AM Page 1

Key Points: Experimental Inquiry

1. Because engaging in experimental inquiry can be so demanding, it helps if students are examining topics that are interesting and meaningful to them.

2. It is important for students to have theopportunity to learn the knowledge they will need to use in step 2 of the process: offering possible explanations for the observed phenomenon.

3. Although the goal is for students to becomeproficient at independently setting upexperiments, they may need a great deal of help at first with this part of the process.

4. Students should understand that regardless ofthe outcome of the experiment, it is importantto go back and set up additional experimentsor consider different explanations.

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4D

4.4D 9/11/07 11:38 AM Page 1

Task 1Most people who became adults during the 1960s are nowin their fifties. Consider this population. Some would saythat it is interesting that the 1960s have had no lastingeffect on these people. One possible explanation for this isthat the effect is there but it is subtle. Try to determine whateffects the experiences of the 1960s are having on the livesof these people today. Test your hypothesis and report on

• your hypothesis• how you tested your hypothesis• your findings• your conclusions

ORTask 2During the late 1980s, there was renewed interest in theVietnam War, which could be seen in the many movies,books, and documentaries released during that time.Create a possible explanation for this. Set up anexperiment to test your hypothesis and report on

• your hypothesis• how you tested your hypothesis• your findings• your conclusions

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4E

4.4E 9/11/07 11:39 AM Page 1

Obs

erva

tion:

Rele

vant

The

ory/

Rule

:Re

leva

nt T

heor

y/Ru

le:

Poss

ible

Exp

lana

tion:

Act

ivity

/Exp

erim

ent:

Pred

ictio

n:

Resu

lts:

Experimental Inquiry Overhead 4.4F

4.4F 9/11/07 11:39 AM Page 1

Definitional Investigation:Constructing a precise definition of aconcept for which there is nogenerally agreed-upon definition.

Historical Investigation:Constructing a scenario for an eventor situation from the past for whichthere is no agreed-upon explanationor sequence of events.

Projective Investigation:Constructing a scenario for a futureevent or for a hypothetical past event.

Investigation Overhead 4.5A

4.5A 9/11/07 11:53 AM Page 1

InvestigationThe process of identifying andresolving issues about whichthere are confusions or contradictions.

1. Clearly identify

• the concept to be defined (DefinitionalInvestigation), or

• the past event to be explained (HistoricalInvestigation), or

• the hypothetical event to be defined orexplained (Projective Investigation).

2. Identify what is already known or agreed upon.

3. Identify and explain the confusion orcontradiction.

4. Develop and defend a plausible resolution tothe confusion or contradiction.

Investigation Overhead 4.5B

4.5B/4.5C 9/11/07 11:53 AM Page 2

Investigation

The process of suggesting anddefending ways to clear upconfusions about ideas or events.

1. What event or idea do I want toexplain?

2. What do people already know?

3. What confusions do people haveabout the idea or event?

4. What suggestions do I have forclearing up these confusions?

5. How can I defend my suggestions?

Investigation Overhead 4.5C

4.5B/4.5C 9/11/07 11:53 AM Page 1

Ideas for Investigation Topics1. What specifically is a “cold war?” Is it any time there

is nonmilitary tension between countries?

2. How did the scoring system of tennis evolve?

3. How many plagues were there before the Exodus?Why do some sources refer to the Red Sea and some tothe Reed Sea?

4. What would happen if we became a cashless society?

5. Was Edgar Allan Poe really a deranged alcoholic? Orwas that characterization created by a biographerwho was jealous of him?

6. How and when did Hitler die?

7. What is the “Third World”? Is it a socioeconomic,political, cultural, or geographical distinction?

8. What would have happened if Columbus had landedon America’s West Coast?

9. What is cooperation? Is helping a friend with his orher homework an example of cooperation? Is letting afriend copy your homework an example of cooperation?

10. What would happen if genetic engineering resulted inprocesses that could be used to easily clone humans?

Investigation Overhead 4.5D

4.5D 9/11/07 11:54 AM Page 1

Key Points: Investigation

1. Topics for investigation may, at first, bedifficult to identify. To increase students’awareness of how many topics could be investigated, start a class list thatstudents can contribute to whenever they encounter a topic that needs to be investigated.

2. Because investigation demands extensiveuse of a wide variety of sources, youmay need to help students learn how toaccess and use sources.

3. When students generate interesting,creative resolutions to the confusions orcontradictions that are the focus of theirinvestigations, reinforce their efforts byoffering opportunities for them to sharetheir ideas with others.

Investigation Overhead 4.5E

4.5E 9/11/07 11:55 AM Page 1

Know

n o

r A

gre

ed U

pon:

••

••

••C

onfu

sions

or

Contr

adic

tions:

Res

olu

tion:

Conce

pt/

Scen

ari

o:

Investigation Overhead 4.5F

4.5F 9/11/07 11:55 AM Page 1

Systems Analysis

The process of analyzingthe parts of a system and themanner in which they interact.

1. Identify the parts of the system.

2. Describe the boundaries of thesystem.

3. Describe how parts affect each other.

4. Identify various parts of the system,and, for each, explain what wouldhappen if this part changed orstopped working.

Systems Analysis Overhead 4.6A

4.6A/4.6B 9/11/07 11:57 AM Page 2

Systems Analysis

The process of describinghow the parts of a systemwork together.

1. What are the parts of the system?

2. What are things that are related tothe system but are not part of it?

3. How do the parts affect each other?

4. What would happen if variousparts stopped or changedtheir behavior?

Systems Analysis Overhead 4.6B

4.6A/4.6B 9/11/07 11:57 AM Page 1

Key Points: System Analysis

1. Identifying how parts of a system affecteach other is difficult because there areso many different ways in which onepart might affect another.

2. Teachers may need to use tools such asgraphs or computer simulations to helpstudents identify and understand the“functional relationships” among theparts of a system.

System Analysis Overhead 4.6C

4.6C 9/11/07 11:58 AM Page 1

Systems Analysis Overhead 4.6D

4.6D 9/11/07 11:58 AM Page 1

love

d loved

hated

feared

fearedhated

didn’t

care

abou

t

admire

d

didn’t care about

admired

CINDERELLA

STEPMOTHER STEPSISTERS

PRINCE

Systems Analysis Overhead 4.6E

4.6E 9/11/07 11:59 AM Page 1


What will be done to help students useknowledge meaningfully?

STEP 1 What knowledge will students be usingmeaningfully? Specifically, students will be demonstrating their understanding ofand ability to…

STEP 2 What reasoning process will students be using?



4.P1 9/11/07 12:05 PM Page 1


Dim

ensi

on 4

Pla

nnin

g G

uide

Uni

t: C

olor

ado

Wha

t know

ledge

will

stu

dent

s be

usi

ng m

eanin

gfu

lly?

Spec

ifica

lly,

they

will

be

dem

onstr

atin

g th

eir

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

and

abi

lity

to. .

.

Wha

t rea

soni

ng p

roce

ssw

ill th

ey b

e us

ing?

❏O

ther

___

____

____

____

___

Des

crib

e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

❏D

ecis

ion M

ak

ing

(sel

ectin

g fro

m s

eem

ingl

yeq

ual a

ltern

ativ

es o

r exa

min

ing

the

deci

sion

s of

oth

ers)

❏Pro

ble

m S

olv

ing

(see

king

to a

chie

ve a

goa

l by

over

com

ing

cons

train

ts or

limiti

ng c

ondi

tions

)

❏In

vention

(cre

atin

g so

met

hing

to m

eet a

need

or i

mpr

ove

on a

situ

atio

n)

❏Ex

per

imen

tal I

nquir

y(g

ener

atin

g an

exp

lana

tion

for a

phe

nom

enon

and

testi

ng th

e ex

plan

atio

n)

❏In

vest

igation

(reso

lvin

g co

nfus

ions

or

cont

radi

ctio

ns re

late

d to

a

histo

rical

eve

nt, a

hyp

othe

tical

past

or fu

ture

eve

nt, o

r to

the

defin

ing

char

acte

ristic

s of

som

ethi

ng)

❏Sy

stem

s A

naly

sis

(ana

lyzi

ng th

e pa

rts o

f a

syste

m a

nd h

ow th

ey in

tera

ct)

The

conc

epts

of t

opog

raph

y,

natu

ral r

esou

rces

, cli

mat

e, an

d cu

ltur

e

Topo

grap

hy, n

atur

al r

esou

rces

, an

d cl

imat

e inf

luen

ce se

ttle

men

t pa

tter

ns.

We h

ave d

iscu

ssed

in cl

ass t

hat C

olor

ado’s

pop

ulat

ion

is g

row

ing

very

rap

idly

. In

fact

, com

pare

d to

man

y ot

her

stat

es, a

rel

ativ

ely

larg

e num

ber

of p

eopl

e who

live

in C

olor

ado

mov

ed fr

om

som

ewhe

re el

se. T

here

are

act

uall

y no

t tha

t man

y “C

olor

ado

nati

ves.”

Why

hav

e so

man

y pe

ople

mov

ed to

Col

orad

o, a

nd w

hy

is th

e pop

ulat

ion

stil

l gro

win

g so

rap

idly

?

One

expl

anat

ion

is th

at a

spec

ts o

f the

topo

grap

hy, n

atur

al

reso

urce

s, cl

imat

e, an

d cu

ltur

e att

ract

peo

ple t

o C

olor

ado.

Let

’s fi

nd o

ut if

that

hel

ps ex

plai

n it

. If i

t is t

rue,

we s

houl

d be

abl

e to

trac

e peo

ple’s

rea

sons

for

mov

ing

to C

olor

ado

to th

ese

char

acte

rist

ics o

f the

stat

e.

Set u

p an

act

ivit

y—fo

r ex

ampl

e, su

rvey

s or

inte

rvie

ws—

that

w

ould

hel

p to

det

erm

ine t

o w

hat e

xten

t peo

ple h

ave m

oved

to

Col

orad

o be

caus

e of f

acto

rs r

elat

ed to

topo

grap

hy, n

atur

al

reso

urce

s, cl

imat

e, an

d cu

ltur

e. Y

ou w

ill n

eed

to se

t up

the

acti

vity

, pla

n fo

r an

alyz

ing

your

res

ults

, and

be r

eady

to r

epor

t yo

ur fi

ndin

gs to

the c

lass

. Any

mem

ber

of y

our

grou

p m

ay b

e as

ked

to ex

plai

n w

hat y

ou fo

und

out a

bout

the i

nflu

ence

of e

ach

conc

ept y

ou a

re co

nsid

erin

g: to

pogr

aphy

, nat

ural

res

ourc

es,

clim

ate,

and

cult

ure.

✓

Step

1St

ep 2

Step

3

4.P2 9/11/07 12:06 PM Page 1

Stimulus QuestionsDecision Making• Is there an unresolved decision important to

the unit?• Is there an unresolved issue about who or

what is the best or worst?• Is there an unresolved issue about who or

what has the most or least?

Problem Solving• Is there a situation or process that has some

major constraint or limiting condition?• Is there a situation or process that could be

better understood if constraints or limitingconditions were placed on it?

Invention• Is there a situation that can and should be

improved on?• Is there something new that should be created?


4P.3 & 4P.4 9/11/07 12:11 PM Page 1

Experimental Inquiry• Is there an unexplained phenomenon (physical or

psychological) for which students could generateexplanations that can be tested?

Investigation• Is there an unresolved issue about the defining

characteristics or defining features of something?(Definitional)

• Is there an unresolved issue about how somethingoccurred? (Historical)

• Is there an unresolved issue about why somethinghappened? (Historical)

• Is there an unresolved issue about what wouldhappen if . . . or what would have happened if …(Projective)?

Systems Analysis• Are there parts of a system or the interactions of

the parts of a system that could be analyzed?• Is there something that could be examined in

terms of how it behaves or works within asystem?


4P.3 & 4P.4 9/11/07 12:11 PM Page 2

As you construct the task, you need to considerthe following questions:

• What specifically does the task requirestudents to do? Make sure that the taskrequires students to use the identifiedknowledge in order to complete the task.

• What makes the task meaningful to thestudent? • Does it have an authentic context or purpose?

• Is it intellectually stimulating and interesting?

• Does it allow for artistic expression?

• Does it allow for student choice?

• To what extent will students be working alone or in groups?

• What product will students turn in?

• How will the criteria for evaluation becommunicated to the students?


4.P5 9/11/07 12:07 PM Page 1

D i m e n s i o n 5

DIM

ENSIO

N 5


Helping Students DevelopProductive Habits of Mind

1. Help students understand habits ofmind.

2. Help students identify and developstrategies related to the habits of mind.

3. Create a culture in the classroom andthe school that encourages thedevelopment and use of the habits ofmind.

4. Provide positive reinforcement tostudents who exhibit the habits ofmind.


5.1 9/14/07 11:21 AM Page 1

The Dimensions of LearningHabits of Mind:A Resource for Teachers

This section includes

• a brief explanation of each habit,

• examples of situations in which itmight be beneficial to have eachhabit of mind, and

• examples of strategiesrecommended by people whoexhibit each habit.


5.2 9/11/07 9:32 AM Page 1


5.3 9/11/07 9:33 AM Page 1


5.4 9/11/07 9:34 AM Page 1


5.5 9/11/07 9:37 AM Page 1

Integrate the Habits IntoDaily Routines

Critical ThinkingHave students engage in debate withthe express purpose of reinforcing thehabits of critical thinking.

Creative ThinkingHave students engage in various typesof problem-solving activities with theexpress purpose of highlighting anddeveloping these habits of mind.

Self-Regulated ThinkingHave students identify and pursuelong-term goals.



Hab

its o

f Min

dLa

cks

Aw

aren

ess

Und

erst

ands

Dev

elop

ing

Stra

tegi

esBe

com

ing

a H

abit

Mai

ntai

n an

ope

n m

ind

Be a

ccur

ate

and

seek

acc

urac

y

Be c

lear

and

see

k cl

arity

CRIT

ICA

L TH

INKI

NG

5.10 9/11/07 9:29 AM Page 1

Critical ThinkingBe Accurate and Seek Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

Be Clear and Seek Clarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Maintain an Open Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Restrain Impulsivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Take a Position When the Situation Warrants It . . . . . . . 281

Respond Appropriately to Others’ Feelingsand Level of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Creative ThinkingPersevere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

Push the Limits of Your Knowledge and Abilities . . . . . . . 285

Generate, Trust, and Maintain Your OwnStandards of Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

Generate New Ways of Viewing a Situation That AreOutside the Boundaries of Standard Conventions . . . . . . 288

Self-Regulated ThinkingMonitor Your Own Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

Plan Appropriately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Identify and Use Necessary Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Respond Appropriately to Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Evaluate the Effectiveness of Your Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . 296


5.11 9/11/07 9:30 AM Page 1

Jigsaw1. Read

a. the explanation of the habit,

b. the examples of situations in which it mightbe beneficial,

c. one or more of the recommended strategies,and

d. one or more of the classroom examples onpages 270-273 for your category. Noticehow the teacher deals with the habit(s). Whatis your reaction to his or her ideas? Whatelse might be done?

2. Share the information, classroom examples, andyour reactions to the examples.

3. Generatea. examples of situations in which any of the

habits has been beneficial, or

b. strategies developed from your ownexperiences.


5.12 9/14/07 11:31 AM Page 1


What will be done to help students developproductive habits of mind?

STEP 1 Are there any goals or concerns related tostudents’ habits of minds

• in general?• related to this specific unit?

STEP 2 What will be done to address these goals orconcerns?

STEP 2a Specifically, will anything be done to helpstudents…

[Identify the specific habits of mind that will help you to address your goals andconcerns.]

STEP 2b Describe what will be done.


Des

crib

e w

hat w

ill b

e do

ne.

Cri

tica

l Thin

kin

g

❏be

acc

urat

e an

d se

ek a

ccur

acy?

❏be

cle

ar a

nd s

eek

clar

ity?

❏m

aint

ain

an o

pen

min

d?

❏re

strai

n im

pulsi

vity

?

❏ta

ke a

pos

ition

whe

n th

esi

tuat

ion

war

rant

s it?

❏re

spon

d ap

prop

riate

ly to

oth

ers’

feel

ings

and

leve

l of k

now

ledg

e?

Cre

ative

Thin

kin

g

❏pe

rsev

ere?

❏pu

sh th

e lim

its o

f the

irkn

owle

dge

and

abili

ties?

❏ge

nera

te, t

rust,

and

mai

ntai

nth

eir o

wn

stand

ards

of e

valu

atio

n?

❏ge

nera

te n

ew w

ays

of v

iew

ing

asi

tuat

ion

that

are

out

side

the

boun

darie

s of

sta

ndar

d co

nven

tions

?

Self

-Reg

ula

ted T

hin

kin

g

❏m

onito

r the

ir th

inki

ng?

❏pl

an a

ppro

pria

tely

?

❏id

entif

y an

d us

e ne

cess

ary

reso

urce

s?

❏re

spon

d ap

prop

riate

ly to

feed

back

?

❏ev

alua

te th

e ef

fect

iven

ess

of th

eir a

ctio

ns?

Are

ther

e an

y go

als

or c

once

rns

rela

ted

to s

tude

nts’

habits

of

min

d

• in

gen

eral

?

• re

late

d to

this

spe

cific

uni

t?Sp

ecifi

cally

, will

any

thin

g be

done

to h

elp

stude

nts.

. .

It’s

that

tim

e of y

ear.

Stud

ents

are

real

ly sl

acki

ng o

ff. E

nerg

y is

low

;on

ly th

e min

imum

is b

eing

don

e—ev

en fr

om m

y go

od st

uden

ts.

I am

goi

ng to

try

to en

ergi

ze th

em a

litt

le b

it b

yve

rbal

ly r

einf

orci

ng st

uden

ts w

hen

they

pus

h th

eir

lim

its o

r pe

rsev

ere.

I th

ink

it is

tim

e to

give

out

a fe

wce

rtif

icat

es o

f ach

ieve

men

t whe

n st

uden

ts ex

hibi

t the

seha

bits

.

Stud

ents

kno

w y

ou sh

ould

pla

nbe

fore

you

beg

in, b

ut th

ey d

o no

tco

nsis

tent

ly o

r ef

fici

entl

y do

this

.T

he ex

peri

men

tal i

nqui

ry ta

sk w

ill

be d

epen

dent

on

care

ful p

lann

ing

and

foll

ow-t

hrou

gh.

I am

goi

ng to

giv

e stu

dent

s a p

lann

ing

form

to k

eep

onth

eir

desk

s. I

wil

l use

it to

lead

som

e dis

cuss

ions

abo

utpl

anni

ng a

nd th

en to

dem

onst

rate

how

to u

se th

e for

m.

Eve

ry fe

w d

ays I

am

goi

ng to

hav

e stu

dent

s wri

te in

thei

r le

arni

ng lo

gs a

bout

how

thei

r pl

anni

ng is

goi

ng.

Wha

t will

be

done

to a

ddre

ss th

ese

goal

s or

con

cern

s?

✓ ✓ ✓

Step

1St

ep 2

Dim

ensi

on 5

Pla

nnin

g G

uide

Uni

t: C

olor

ado


P u t t i n g I t A l l T o g e t h e r

PU

TTING

IT A

LL TOG

ETHER


Putting It All Together Overhead 6.1


• Content

• Sequencing Instruction

• Assessment

• Grading

• Conferences

6.1 9/10/07 3:17 PM Page 1


A. Model 1: Focus on Knowledge, page 306

B. Model 2: Focus on Issues, page 307

C. Model 3: Focus on Student Exploration,page 308

6.2 9/10/07 3:18 PM Page 1


Integrating Presentationand Workshop Classes

1. What strategies and activities willbe used to support Dimensions 1and 5?

2. How many days of the unit will bedevoted to presentation classes,and when will they occur?

3. How many workshop classes willbe needed in the unit?

4. What sequence of presentation andworkshop classes will provide anintegrated unit of instruction?

6.3 9/10/07 3:18 PM Page 1


Sequence of Classes:Colorado Unit

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday FridayWeek 1 topography, natural

resources—read text

P

construct models andshape for readingphysical maps,natural resource maps

P

• See film—beginboth pictographs

• climate—read textassign regionalcakes

P

culture, read text, andpresentations

P

culture, read text, andpresentations; learn note-taking strategy

P

Week 2 induction task—demonstrate steps, dosome together as class(cakes start coming inthis week)

W

topography, etc.influence culture—discussion using graphicorganizer; presentinformation on importantpeople from Coloradohistory.

P

topography, etc.influence settlementpatterns—read text,handout—useorganizer (quiz)

P

guest speaker onGold Rush, studentsuse timeline for notes.

P

classifying task—studentsalready know how toclassify, but I will reviewsteps before they start(quiz)

W

Week 3 introduceexperimental inquirytask—teach steps ofprocess—demonstrateplanning; studentsbegin work

W

field trip

P

experimental inquiry:students work on task,I conference

W

induction task—students work withnewspapers ingroups, I conference

W

• experimental inquirytask—students work onproject, I conference,demonstrate planning

• review map reading,homework

W

Week 4 renewable,nonrenewable, etc.film, conceptattainment, graphicorganizer

P

experimentalinquiry—studentswork, I conference

W

experimentalinquiry—I willconference

W

student presentationsof results fromexperimental inquirytask

W

unit test

6.4 9/10/07 3:19 PM Page 1


Types of Assessment for Different Types

of Knowledge

Dimension 2:SpecificDeclarativeKnowledge

X X X X X

Dimension 2:GeneralDeclarativeKnowledge

X X X X

Dimension 2:SpecificProceduralKnowledge

X X X X X

Dimension 2:GeneralProceduralKnowledge

X X X X

Dimension 3 & 4:ComplexReasoningProcesses

X X X X

Dimension 5:Habits of Mind

X X X

Forced-ChoiceItems

EssayQuestions

PerformanceTasks/Por tfolios

TeacherObservation

StudentSelf-Assessment

6.5 9/10/07 3:19 PM Page 1


Gradebook: Sample Page Assignment Key: A. Quiz

B. Induction Task

C. Reg. cake (HW)

D. Classify Task

E. Quiz

F. Exper. Inq. Task

G. Unit Test

H. Map Assign (HW)

I. Quiz

J. Quiz

K. Student Self-Assessment

L. Observations

ABC

Standards/Benchmarks:

Students

Geo S1B2humans/physical

environment

Geo S6B1use thematic

maps

Dim 5habits of

mind

Al Einstein 333

A

3

BC

Marie Curie

3 2

2

4 21

23

4 2 3

DEFGHIJK

44

22

2, 22

L

Geo S2B5human

movement/regions

Dim 3 & 4complex

reasoning

3 3

3333

333, 3+

3 3

2

2 11 1

1

3 2 2

DEFGHIJK

22

21

2, 22

L

1 2

1121

221, 1

12

2ABC

George Carver 423

4

4 34 3

4

4 4 4

DEFGHIJK

34

44

4, 44

L

4 4

3433

343, 4, 3

33

3

6.6 9/10/07 3:20 PM Page 1

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