discolour at ion in potable water distribution system

11
Available at www.sciencedirect.com journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/watres REVIEW Discolouration in potable water distribution systems: A review Ir J.H.G. Vreeburg a, , Dr. J.B. Boxall b a Technical University Delft, Kiwa Water Research, The Netherlands b University of Sheffield, UK article info Article history: Received 15 June 2006 Received in revised form 1 September 2006 Accepted 12 September 2006 Available online 14 December 2006 Keywords: Potable water Discolouration Proactive management Particles Cleaning abstract A large proportion of the customer contacts that drinking water supply companies receive stem from the occurrence of discoloured water. Currently, such complaints are dealt with in a reactive manner. However, water companies are being driven to implement planned activities to control discolouration prior to contacts occurring. Hence improved under- standing of the dominant processes and predictive and management tools are needed. The material responsible for discolouration has a variety of origins and a range of processes and mechanisms may be associated with its accumulation within distribution systems. Irrespective of material origins, accumulation processes and mechanisms, discolouration events occur as a result of systems changes leading to mobilisation of the accumulations from within the network. Despite this conceptual understanding, there are very few published practicable tools and techniques available to aid water companies in the planned management and control of discolouration problems. Two recently developed and published, but different approaches to address this are reviewed here: the PODDS model which was developed to predict levels of turbidity as a result of change in hydraulic conditions, but which is semi-empirical and requires calibration; and the resuspension potential method which was developed to directly measure discolouration resulting from a controlled change in hydraulic conditions, providing a direct assessment of discolouration risk, although intrinsically requiring the limited generation of discoloured water within a live network. Both these methods support decision making on the need for maintenance operations. While risk evaluation and implementation of appropriate maintenance can be implemented to control discolouration risk, new material will continue to accumulate and hence an ongoing programme of maintenance is required. One sustainable measure to prevent such re-accumulation of material is the adoption of a self-cleaning threshold, an hydraulic force which a pipe experiences on a regular basis that effectively prevents the accumulation of material. This concept has been effectively employed for the design of new networks in the Netherlands. Alternatively, measures could be implemented to limit or prevent particles from entering or being generated within the network, such as by improving treatment or preventing the formation of corrosion by-products through lining ARTICLE IN PRESS 0043-1354/$ - see front matter & 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2006.09.028 Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 30 606 95 76; fax: +31 30 606 11 65. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.H.G. Vreeburg). WATER RESEARCH 41 (2007) 519– 529

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Page 1: Discolour at Ion in Potable Water Distribution System

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Available at www.sciencedirect.com

WAT E R R E S E A R C H 4 1 ( 2 0 0 7 ) 5 1 9 – 5 2 9

0043-1354/$ - see frodoi:10.1016/j.watres

�Corresponding auE-mail address:

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/watres

REVIEW

Discolouration in potable water distribution systems:A review

Ir J.H.G. Vreeburga,�, Dr. J.B. Boxallb

aTechnical University Delft, Kiwa Water Research, The NetherlandsbUniversity of Sheffield, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 15 June 2006

Received in revised form

1 September 2006

Accepted 12 September 2006

Available online 14 December 2006

Keywords:

Potable water

Discolouration

Proactive management

Particles

Cleaning

nt matter & 2006 Elsevie.2006.09.028

thor. Tel.: +31 30 606 95 76;[email protected]

a b s t r a c t

A large proportion of the customer contacts that drinking water supply companies receive

stem from the occurrence of discoloured water. Currently, such complaints are dealt with

in a reactive manner. However, water companies are being driven to implement planned

activities to control discolouration prior to contacts occurring. Hence improved under-

standing of the dominant processes and predictive and management tools are needed.

The material responsible for discolouration has a variety of origins and a range of

processes and mechanisms may be associated with its accumulation within distribution

systems. Irrespective of material origins, accumulation processes and mechanisms,

discolouration events occur as a result of systems changes leading to mobilisation of the

accumulations from within the network. Despite this conceptual understanding, there are

very few published practicable tools and techniques available to aid water companies in the

planned management and control of discolouration problems. Two recently developed and

published, but different approaches to address this are reviewed here: the PODDS model

which was developed to predict levels of turbidity as a result of change in hydraulic

conditions, but which is semi-empirical and requires calibration; and the resuspension

potential method which was developed to directly measure discolouration resulting from a

controlled change in hydraulic conditions, providing a direct assessment of discolouration

risk, although intrinsically requiring the limited generation of discoloured water within a

live network. Both these methods support decision making on the need for maintenance

operations.

While risk evaluation and implementation of appropriate maintenance can be

implemented to control discolouration risk, new material will continue to accumulate

and hence an ongoing programme of maintenance is required. One sustainable measure to

prevent such re-accumulation of material is the adoption of a self-cleaning threshold, an

hydraulic force which a pipe experiences on a regular basis that effectively prevents the

accumulation of material. This concept has been effectively employed for the design of

new networks in the Netherlands. Alternatively, measures could be implemented to limit

or prevent particles from entering or being generated within the network, such as by

improving treatment or preventing the formation of corrosion by-products through lining

r Ltd. All rights reserved.

fax: +31 30 606 11 65.(J.H.G. Vreeburg).

Page 2: Discolour at Ion in Potable Water Distribution System

ARTICLE IN PRESS

19%

34%

7% 0%

No Water PressureDiscoloured Water Other AeIllness Complaint

Fig. 1 – Typical break down of reasons for

for a 5 year period for a UK water compa

WA T E R R E S E A R C H 4 1 ( 2 0 0 7 ) 5 1 9 – 5 2 9520

or replacing ferrous pipes. The cost benefit of such capex investment or ongoing opex is

uncertain as the quantification and relative significance of factors possibly leading to

material accumulation are poorly understood. Hence, this is an area in need of significant

further practical research and development.

& 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

1.1. Particles in the distribution system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

2. Measurement and modelling techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

2.1. Turbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

2.2. Resuspension potential method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

2.3. Cohesive transport model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

2.4. Other risk estimation tools and techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

3. Cleaning of networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

3.1. Velocity criteria for flushing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

3.2. Shear stress criteria for flushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

3.3. Self-cleaning threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

3.4. Longer term implications for cleaning strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

5. Summary/conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528

1. Introduction

A large proportion of the customer contacts that drinking

water supply companies across the world receive stem from

the occurrence of discoloured water. Fig. 1 shows a typical

break down of customer contacts for a UK water company,

while Fig. 2 shows an example of discoloured water supplied

to a customer in Holland.

Discoloured water incidents as shown in Fig. 2 greatly affect

customer’s confidence in tap water quality and the quality of

service provided by water companies. Although good custo-

mer perception is a major driver for water companies (van

Dijk and Van der Kooij, 2005), thorough understanding of the

mechanisms and processes that lead to discolouration are

currently lacking or at least not applied widely. Hence, water

companies can only respond to discolouration complaints in

40%

Problemssthetic Problems

customer contacts

ny.

a reactive manner. Within modern customer focussed water

companies such reactive maintenance is no longer accepta-

ble, particularly within the regulatory framework of the UK.

Water companies urgently need a practicable understanding

of the processes and mechanisms leading to discolouration

incidents and to develop management tools and techniques.

This paper reviews the techniques to assess the discoloura-

tion risk and the strategies available to control this.

Fig. 2 – Example of discoloured water leading to customer

complaints.

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ARTICLE IN PRESS

WAT ER R ES E A R C H 41 (2007) 519– 529 521

Although referred to as discolouration the visual effect

observed by customers is rarely colour in a strict water quality

sense, defined as contaminants absorbed into the chemical

composition of the water. Typically, if a ‘discoloured’ water

sample is left to stand for a prolonged period (over night) it

will clear, and material will deposit. Hence, it can be

concluded that it is particulate matter that the customer

experiences as ‘discolouration’. The measurable parameter

requiring investigation is therefore turbidity. However, differ-

ent particles have significantly different effects on perceived

turbidity, or discolouration. A combination of factors includ-

ing obscuration, reflection, refraction, diffraction and scatter

contribute, although scattering usually dominates. Russell

(1993) states that peak scattering occurs for particles at

around half a micron diameter with a rapid fall off for

suspensions of larger or smaller sizes.

Particulate accumulations are also known to have a relation

with biological activity (Gauthier et al., 1999). One to 12% of

the organic matter in the particulate accumulations may

consist of bacterial biomass, making the deposits an im-

portant factor in hygienic safety of drinking water.

Discoloured water events are difficult to study in real

systems because they often occur over short durations for

unpredictable reason. Fig. 3a and b show typical short

duration events captured by turbidity instruments installed

in systems in the Netherlands and UK, respectively. The

figures show that discolouration events have the same

characteristics: a sharp rise in turbidity that reduces within

a few hours, despite considerable differences between the

0

10

20

30

10/6/04 10/7/04 9/8/04 8/9/04 8/10/04 7/11/04

Date

Turb

idit

y (N

TU

)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3 – (a) Typical discolouration event measured in a water

distribution system in The Netherlands. (b) Typical

discolouration event measured in a UK water distribution

system.

Dutch and UK networks. Prince et al. (2003) shows similar

results in monitoring turbidity and velocity at different

locations in the Melbourne drinking water distribution

system. The largest growth period of the network in the

Netherlands was in the period 1945–1980, hence the average

age of the network is 45 years and the predominant pipe

materials are PVC and AC. Conversely, in the UK the networks

have not experienced such intensive investment leading to

systems that are still dominated by cast iron pipes dating

back over the last 100 years and beyond. The Australian

network researched by Prince et al. (2003) is of more recent

date than the Dutch network and has seal coated concrete

and PVC as dominant pipe material. The treatment histories

of the systems are also different with systems in the

Netherlands having long adopted a very high standard of

treatment and a policy of no chlorination, while the UK has

seen a variety of levels of service, although now all treatment

is to a high standard. The Australian network is supplied with

unfiltered water, dosed with chlorine, fluoride and lime.

These historic factors are key to understanding the levels of

services and the processes leading to the occurrence of

discolouration events as shown in Figs. 3a and b. This

difference is also manifest in the reactive trigger levels that

companies use to instigate cleaning in response to disco-

louration, typically around 4 contacts per 1000 properties in

UK compared with 1–2 contacts per 1000 in the Netherlands

and 6 contacts per 1000 properties in Australia. This shows

that despite obvious differences in systems, the same

discolouration problems occur. Intuitively, discolouration in

the Dutch systems should be almost non-existent with the

history of good treatment, very low leakage and a network

with a limited amount of cast iron pipes, but the figures show

that discolouration does occur and other processes are

involved besides corrosion. This may also highlight the

inconsistent nature of customers, with propensity to make

contact predominately when the quality of the water changes

from what is perceived as ‘normal’.

1.1. Particles in the distribution system

Discolouration is associated with the mobilisation of accu-

mulated particles from within distribution networks. Such

particles have different sizes and densities and hence

probably have different origins, often characterised as either

external sources or from processes occurring within the

system. Particles can enter the distribution network as

background concentrations of organic and inorganic material

from the source water (Lin and Coller 1997; South East Water,

1998; Kirmeyer et al., 2000; Slaats et al., 2002; Ellison, 2003),

due to incomplete removal of suspended solids at the

treatment plant (Gauthier et al., 2001; Vreeburg et al., 2004b)

or be added to the water by the treatment plant itself, such as

carbon and sand particles, alum or iron flocs and bioparticles

originating from biofilters. The distribution system itself can

also produce particles such as from pipe and fitting corrosion

and lining erosion (Stephenson, 1989; Ruta, 1999; Gauthier et

al., 2001; Clement et al., 2002; Slaats et al., 2002; Boxall et al.,

2003), biological growth (Le Chevallier et al., 1987; Stephen-

son, 1989; Clark et al., 1993; Meches, 2001) and chemical

reactions (Stephenson, 1989; Sly et al., 1990; Walski, 1991; Lin

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ARTICLE IN PRESS

WA T E R R E S E A R C H 4 1 ( 2 0 0 7 ) 5 1 9 – 5 2 9522

and Coller, 1997; Kirmeyer et al., 2000); or external contam-

ination that may occur during operations such as pipe repairs

(Gauthier et al., 1996; Slaats et al., 2002), intrusion (Gauthier

et al., 1999; Kirmeyer et al., 2000; Prince et al., 2001) and

backflow. Possibly the most common and significant biologi-

cal process is biofilm formation which can result from the

presence of assimilable organic carbon in the water or the

pipe wall (van der Kooij, 2002). The effects of these complex

and interacting processes is further complicated by exposure

to various different physical and chemical conditions during

passage through distribution systems including contact with

a range of different pipe materials and ages and different

hydraulic conditions. The formation and growth of particles

is a very complex process which is currently poorly under-

stood. Factors such as contact times, contact surface and

hydraulic condition are likely to play an important role in

controlling these processes. These sources, external and

internal, rarely contribute directly to discolouration events

but facilitate the gradual accumulation of material within the

distribution system.

Next to the sources and growth of particles, it is important

to understand the hydraulic behaviour of the particles to

determine the fate of the particles in the network. Boxall et al.

(2001) presented results for the distribution of particle sizes

found in discoloured water samples, suggesting a repeatable

distribution of particle sizes irrespective of network condi-

tions, source water etc. They suggested that the size range of

the particles was predominately less than 0.050 mm, with an

average size of around 0.010 mm and a significant number of

particles in the sub 0.005 mm range. Boxall et al. (2001) went

on to show that it is unlikely that gravitational settling alone

will be a sufficient force for accumulation of such particles as

turbulent forces generated by even the lowest flows within a

distribution system are likely to be sufficient to over come

gravity settling forces, particularly for the smaller sized

particles found within discolouration samples which will

dominate discolouration due to their light scattering proper-

ties. Fig. 4 shows material accumulation due to corrosion

processes around the complete circumference of pipe sam-

ples and a lack of invert deposit, consistent with these

concepts. Samples such as these have been installed in a

laboratory facility and significant discolouration generated by

exposing them to flushing flow rates, despite the disturbance

of weakly adhered material caused by obtaining the samples.

Whatever processes dominate the accumulation of material

within a distribution system, the processes may be concep-

tualised as the loss of material from the bulk fluid to the pipe

Fig. 4 – Material accumulation around the complete

perimeter of a cast iron pipe samples.

wall. The exception to this is corrosion of ferrous pipes and

fittings, which may contribute directly to layers at the pipes

wall, as well as material to bulk fluid which may then

accumulate in other non-ferrous pipes (Smith et al., 1999;

Boxall et al., 2003; Seth et al., 2004).

To investigate the process of loss of material from the bulk

fluid to the pipe wall a 6 m long pipe test facility was build out

of 100 mm internal diameter Perspex pipe. The facility was

run in a pressurised re-circulating mode, with a downstream

flow control. The source water was initially dosed with iron

chloride to a concentration of 10 mg/l iron corresponding to a

turbidity of 10 FTU. After 4 days of recirculation the turbidity

had dropped below 0.5 FTU, resulting in accumulation on the

pipe walls as shown in Fig. 5 for the section of the pipe where

the flow is stable, unaffected by curvature or entry/exit

conditions. What is particularly remarkable about Fig. 5 is

that at low velocities only the lower half of the pipes

accumulates iron flocs, while with the higher velocity flocs

accumulate over the complete pipe perimeter. However, the

size of the flocs formed will be a function of the flow regime

and the relatively pure iron chloride flocs formed are likely

to be larger than the size of particles typically seen in

discoloured water samples.

This phenomenon could be explained with turbophoresis

(Young and Leeming, 1997). Turbophoresis is the process that

describes the turbulent transportation of particles from more

turbid regions to less turbid regions in a flow pattern. The

turbophoretic force is dependant of the gradient of turbulence

over the flow profile. In pipe flow this means that particles are

transported from the bulk fluid to less turbid regions near the

wall where they can be trapped in cohesive layers. With

higher velocities the gradient is greater as the turbulence at

the pipe wall must always be zero, resulting in a larger force

driving particles from the centre to the wall of the pipe. In

light of this theory it can be suggested that at a flow rate of

0.14 m/s the turbophoresis force exceed the gravitational

force resulting in uniform supply of material at the pipe

surface, while at 0.06 m/s the gravity and turbophoresic forces

where nearer to equilibrium.

Overall it can be concluded that the mechanism leading

to discolouration events are complex, poorly understood

and interactive. However, the processes may be understood

through a relatively easy concept. The cause of discoloura-

tion is particles attached by some means to the pipe wall.

Flow 0.06 m/s Flow 0.14 m/s

Pipe diameter 100 mm

Fig. 5 – Photographs of accumulated material within a

Perspex pipe loop after 4 days re-circulation with high load

ferric chloride solutions (10 mg/l).

Page 5: Discolour at Ion in Potable Water Distribution System

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Accumulation during normal flow Mobilization due to above normal flow

Fig. 6 – Conceptual model of the fundamental processes

leading to the occurrence of discolouration within potable

water distribution systems.

WAT ER R ES E A R C H 41 (2007) 519– 529 523

In normal flow the particles stay in their place and do not

affect the aesthetic quality of the water. If flows are increased

above normal, scouring forces and shear stress increase

consequently and then the particles may be mobilised,

sometimes leading to customer complaints, Fig. 6.

Fig. 7 – Typical turbidity trace resulting from an RPM test,

showing the four regions used to rate the discolouration

risk.

2. Measurement and modelling techniques

While various research projects have been undertaken to

investigate and improve understanding of the processes and

mechanisms leading to discolouration, as reviewed above,

there is a relatively small body of published material relating

to the derivation of the practicable tools and techniques that

are needed by the international water supply industry.

2.1. Turbidity

Discrete instruments turbidity meters have been available as

proven and reliable instrumentation for some time, while

treatment work control has driven the development of

continuous, low range instruments for processes control.

However, more robust instrumentation, with greater dynamic

range and improved logging and communications technology

are now available suitable for deployment on distribution

systems. Such equipment allow continuous monitoring at

several locations at the same time, making it possible to

record the changes in turbidity and hence to identify causal

factors (Slaats et al., 2002; van der Hoven and Vreeburg, 1992).

Data obtained from such turbidity meters have been used to

develop techniques to aid water companies to identify and

quantify discolouration risks within distribution networks

(Vreeburg, 1996).

2.2. Resuspension potential method

Irrespective of the origin, the presence and mobility of

deposits determines the discolouration risk. The resuspen-

tion potential method (RPM) as developed in the Netherlands

(Vreeburg et al., 2004a,b) is based on measuring the mobility

of the material in a network.

The RPM consists of a controlled and reproducible increase

of the velocity of 0.35 m/s in a pipe on top of the actual

velocity. The hydraulic shear stress as a result of the

increased velocity causes particles to mobilise, affecting the

turbidity of the water. The method is mainly applied in

100–150 mm pipes hence the absolute difference in shear

stress caused by the uniform velocity increase is not very

large. The velocity of 0.35 m/s was empirically determined

(Vreeburg et al., 2004a,b). The turbidity effect is monitored

and translated to a ranking of the discolouration risk. The

method is applied as follows:

Isolate the pipe for which the discolouration risk is to be

assessed, as for uni-directional flushing (Antoun et al.,

1999). The isolated length should be at least 315 m to be

sure that only this single pipe is affected.

Open a fire hydrant such that the velocity in the pipe is

increased by the additional 0.35 m/s above the actual

velocity and maintain for 15 min, after this reduce the

flow to normal (total length affected is 315 m).

Monitor turbidity in the pipe throughout the 15 min of

extra velocity and beyond that until turbidity returns to

the initial level.

The result obtained from an RPM test is the turbidity

response of a pipe. A typical example is shown in Fig. 7

highlighting four regions of the trace that are utilised to rank

discolouration risk.

The RPM elements are:

Base level turbidity, the level preceding the hydraulic

disturbance, used in estimating the time for the turbidity

to return to initial levels.

Initial increase in turbidity during the first 5 min at the

start of the hydraulic disturbance quantifies the top layer

that is immediately available and gives the instantaneous

mobility of the particles resulting in peak turbidity.

Development of turbidity during last 10 min of the

hydraulic disturbance.

Resettling time and pattern to base (initial) turbidity level

after stopping the disturbance. The duration here is

important for the discolouration risk, the longer the

turbidity levels remain increased the greater the risk of

discolouration complaints.

Discolouration risk ranking is based on five elements: the

maximum and average turbidity in the first 5 min and last

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ARTICLE IN PRESS

Turbidity with RPM, after cleaning

Disturbance 9:59 - 10:15

0

10

20

30

40

50

09:59 10:02 10:05 10:08 10:11 10:14

Time

Tu

rbid

ity

[F

TU

]

Turbidity with RPM, before cleaning

Disturbance 13:09 - 13:23

0

10

20

30

40

50

13:09 13:11 13:13 13:15 13:17 13:19 13:25

Time

Tu

rbid

ity

[F

TU

]

Fig. 8 – Results of RPM method applied pre- and postcleaning to evaluate the effectiveness of the operations.

WA T E R R E S E A R C H 4 1 ( 2 0 0 7 ) 5 1 9 – 5 2 9524

10 min of the disturbance and the time to clear. Each of these

can be rated on a scale from 0 to 3 and summed, characteris-

ing the experiment to a single figure on a scale of 0–15. The

ranking tables can be adjusted based on the results obtained

and instrumentation used (i.e. average turbidity levels) to

obtain a spread of risk scores, providing the flexibility to tailor

the method to different networks, Vreeburg et al. (2004a,b).

The RPM was developed within the joint research program

of the Dutch water companies (Bedrijfstakonderzoek BTO)

and has been applied by the Dutch water companies for more

than a decade. The method is used to evaluate both the need

for cleaning and through application following maintenance

to evaluate effectiveness of cleaning regimes. Fig. 8 gives the

result of a RPM before and after cleaning by flushing a pipe.

Regular assessment with RPM in network can provide

information on the necessary frequency of cleaning.

2.3. Cohesive transport model

As stated earlier Boxall et al. (2001) carried out theoretical

analysis of the interaction of particles of the size found to

predominate in discoloured water samples with respect to the

hydraulic forces generated within distribution networks,

concluding that forces and mechanisms above and beyond

gravity settling forces must be in effect to inhibit particle

movement. Rather than trying to identify or quantify specific

contributing processes, they suggested a semi-empirical

model that could be used to account for the effects of any

such processes. The model they proposed was based on

theory developed to describe the erosion of estuarine mud

Parchure and Mehta (1985) and as applied to in-sewer

deposits by Skipworth et al. (1999).

The model is based on the concept that discolouration

material is held in stable cohesive layers attached to the pipe

walls of distribution systems and that these layers are

conditioned by the usual daily hydraulic regime within the

system. Within the model the material layers are described by

a profile of discolouration potential versus layer strength,

with an increase in potential corresponding to a decrease in

strength. This strength, and hence layer state, is dictated by

the shear stresses imposed by hydraulic conditions. Hence

areas with low daily maximum hydraulic forces, such as

dead-end pipes, redundant loops, over sized pipes, zone

boundaries, extremities of loops etc. will have low strength

characteristics and high discolouration potential, as has been

noted in practice. The occurrence of disequilibria hydraulic

conditions (burst, re-zoning, increased demand etc.) may

expose the layers to shear stress in excess of their condi-

tioned cohesive strength and lead to a mobilisation of the

cohesive layers, resulting in a discolouration event.

It should be noted that neither the source of material nor

the mechanisms and processes leading to accumulation and

binding of particles are considered explicitly within the

modelling approach. However, through calibration of the

empirical parameters describing layer strength characteris-

tics, mobilisation and accumulation mechanisms a range of

processes and materials may be simulated.

The model is used to predict turbidity as a result of

hydraulic disturbance, and has been termed PODDS (predic-

tion of discolouration events in distribution systems). PODDS

has been coded into EPANET (Rossman, 2000) and runs as a

water quality element that utilises the EPANET hydraulic

solution, substance tracking and transport algorithms. The

incorporation of such a modelling approach into a calibrated

hydraulic model allows the simulation of the discolouration

risk (potential and impact) posed by different network areas

and hydraulic scenarios. Once calibrated the model may be

used to plan pro-active management strategies such as the

flushing of systems to reduce the risk of discolouration

events.

The model has been validated for data collected from

flushing operations in the UK (Boxall and Saul, 2005), as

shown in Fig. 9, and for data collected in Australia (Boxall and

Prince 2006).

2.4. Other risk estimation tools and techniques

The authors are aware of two other projects currently in

progress for the development of practicable tools and

techniques to aid the water supply industry with the

identification and estimation of discolouration risk. The

discolouration risk management (DRM) tool which is being

developed and rolled out to UK industry by Ewan Group plc

and Yorkshire Water Services (Dewis and Randall-Smith,

2005). DRM is a risk based assessment tool incorporating

likelihood of pipe failure, discolouration and consequence

and is based on ‘expert panel’ risk trees. As such DRM is a

pragmatic asset management and investment tool, but is

limited by the discolouration knowledge and understanding

of the required expert panels. The particles sediment model

(PSM) is being developed and trialled in Australia by the

Cooperative Research Centre (CRC). However, as far as the

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0

50

100

150

200

250

5000 7500 10000 12500 15000

time, t (seconds)

turb

idity

, N (

NT

U)

measured

simulated

measured

simulated

measured

simulated

measured

simulated

Flushing of a 76mm cast iron pipe

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000

Time, t (seconds)

Tur

bidi

ty, N

(N

TU

)

Flushing of a 100mm UPV

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

Time, t (seconds)

Tur

bidi

ty, N

(N

TU

)

2 stage flushing of a 76mm asbestos cement pipe

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

23000 24000 25000 26000 27000 28000

time, t (seconds)

turb

idity

, N

(N

TU

)

Flushing of a 171mm asbestos cement pipe

Fig. 9 – Results of PODDS model simulation for four different flushing operations (after Boxall et al., 2005).

5

6

7

U)

WAT ER R ES E A R C H 41 (2007) 519– 529 525

authors are aware, little or no material is currently in the

public domain relating to this.

0

1

2

3

4

Tur

bidi

ty (

FT

wed wedtuemonsunsatthu fri

Days of the week

Fig. 10 – Turbidity pattern after water/air scouring of a 4’’ CI

main.

3. Cleaning of networks

Once an estimate of discolouration risk has been obtained it

is necessary to implement some network cleaning technique

to manage the risk. Three non-structural methods are

commonly applied within the drinking water industry

world-wide: water flushing, water/air scouring and swab-

bing/pigging. Although all the methods are capable of

cleaning a network, there are large differences in costs and

effectiveness.

In general water flushing is the simplest and most cost

effective way of reducing the risk of discolouration. More

complete removal of all material from a pipe is only possible

with more abrasive methods like swabbing and pigging.

However, these methods are comparatively expensive and

disruptive to the distribution systems. They also have the

potential to aggravate corrosion processes in ferrous pipes if

some form of internal lining is not applied following their

application. Established corrosion layers can effectively

protect underlying ferrous material, aggressive cleaning can

expose this underlying surface which will then start to

corrode more rapidly generating material at the pipe wall

and releasing ferrous ions into the bulk fluid. Fig. 10 shows

the turbidity after effects of abrasive cleaning (in this case

water/air scouring) on a 100 mm cast iron main. The pattern

of rising turbidity during stagnation in the night hours and

falling turbidity in the morning peak hours is typical for an

active corrosion process, Smith et al. (1999), Slaats et al.

(2002).

3.1. Velocity criteria for flushing

In the Netherlands a strict velocity criterion of 1.5 m/s has

been pursued as a cost effective mains cleaning technique

since the 1990s. However, the efficiency and effectiveness of

the method is significantly influenced by a number of factors:

the strict use of a clear water front (through the use of valve

operations to control flow routes and to separate the cleaned

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WA T E R R E S E A R C H 4 1 ( 2 0 0 7 ) 5 1 9 – 5 2 9526

and still fouled network); thorough cleaning of all pipes in the

network; and ensuring 2–3 times turn over of the volume of

water in the pipe effected. An advantage of controlling flow

routes is that the point of flushing can be located near to a

ditch or a storm water run off. The flush point can be

equipped with a dedicated flush point with a higher capacity

than a normal hydrant, allowing high volume flows.

Flushing guidelines, such as the Water Mains Cleaning

handbook (Miller, 1994) in the UK suggest diameter and

specific gravity dependent velocities for effective entrainment

and removal of material from within distribution systems.

Typically, such figures are based on classical sediment

transport theory, such as presented by Stephenson (1989).

UK guidance values range from 0.7 m/s in a 50 mm pipe to

1.3 m/s in a 200 mm pipe.

3.2. Shear stress criteria for flushing

From theoretical analysis based on particle size distribution

measurements of discoloured water samples, Boxall et al.

(2001) suggested that traditional sediment transport theory is

not appropriate for describing the generation of discoloura-

tion within distribution systems. Suggesting that the pro-

cesses are better described through consideration of the

interaction of hydraulic shear stresses and the pipe wall/

water interface with material layers. Similarly, Ackers et al.

(2001) recognised the importance of shear stress for the

mobilisation of material and recommended a value of

2.5 N/m2 that should be achieved by flushing. However, this

value is based on previous research and design principles for

sewer systems and may not be appropriate for distribution

systems.

Simplified modelling may be attempted using the PODDS

modelling assumptions that the discolouration potential of

layers is a function of their strength characteristics, dictated

by the daily hydraulics and that increases in shear stress

above this value, excess shear stress, will produce succes-

sively more turbidity, as demonstrated by Boxall and Dewis

(2005). The greater the excess shear the greater the disco-

louration. It should be noted that this is a very simplified

approach, as the layer characteristics have been found to be

Flat house

FlatVP 350 kPa

VP 350 kPa

Hospital

∅ 75∅ 110

Flat house

FlatVP 350 kPa

VP 350 kPa

Hospital

∅ 75∅ 110

Fig. 11 – (a) Conventional distribution network (van Boomen

fighting demands (van Boomen Vreeburg, 1999).

dependent on several factors, including source water, pipe

material and diameter, Boxall and Saul (2005). Relative

discolouration risk, based on shear stress criterion, could be

judged as the average of the excess shear stresses caused by

different changes in hydraulic conditions, with steady state

shear stress (t) readily evaluated from:

t ¼ rgD4

S0, (1)

where r is shear stress, g acceleration due to gravity, D pipe

diameter and S0 hydraulic gradient or head loss estimated by

every hydraulic network model. Hence, unlike velocity

criteria, shear stress criteria are diameter, roughness and

velocity squared independent.

3.3. Self-cleaning threshold

It has been suggested that material will tend to accumulate in

areas with low velocities, such as dead ends, over sized pipes

and redundant loops. Such features are common in most

networks as the systems are deigned to comply with large fire

fighting demands that are typically far greater than consumer

demands, particularly at the extremities of large systems and

in smaller systems. A typical over sized looped network is

shown in Fig. 11a, the white pipe is part of the main transport

system, while the distribution pipes are looped and of smaller

diameter. The velocities in such systems are low and the

loops will probably experience flow reversals and tidal points,

lead to long residence times and risk of discolouration.

On the basis that higher velocities within the systems

would reduce the potential for material accumulation and

hence reduce the risk of discolouration a new approach to

network design has been instigated in the Netherlands since

1999 (van Boomen Vreeburg, 1999). The approach is based on

a fundamental rethinking of the fire fighting demand. In close

cooperation with national fire fighting agencies in the Nether-

lands fire fighting codes have been amended to stipulate just

30 m3/h in residential areas in which buildings meet modern

fire fighting codes. With this reduced requirement pipe sizing

is designed to meet expected customer demands and velocity

criteria. A velocity of at least 0.4 m/s is stipulated as being

sufficient to prevent accumulation of material. The value of

VP 350 kPa

VP 350 kPa

Hospital

116 85

64

60 m /h

∅ 63∅ 40

∅ 110VP 350 kPa

VP 350 kPa

Hospital

116 85

64

60 m3/h

∅ 63∅ 40

∅ 110

Vreeburg, 1999). (b) Distribution network after reduced fire

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WAT ER R ES E A R C H 41 (2007) 519– 529 527

0.4 m/s is determined as a pragmatic value that is achievable

and weakly substantiated by the shear stresses caused by

flow acceleration up to this value. The new design philosophy

results in a distribution network that is branched with pipes

of relatively small diameter, such as shown in Fig. 11b

showing declining diameters with distance to ensure the

minimum velocity in the pipes whilst maintaining security of

supply. The new design rules are widely applied in the

Netherlands resulting in a reduction in the average pipe

diameter by length in new networks, the rules are not only

accepted on the basis of improved water quality but also

because the new networks are on average 20% cheaper to

construct than conventional ones. The savings are mainly

achieved by the reduction in length of the pipes because the

loops are not closed anymore. Further development of the

design procedure comprises research to the pattern of water

consumption of individual houses, resulting in better esti-

mates of maximum flows (Blokker and Vreeburg, 2005).

The concept of a self-cleaning threshold, defined as a shear

stress that a pipe experiences regularly, due to normal daily

demand, that prohibits the accumulation of sufficient mate-

rial within the pipe and hence pose no discolouration risk was

investigated by Boxall and Prince (2006). They evaluated the

forces necessary to inhibit accumulation of material through

evaluation of imposed shear stress rather than velocity,

arriving at a value of 1.12 N/mm2 for a large diameter asbestos

cement main for clay driven discolouration problems in

Melbourne, Australia.

3.4. Longer term implications for cleaning strategies

Particles in the distribution network are the key to the

aesthetical water quality in the network. There are several

ways to control the amount of particles in the network the

practical impact of which are summarised in Fig. 12.

The solid line represents the (re)charging of the network

with particles, increasing the risk of discolouration. Once a

certain threshold is reached remedial action is taken to clean

the network, reducing the risk of discolouration. If nothing

further is changed, the network will recharge with material

from various sources re-accumulating resulting in the need

for further cleaning. This procedure gives the cleaning

frequency for this network. However, there are various

possibilities for improving the quality or prolonging the

Effect of cleaning

Threshold level

Effect of investment / management / operational strategies

Cleaningfrequency 1

Cleaning frequency 2

Time

Dis

co

lou

rati

on

ris

k

Fig. 12 – Potential to manage discolouration risk in a

network.

cleaning frequency, such as reducing the rate of material

accumulation through investment (improving treatment

works or replacing/relining iron pipes), management (disin-

fection regime to control biofilm growth) and operational

(change the system hydraulics to impose increased hydraulic

forces). However, the quantification and relative value of such

strategies in different situations is beyond current methods

and understanding.

4. Discussion

Discolouration is a problem that is as old as public drinking

water supply. Until a few years ago this phenomenon has had

relatively little attention, however, with other improvements

in the supply of drinking water discolouration is now the

single most common reason for customer contacts. Research

has been undertaken in the last decade into the underlying

mechanisms of discolouration, going beyond the intuitive and

accepted causes like corrosion, such that new tools and

techniques can be developed to support the implementation

of planned operation and maintenance strategies to control

discolouration risk. Most of the research however concen-

trates on the composition of the removed sediment and the

possible impacts on microbiological stability of the water

(Gauthier et al., 1996, 1999, 2001; Carriere et al., 2005; Torvinen

et al., 2004; Zacheus et al., 2001; Barbeau et al., 2005). The

actual discolouration risk is not assessed or evaluated. This

research though has led to the concept that the gradual build

up of cohesive particulate layers in combination with

hydraulic disturbances are the mechanisms leading to

discolouration events.

Initial emphasis for the application of this research has

been the development of practicable tools to identify dis-

colouration ‘hot spots’, producing a physical method (RPM)

and a modelling approach (PODDS). Managing these hot

spots with monitoring and cleaning can control them,

although the application of science behind such cleaning

has not yet led to optimal operations. Unidirectional flushing

is recognised as a good technique, but guidelines are mainly

driven by ‘‘Good management practices’’ (Friedman et al.,

2002) to optimise the costs a flushing program rather than to

maximise the effect.

Guidelines based on shear stresses as well as general

guidelines on velocity illustrate the need for detailed cleaning

programs involving network simulation to design efficient

and effective cleaning protocols. This changes the image of

cleaning from a low rated routine task with a low efficacy to

an important water quality process that involves pro-active

operation of networks. Practise in the Netherlands shows that

the strict application of three simple rules (velocity41.5 m/s,

clear water front and pipe turnover 2–3 times) is effective. Use

of pre- and postassessment of the discolouration risk either

with the RPM or other sediment sampling methods should be

a routine activity in the cleaning programs (Schaap and

Vreeburg, 1999).

Research challenges are now for developing better under-

standing of cleaning efficacy with particular reference to

improving understanding of the processes controlling the

refouling of systems. Such that the cleaning frequency, as

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shown in Fig. 12, can be predicted and managed. There are

indications that these frequencies should be estimated in

terms of months rather than years. Preventing or limiting

material accumulation, to increase these cleaning frequen-

cies, can either be influenced by eliminating or restricting the

particle production processes or by resizing the network to

promote self-cleansing capacities.

5. Summary/conclusions

Particles in water distribution network, either as loose

deposits or trapped in cohesive layers, are the main factor

related to discoloured water. Water companies need methods

to quantify, and manage particle accumulations and hence

reduce customer complaints.

For estimating the discolouration risk a model based

method is available called PODDS. PODDS allows water

companies, after sufficient calibration, to predict the dis-

colouration potential of pipes in a network and hence to

prioritise maintenance. Next to the model approach a

practical measuring method has been developed that facil-

itates assessment of the resuspension potential of particles

determining the discolouration risk. The RPM is also applic-

able as evaluating tool for the efficacy of the applied cleaning

techniques.

Remedial action as cleaning by uni directional flushing are

not uniformly described and rather based on good manage-

ment practises than on optimal results. Clear and simple

rules for flushing (1.5 m/s, 2–3 pipe turnovers and clear water

front) prove to be effective in the Netherlands.

Adoption of a self cleaning threshold, a force experienced

regularly by a pipe to prohibit material accumulation, can be

an effective long term approach for controlling discoloura-

tion, this also results in considerably cheaper networks with

better water quality and minimal maintenance needs.

In the longer term sustainable solutions for controlling

discoloured water problems may be found through preventing

the causes of particles, such as by improving treatment,

stopping or controlling regrowth, coagulation and corrosion

in the network. However, the quantification and evaluation of

such strategies in different situations is beyond current

methods and understanding and these represent the main

challenges to meet in the future.

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