discovering landscape urbanism within resilient landscapediscovering landscape urbanism within...

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Discovering Landscape Urbanism within Resilient Landscape:Searching from Natural Setting to Structured Ground

SABSTRACT

ettlements in urban and rural areas treat landscapes differently. In urban areas within the structured layouts, the landscape is likely to be dominated by human activities; settlements in natural settings

require a more sensitive approach to landscapes. But in both cases landscapes are strong, driving forces to guide settlement design. This can range from details to larger arenas, direction of future requirements, adjustments to future growth, coping with probable diffi culties and providing alternate solutions. Landscape urbanism has inherited some issues and concepts derived from resilient landscapes. To search for urbanism within a resilient landscape this paper examines two distinct examples that of urban structured ground and rural natural setting. To structure urbanism with resilient qualities a search was made to identify the underlying guiding forces in landscapes. This search was conducted using scientifi c references. This paper examines the settlements’ details in the two setting which evolved from their landscapes. Thus ensuring their sustainability and capability to withstand adverse environments. As a whole, the paper tries to establish that settlements in both, an urban or a rural setting that are respective to its landscape have the capability to cope with changing environments.

Keywords: Landscape Urbanism, Resilient landscape, Structured landscape, Natural landscape, Ruralism


Ayasha Siddiqua Department of Architecture,Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected]

LANDSCAPE URBANISM AND RESILIENT LANDSCAPE

‘Landscape Urbanism is an emerging field that is still struggling to convincingly define itself…There are two main biases recognizable in the discourse of landscape urbanism- one focusing upon infrastructure (laying claim to portions of the built environment once consigned to civil engineering) and another rooted in ecology’ (Shannon, 2004).

Landscape, with its dynamic characteristics, fl exible and multi-dimensional qualities, can structure a locality with adequate visions and allow the settlement to make continuous adjustments of variable dynamics like social, cultural, economic, environmental, and ecological systems. Landscape urbanism, which has landscape as a core element in the planning process of development, has the capability to adjust to different variables, withstand with external forces and restructure with alternate solutions.

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also investigate whether the landscape that guided urbanism/ruralism has the capability to be a resilient landscape and to which extent it will be resilient in the structured development as well as in a spontaneous one. Two distinct samples have been chosen for the study. The fi rst one is an indigenous community that built their settlement in a hilly area near to the source of their livelihood – agriculture situated on slopes (Figure 1). The other one is a planned urban area centered on a beautiful manmade body of water, which apparently serves as a public realm (Figure 2). The various issues for both locations have been described. Then, using scientifi c knowledge, the paper argues in favor of ‘landscape urbanism’ thus a ‘resilient landscape’ for sustainable development. Here, it could be imagined that in some cases the landscape urbanism might contribute to generating concepts in resilient-centered ways.

Resilient landscapes feature rhythms of elasticity (being self-regulating, dynamic and evolving), retroactivity (being multi-scalar, incremental and cumulative) and socio-ecological multi-functionality (being adaptive, qualitative and re-cyclable) (ICLEI, 2012).

Resilience, meaning the capability of landscape to absorb external shocks and able to provide alternatives, prefers solutions that overcome the anomalies and enables restructuring the locality for healthy living.

Being inspired by these ideas and defi nitions of ‘Landscape Urbanism’ and Resilient Landscape’, this paper has tried to investigate, define and establish arguments for two separate settlements as to whether they are structured by landscape and can lead to further development. The study will

Figure 1:Ruralism derived from natural landscape

Figure 2:Structured landscape within urban settlement

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URBANISM (RURALISM) IN NATURAL LANDSCAPE

The hilly area known as the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) are comprised of three hill districts - Rangamati, Bandarban, and Khagrachari. These districts lie in the southeastern part of Bangladesh and consist of 10% of the total Bangladesh area. There are numerous hills and ravines that are covered with dense vegetation. The CHT is a unique territory of Bangladesh with mountains, beautiful landscapes, and balanced natural settings. The hilly landscape has its own environment which is totally in contrast to the alluvial, monsoon-fl ooded plains. Nested, thin fl owing streams found in the hilly landscape become a source of livelihood and generate settlements. One of these settlements in CHT (Figure 3) understands traditional ruralism derived from their landscape and how resilient the landscape is from various perspectives.

Landscape as the initiator fordevelopment

The community’s economy is based in agricultural production which uses special methods to grow crops on the slopes of hills where rains are frequent but the water does not stand long. Near the foothills ground water level not deep. The method used to cultivate crops and is called jhum or slash and burn cultivation which is totally different from methods used on the alluvial plain. The method of production is basically done by clearing existing vegetation by cutting and burning. Afterward these burned ashes are used as fertilizer. Then the temporary cultivation of crops is done on the cleared slopes After harvest these plots are again abundant in regenerating vegetation. Thus these sloping landscapes have been chosen for their attributes to an agrarian livelihood and became the initiator of this specifi c settlement.

Figure 3:Settlement evolve from natural setting in CHT

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The settlement also developed and adjusted to the location of jhiris, streams, as shown in Figure 4. As well as an availability of land for jhum agriculture, an abundant source of water is another primary concern in setting up a new hamlet or relocating old ones. Jhiris is the most essential factor for the survival of mankind and agriculture (Figure 5). For this, the settlements in these hilly areas frequently change their location with the changing courses of the jhiris. Though initially these hamlets look as if their setting is without any clear visible order, but there are subtle orders which can be understood from an ardent observation of physical and social structures of these communities.

With the above discussions this settlement can be established as a traditional landscape urbanism (ruralism) where the landscape acts as initiator and generator. The settlement follows the rules of nature and changes its setting according to the changes in the landscape. This can further be established through the following ideas:

‘Landscape urbanism- understood as structuring landscape to guide their occupation, use and urbanisation…. There is an ancient, indigenous landscape urbanism whereby an integral system of urbanisation is tied to the logics of landscape.’ (Shannon, 2007:7)

Figure 4:Plan of Settlement in Hilly Landscape

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Figure 6:‘Jhiris’- passing through the valley near the settlement

Figure 5:Section- showing relationship of settlement and productive landscape in hilly topography

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‘The vernacular landscape, identified with local custom, pragmatic adaptation to circumstances and unpredictable mobility.’ (Baboult, 2002:40)

‘Mobility and changes are the key of vernacular landscape.’ (Jackson, 1984: 15)

Following the ‘Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Landscape’ it can also be a cultural landscape because it accepts the changes which results from both natural process and human activities.

The landscape is resilient as well as it makes the settlement achieve “... the capacity and ability to withstand stress, survive, adapt, bounce back from crisis or disasters and rapidly move on.” (ICLEI, 2010).

Settlement following the ecological order and natural setting

The location of agricultural land, the settlement, some hard infrastructure, and the gatherings of built structures follow the natural order. Inhabitants chose the bottom of sloping hill for rice production and the relatively upper lands for built-up areas. This is because the underground water level is much closer to the surface in the lower lands then it is in the upper part. The lower lands include streams that are needed for watering agricultural grounds (Figure 7b). The settlement and infrastructure is built on the upper part of the land without disturbing the production in the valley.

Figure 7:Settlement allowed uninterrupted natural setting and production near water in valley

Buildings are on stilts so that they allow an uninterrupted fl ow of water in the sloping topography. The water fl ows in streams down to valley as shown in Figure 7(a). Sometimes manmade drainage canals facilitate channelling rain water to the valley. The collected water is used for household work, watering animals, small scale vegetation and other purposes. This is also maintaining the environmental and ecological balance by recharging an aquifer.

Moreover roads and paths within the settlement are few and narrow. They were made to serve the purpose of light transport, avoiding a big gathering of built-up areas. Here inhabitants maintain the sense to not interrupt nature and landscape with hard infrastructures. Figure 8 and Figure 9 depict the sensitive handling of the landscape for essential community activities.

All of these points push the settlement towards favoring an indigenous one with the landscape as a vernacular that is resilient. The following speech and quote addresses this concept:

‘The vernacular landscape as a type all that we can say is that its spaces are usually small, irregular in shape, subject to rapid change in use, in ownership, in dimension; that there is always a vast amount of ‘common land’- waste, pasturage, forest, areas where natural resources are exploited in a piecemeal manner, that its roads are little more than path and lanes, never maintained and rarely permanent; fi nally that the vernacular landscape is a scattering of hamlets and cluster of fi elds.’ (Jackson, 1984:151)

Resilient landscape as ‘...the time required for an ecosystem to return to an equilibrium or steady-state following a perturbation’ (Holling, 1973).

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Architectural responses to culture, climate, environment

The settlements are very responsive to their culture, life style, environment and climate. The hamlets try to co-exist with nature and if this co-relation is disturbed, major changes may take place. Their houses are well adapted to the environment and totally merge with the landscape, becoming an integral part their natural surroundings (Figure 10). These settlements are self-regulatory in preserving an ecological balance with the environment. The dwellings are concrete representations of the inhabitants’ intangible social ideas and diverse cultural values.

The architecture tries to follow the local topography and climatic condition. The community built their houses on tall piles, lifting the houses above the ground so they do not disturb the natural setting as shown in Figure 11. They use the space under the houses for storing fi re wood and as pig sty’s. But this method of construction also has several functions in this climate. Cooling breezes penetrate these raised houses and provide excellent ventilation under the fl oors in hot weather. This way of construction also protects houses from mud and landslides during the monsoon season. The stilted houses also keep the inhabitants free from most of the malaria-carrying mosquitoes. This way of building is rooted in ancient and indigenous practices which were

Figure 8:Softly going down through the landscape

Figure 9:Minimum infrastructure not to disturb landscape

Figure 10:Seating into nature

Figure 11:Settlement follows the topography

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adopted throughout time and is totally derived from the environment and landscape there.

These stilt houses built by the indigenous community are basically structured by the post and lintel system. Traditional construction materials are predominantly bamboo and timber because of their availability in the hilly area (Figure 13). These materials have also been chosen for certain advantages that merge with the indigenous culture. Since the community generally does not settle in a permanent location due to environmental changes, these materials are very suitable for speedy assembly, reassembly, reconstruction and repair within a very short time. Bamboo, timber, bamboo leaves, wild grass used as lightweight construction materials with fascinating form ensures ecologically sustainable structures. It can be affi rmed that inhabitants built their houses as such that they are fl exible and varied to suit the needs of users even within a very simple, homogenous identity.

Doors and windows are also dictated by the climate. Most of the houses have very small window opening limited to two or three in each building (Figure 12). This is a natural response to their climatic demand because less windows and small openings offer protection from the cold and wind in the high mountain region.

This indigenous architecture is deeply rooted in their soil and socio-cultural setup which could also be universal elements for cultural landscapes. It is recognized as traditional settlement in the following citations:

‘Vernacular communities without political status, without plan, ruled by informal custom, often ingenious adaptations to an unlikely site and makeshift materials, destined to last no more than a year or two, and working as well as most communities do.’ (Jackson, 1984:150)

‘Vernacular architecture is one which confi rms to the environment’s climate and topographic conditions, using local materials and respecting tradition.’ (Baboult, 2002: 40).

At the same time, the landscape defines the settlement as resilient as it has ‘…the capacity to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing changes so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure, identity and feedbacks’(Walker, 2004).

Settlement and landscape ruled by custom and tradition

These tribal settlements in hilly areas are totally different and carry dynamic contrast to the Bengali traditions. The spatial organisation, house form, creation of spaces defi ned by uses is concurrent with their life style refl ecting the culture and traditions which are very dominant here. The society is mainly egalitarian, so houses and hamlets do not display hierarchy and wealth. Rituals and community participation in all aspects of life help to control and retain the egalitarian status of society. They are deeply devoted to religious traditions and believe that rituals, rites and festivals are the social control mechanism in such democratic living. To prevent evil force and guard the welfare of family and society these interactions are essential. So, the physical spaces for social, cultural and ritual milieu are very prominent in such society.

Figure 12:Small opening response to local climate

Figure 13:Bamboo and wood as traditional construction materials

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‘Thousand of small and impoverished vernacular landscapes, organizing and using spaces in their traditional way and living in communities governed by custom, hold together by personal relationship’ (Jackson, 1984:150)

The arrangement of settlements also translates their way of living where women are more active outside, unlike other South Asian societies. Women take part in fi eldwork and engage in a diverse range of activities; carrying water, hulling and pounding of rice, carrying fi rewood, cooking and so on. The position of women in a family and society is one traditional factor which dictates the organisation of a hamlet and an open plan of houses. Social relationships also structure the spatial distribution. Although the society lives under male dominated clan order, it is more about partnerships; it is not ruled by gender.

So, it is clear that the predominant customs and traditions in this society defi nitely defi ne it as a vernacular culture, where the landscape setting helps to continue those practices. Figure 14 pictures the intimate relationship community activities has with nature.

URBANISM IN THE STRUCTURED NATURE

If the landscape urbanism is what James Corner suggested, ‘… is more than a singular image or style: it is an ethos, an attitude, a way of thinking and acting….Landscape urbanism offers alternative approaches to urban practice….Perhaps more importantly, it marks a productive attitude towards indeterminacy, open-endedness, intermixing and cross-disciplinarily.’ (Corner, 2003: 59)

Furthermore, landscape urbanism is like the four described steps of Sebantian Marot:

Anamnesis - recollection of site’s previous history, ancient culture

Site preparation - considers landscape a process rather than product, project must be constructed as an open-ended strategy

Three-dimensional sequencing - multiple relationships of landscape Relational structuring - anticipation of site’s future colonization’

Urban design, that of considering and designing landscape for structuring urbanization, is unthinkable in the context of developing Dhaka, This is because the city is under pressure due to limited fi nancial means and other emerging urban issues like accommodating huge populations, infrastructure construction, providing basic civic facilities and a great many others. Urban planning and design in Dhaka means plotting and designing individual plots of land without relating that plot to surrounding plots, the community, the city or integrating the landscape. To keep pace with the rapid urbanisation there is a tendency to develop as much as of the plots as possible which gives rise to various problems. In such a situation Dhanmondi Lake Redevelopment Project generates a hope for initiating landscape as a part of urban design by thinking beyond site.

Dhanmondi Residential Area (DRA) (Figure 15), located in the western part of the city, is one of the high class residential areas of Dhaka city. It is built overlooking a manmade body of water (5 meter deep, 37 hectare surface area) in the center of the site. Initially this area was designed as a

Figure 14:Intimate community, Church in the nature, Community school by the walkway

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low density, posh area with an area of 473 acres distributed among 1000 highly serviced plots. It has a central open space used as a collective gathering place. From the start, during the Pakistan period to present, this settlement and the landscape setting has been troubled by extreme urban pressure. Recently, the lake development project, done by a local architectural fi rm, prompted authorities to consider landscape as a tool for urban development and urban resilience.

This paper has tried to investigate whether this area, with a landscape setting, was envisioned as a guide for development and whether the present lake area renewal project could be a strategic one in guiding urbanization by landscape design. The paper also investigates landscape as resilient, one not only for this specifi c location but as a model for future design and development of sites.

Development following an indigenous system

Dhanmondi settlement originated as a periodic paddy market in early 17th century. The name Dhanmondi carries the root where the Bangoli word dhan means

paddy, and mondi means market. The presence of numerous ponds, an eidgah (place for biannual religious gathering) and a number of mosques were indicators of a fl ourishing settlement. This area was designed as residents for the upper middle class by acquiring 500 acres of former rice fi elds in the 1950’s during the East Pakistan period. Before that, during 1908 the Mughal Empire surveyed this area and selected to trench the ground for a khal (water channel) for Dhaka’s water conservancy system (Figure 16). The khal functioned as a storm water drain and was connected with surrounding rivers to drain out fl ooding water (Figure 17). This was done by reclaiming some scattered, existing settlements. Later, the khal was further excavated and enlarged during readying the site for DRA (Dhanmondi Residential Area). A western infl uenced gridiron system of large residential plots surrounded it (Figure 18). So the settlement started by taking this irregular, natural depression, named Dhanmondi Lake, as a center that functioned as storm water drainage for the whole area.

Here it could be argued that landscape urbanism is defi ned by the following:

‘Landscape: a composition of man-made or man-modified spaces to serve as infrastructure or background for collective existence…. Landscape: as portion of earth’s surface that can be comprehended

Figure 15:Arial Image of Dhanmondi Residential Area(DRA)

Figure 16:Trench ground for Dhaka’s conservancy system prior DRA

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Moreover ‘Textures of Voids- can be the guides and source of inspiration for continuing urbanization….the city planning lies in simultaneously allows urban congestion and creating voids.”(Adriaan Geuze, West 8).

Maybe it had dream for urban resilience by structuring land because ‘...urbanism sows the seeds of possibilities; it states both uncertainty and promise…. The attempt is to create an environment that is not so much an object that has been ‘designed’ as it is a staging of various systems and elements that in turn set in motion a diverse ecology of events – landscape urbanism as instigator and accelerator, working across vast surfaces of potential.’ (Corner, 2003)

Lessons from a transitional period

Since the sixties, rapid urbanization has pressured this planned site to change both in land use and landscape setting. Being located 5 km away from the city center and having good access to open green areas with a water body makes it very enticing to property developers for residential, commercial and mixed use purpose (Figure 20). As in the initial design, community facilities were totally ignored; lots of shopping centers, shops, schools, collages, hospitals, clinic, community centers, clubs, business centers, institutions were built in the name of urbanization and by demand. This phenomenon radically changed the landscape of the area and threatened its ecological balance as well. At the same time, the western infl uenced spatial layout of having individual building plots with restricted height

Figure 17:Traditional system creating Homesteading and a typical (Bari) section

Figure 18:Plan of Dhanmondi Residential Area

at a glance.’ (Jackson, 1984: 8) and also ‘… a landscape is not a natural feature of the environment but a synthetic space, a man-made system of space superimposed on the face of the land, functioning and evolving not according to natural laws but to serve community….. A landscape is thus a space deliberately created to speed up or slow down the process of nature.’ (Jackson., 1984)

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by law was also transformed into multi-family tall buildings to accommodate the growing population density during the 1990s. This transformation puts great pressure on the infrastructure and landscape causing huge environmental degradation (Figure 19). Unplanned density, changed land use, and good connectivity with other parts of city caused unwanted traffi c congestion into the community. The lake edges were also being encroached upon by illegal settlements due to lose supervision. The only breathing space for the community and also

Figure 19:Little attention to the nature cause environmental degradation

Figure 20:Mixed used occupied the residential plots

for city started to shrink and public facilities were reduced. Moreover, the lake’s water was polluted by unauthorized urban waste discharged into the lake which was causing large environmental and ecological degradation. Therefore, the existing public spaces detached themselves from the lake and the lake became the back of the neighborhood with a high fence. As a consequence, the lakeside plot owners extended their plots beyond the original limits to the lake side thus the threat the lake shrinking by encroachment.

So it can be said that, ‘If the environmental destruction is to be avoided, the exploitation of natural resources must be controlled.’ (Lovejoy, 1979: 3). Also ‘…. to reconsider how we can make better use of our resources; to conserve those that we have inherited and to identify standards that are worth aiming for in improving and recreating city spaces.’ (Grove, A.B. & Cresswell, R.W; 1983: 87)

Designing Resilient Landscape for sustainable Landscape Urbanism

To avoid further degradation and to cope with extreme urban pressure, in 1998 Dhaka City Corporation assigned a local architectural offi ce named ‘Vitti Sthapati Brinda’ to resolve the problematic issues and revitalize the lake and surrounding area to enhance the social, economic, cultural and environmental sustainability of this residential neighborhood. This lake side renewal project designed an area of 85.6 acres out of which almost 31 acres of land area and the rest, 54.6 acres, as water body. Decontaminate the lake water, shape up the shaded areas near the water, and open it up for easy accessibility for the public were some considerations in the beginning. The lake was made accessible both physically and visually. The physical connection was achieved by introducing surrounding circular walkways along the lake side and using existing side roads to the accessible locations.

The visual connectivity has achieved by replacing the high fence with low green hedges which helped to connect the lake with surrounding neighborhoods. Some moderate functions like food kiosks, drink corners, small restaurants, a community boat club, a community health club, an open air theatre and a children’s play area were distributed very carefully in different visually and spatially strategic locations throughout the lake area. This will generate less traffi c congestion in the residential area. To implement this

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idea the functions were appropriately placed: a few large green spaces were designed in some strategic locations allowing better visibility towards the lake and are accessible from within the neighborhood. To avoid direct traffi c fl ow from the busy and congested peripheral roads of the neighborhood, contributing to the major road network of the city, the functions were embedded in more localized areas. To address the main problems of encroachment and environmental degradation, public access and public facilities enlarged from the community level to the city level also ensures safeguards. Figure 21 shows some lakeside activities at different times of the day by different strata of society.

This redevelopment project successfully increased the connectivity throughout the lake side spaces and integrates the segregated water body into the surrounding residential neighborhood. Not only that, by reprogramming some existing roads and adding recreational activities this area also attracts peoples from other parts of city also. Careful strategic setting of public activities protects the lake from encroachment and management of lakefront activities by public-private partnership make it fi nancially self-sustainable which eventually contributes to the overall environmental quality for the lake side area.

‘…the union of landscape with urbanism promises new relational and systemic working across territories of vast scale and scope, situating the parts in relation to the whole, but at the same time, the separateness from urbanism acknowledges a level of material physically, of intimacy and difference that is always nested deep within the larger matrix of fi eld.’ (Corner, 2003.)

With this idea, this project positioned itself near to Landscape Urbanism. Besides entertaining the public realm this area has deeper, underlying functions as storm water storing for fl ood control, and protection from encroachment. Presently land and water bodies like lakes, canals and rivers are always threatened by the public and private sectors to accommodate housing and commercial facilities for the growing population.

At the same time, this project could be defi ned as a resilient landscape to some extent, as it allows the landscape to be a multifunctional one through environmental monitoring, urban reclamation, ecological interventions, socio-cultural multi-functioning and the ability to take the challenges of the future.

Maybe the project could be more successful if it had some open ended strategy to cope with future changes. Though the Lake Redevelopment Project, could not qualify itself as a perfect landscape urbanism, it has opened up some ways for professionals to introduce a few ideas to incorporate landscapes with resilience qualities as guiding urbanity in developing Bangladesh.

CONCLUSION

Landscape, as i t is dynamic, f lexible and multifunctional, has the capability to structure a locality with great deal of dynamics ranges from social, environmental, economical, ecological etc. At the same time, landscape if treated sophisticatedly will also allow the changes required by continuous demands, withstand future challenges and provide

Figure 21:Different public activities within the structured landscape along the entire day

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alternate solutions for sustainable development. From the above discussion, examples from two extremes of urban and rural development, it has been revealed that landscapes have different dynamics in each location thus different resilience qualities and urbanism pattern. Settlements in the natural settings that cause little disturbance to natural landscapes thus experience little disturbance in return. There, nature redesigned itself with the necessity of time and settlements follow that without restructuring nature. On the other hand, in an urban context, nature has been modifi ed and structured to create developments which provide more organized facilities meeting urban needs. The landscape has the scope to be resilient one if designed with a wide vision. But, it requires more caution in dealing with probable destruction, shocks and a return of nature as modifi ed for development.

REFERENCES

Baboult, Luc. (2002) ‘Landscape, Law and Habits’, in : Le Visiteur(5), Paris, pp.36-43.

Corner, James. (2003) ‘Landscape Urbanism’, in Moshen Mostafavi and Ciro Najle (eds.) Landscape Urbanism A Manual for the Machinic Landscape, London; AA Book, pp. 58-63.

Corner, James. (2003) ‘Landscape as Urbanism: Terra Fluxus’, in Charles Waldheim (ed.) Landscape Urbansm: A Genealogy; Princeton Architecture Press, New York.

Grove, A.B. & Cresswell, R.W. (1983) (eds); ‘City Landscape’, Butterworths.

‘Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Landscape’ (1996) Birnbaum, Charles A. Peters, Christine Capella.(eds), The Secretary of the Interior’s Standard for the Treatment of Historic Properties, Washington, D.C. pp.6.

Holling, C.S (1973), “Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems.” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. Vol 4: 1-23.

ICLEI (2012), Resilient Cities 2012: 3rd Global Forum on Urban Resilience and Adaptation, 12-15 May 2012. Congress Report.

ICLEI (2010), Resilient Cities 2010: 1st Global Forum on Urban Resilience and Adaptation, 28-31 May 2010. Congress Report.

Jackson. John Brinckerhoff; (1984) ‘Concluding with Landscape’, in Jackson, J.B. (ed) Discovering the Vernacular Landscape; New Haven, Yale University Press, pp. 145-158.

Jackson. John Brinckerhoff; (1984) ‘The World Itself’, in Jackson, J.B. (eds) Discovering the Vernacular Landscape; New Haven, Yale University Press, pp. 1-8(8)

Lovejoy, Derek. (1979) (ed); ‘Land Use and Landscape Planning’, 2nd edition, Leonard Hill.

Shannon, Kelly. (2004) ‘Landscape Urbanism, Rhetorics and Realities, Addressing Landscape Urbanism, Three Cities in Vietnam’, (KUL Doctorate).

Shannon, Kelly. Manawadu, Samitha. (2007) ‘Indigenous Landscape Urbanism: Sri Lanka’s Reservoir & Tank System’, in: JoLA (Journal for Landscape Architecture), pp. 6-17.

Walker, B., Holling, C. S., Carpenter, S. R. and Kinzig, A. (2004), “Resilience, Adaptability and Transformability in social–ecological Systems.” Ecology and Society 9 (2): 5.

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