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Distributed File Systems Synchronization – 11.5 Consistency and Replication - 11.6 Fault Tolerance – 11.7

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Distributed File Systems

Synchronization – 11.5

Consistency and Replication - 11.6

Fault Tolerance – 11.7

11.5: Synchronization

• File System Semantics

• File Locking

Synchronization

• Is an issue only if files are shared

• Sharing in a distributed system is often necessary, and at the same time can affect performance in various ways.

• In the following discussion we assume file sharing takes place in the absence of process-implemented synchronization operations such as mutual exclusion.

UNIX File Semantics

• In a single-processor (or SMP) system, any file read operation returns the result of the most recent write operation.

• Even if two writes occur very close together, the next read returns the result of the last write.

• It is as if all reads and writes are time-stamped from the same clock. Operation order is based on strict time ordering.

UNIX Semantics in DFS

• Possible to (almost) achieve IF…– There is only one server– There is NO caching at the client

• In this case every read and write goes directly to the server, which processes them in sequential order. – Even so, the order of simultaneous writes depends on

network transmission times.

• Any file read operation returns the result of the most recent write operation as seen by the server.

Caching and UNIX Semantics

• Single-server + no client caching leads to poor performance, so most file systems allow users to make local copies of files (or file blocks) that are currently in use.

• Now UNIX semantics are problematic: a write executed on a local copy only will not be seen by another client that reads the file from the server, or from other clients that have the file cached.

Write-Through

• A partial solution is to require all changes to local copies to be immediately written to the server. Now a new user will see all the changes.– Still inefficient – caching is no longer as useful– Not a total solution: what happens when two

users have the same file cached?

Consistency Models

• Recall discussion of consistency models in Chapter 7

• Realistically, strict consistency can’t be achieved without synchronization techniques such as transactions or locks

• Here we consider what the file system can do in the absence of user-enabled methods.

Session Semantics

• Instead of trying to implement UNIX semantics where it is not possible, define a new semantic:– Local changes to a file are not made

permanent until the file is closed. In the meantime, if another user opens the file, she gets the original version.

– This approach is common in DFS’s.

Simultaneous Caching

• What if two users concurrently cache and modify the same file? How do we determine the “new” state of the file?

• Most likely option:– The most recently closed file becomes the

new “official” version

Process 1

Process 2

Open

foo

Open filefoo

Write x=4*xto foo

Write x = x+6to foo

Close foo

Close foo

Using session semantics, what is the final value of x in file foo after both processes close the file?

Assume the horizontal lines represent real time & close operations are seen at the server in the order shown

File fooX = 10

Immutable Files

• The only operations on a file are, effectively, create, read, and replace.– Once a file is created it can be read but not

changed.– A new file (incorporating changes to a current

file) can be created and placed in the directory instead of the original version.

• If several users try to replace an existing file at the same time, one is chosen: either the last to close, or non-deterministically.

Review: File System Semantics

• UNIX semantics

• Session semantics

• Immutable files

• Every file operation is instantly visible to all processes

• No changes are visible until the file is closed.

• No updates are possible; files can only be replaced

Transaction Semantics

• Transactions are a way of grouping several file operations together and ensuring that they are either all executed or none is executed.– We say they are atomic.

• The transaction system is responsible for ensuring that all of the operations are carried out in order, without any interference from concurrent transactions.

The Transaction Model

• Transaction: a set of operations which must be executed entirely, or not at all.

• Processes in a transaction can fail at random– Failure causes: hardware or software

problems, network problems, lost messages, etc.

• Transactions will either commit or abort:– Commit => successful completion (All)– Abort => partial results are undone (Nothing)

Transaction Model

• Transactions are delimited by two special primitives:

Begin_transaction // or something similartransaction operations(read, write, open, close, etc.)

End_transaction

• If the transaction successfully reaches the end statement, it “commits” and all changes become permanent; otherwise it aborts.

ACID Properties of Transactions

• Atomic: either all or none of the operations in a transaction are performed

• Consistent: the transaction doesn’t affect system invariants; e.g., no money “lost” in a banking system

• Isolated (serializable): one transaction can’t affect others until it completes

• Durability: changes made by a committed transaction are permanent, even if the process or server fails.

Atomicity

• An atomic action is one that appears to be “indivisible and instantaneous” to the rest of the system. For example, machine language instructions.

• Transactions support the execution of multiple instructions as if they were a single atomic instruction.

Consistent• A state is consistent if invariants hold

• An invariant is a predicate which states a condition that must be true.

• Invariants for the airline ticket example:– seatsLeft = seatsTotal – seatsSold– seatsLeft >=0

• In the bank case (simplified)– balancefinal = balanceoriginal – withdrawals +

deposits

Isolated

• No other transaction will see the intermediate results of a transaction.

• Concurrent transactions have the same effect on the database as if they had run serially. Notice the similarity to critical sections, which do run serially.

• This characteristic is enforced through special concurrency control measures.

AD Properties

• ACID is a commonly used term, but somewhat redundant.

• Transactions that execute atomically will be consistent and isolated.

• Atomicity and durability capture the essential qualities.

Semantics of File Sharing in Distributed Systems

• UNIX semantics

• Session semantics

• Immutable files

• Transactions

• Every file operation is instantly visible to all processes

• No changes are visible until the file is closed.

• No updates are possible; files can only be replaced

• All changes occur and are visible atomically – or not at all

File Locking• UNIX file semantics are not possible in

DFS• Session semantics and immutable files do

not always support the kind of sharing processes need.

• Transactions have a heavy overhead.• Thus some additional form of

synchronization is desirable to enable the server to enforce mutual exclusion on writes.

Locking in NFS

• Early versions of NFS (through V3) were stateless, and so could not implement locks.

• An add-on, NLM (Network Lock Manager) worked in the NFS environment to enforce advisory locking– If one process has locked a byte sequence,

any other process requesting a lock on that sequence will be denied.

File Locking in NFSv4

• NFSv4 added a similar locking discipline to the basic protocols.

• Lock managers in NSF, as in other file systems, are based on the centralized scheme discussed in Chapter 6– Client requests lock– Lock manager grants lock (if it is free)– Client releases lock (or it expires after a time)

• In NSF, if a client requests a lock which cannot be granted, the client is not blocked – must try again later.

Denied Requests

• If a client’s request for a lock is denied, it receives an error message.– Poll the server later for lock availability

• Clients can request to be put on a FIFO queue; when a lock is released it is reserved for the first process on the queue; if that process polls within a certain amount of time it gets the lock.– How is this different from the centralized mutual

exclusion algorithm in the textbook?

File locking in NFS

• Two types of locks:– Reader locks, which can be held

simultaneously,– Writer locks, which guarantee exclusive

access.

• The lock operation is applied to consecutive byte sequences in the file, rather than to the whole file.

NFSv4 Lock Related Operations

Operation

• Lock

• Lockt

• Locku

• Renew

Description

• Create a lock for a range of bytes

• Test whether a conflicting lock has been granted

• Remove a lock from a range of bytes

• Renew the lease on a lock

Leases

• Locks are granted for a specific time interval.– What problem does this address?

• At the end of that interval the lock is removed unless the client has requested an extension.

Share Reservations in NFS

• An open request specifies the kind of access the application requires: READ, WRITE, BOTH

• It also specifies the kind of access that should be denied other clients: NONE, READ, WRITE, BOTH

• If requirements can’t be met, open fails• Share reservations = implicit locking• Used in NFS for Windows-based systems

Share Reservations - Example

• Client tries to open a file for reading and writing, and deny concurrent write access.– If no other client has the file open, the request

succeeds.– If another client has opened the file for reading

(and hasn’t blocked write access), the request succeeds

– If another client has opened the file for writing, the request fails.

– If another client has the file open and has denied read or write access, the request fails.

11.5 Summary

• UNIX semantics not possible in DFS• Session semantics is a common choice• File locking (usually advisory) can provide

additional protection if needed.• In parallel programs, mutual exclusion

techniques can be used to protect file operations.

• In database systems, transactions are used.

11.6: Consistency and Replication

• Client-Side Caching

• Server-Side Replication

• Replication in P2P Systems

Introduction

• Replication (and caching) => multiple copies of something

• Two reasons for replication:– Reliability (protection against failure, corruption)– Performance (size of user base, geographical

extent of system)

• Replication can cause inconsistency: at least one copy is different from the rest.

Caching in a DFS

• Caching in any DFS reduces access delays due to disk access times or network latency.

• Caches can be located in the main memory of either the server or client and/or in the disk of the client

Caching in a DFS

• Client-side caching (memory or disk) offers most performance benefits, but also leads to potential inconsistencies.

• However, because in practice file sharing is relatively rare, client-side caching remains a popular way to improve performance in a DFS.

Cache Consistency Measures

• Server-initiated consistency: server notifies client if its data becomes stale– e.g., another client closes its copy of the file,

which was opened for writing.

• Client-initiated consistency: client is responsible for consistency of data– e.g., client side software can periodically

check with server to see if file has been modified.

Caching in NFS

• NFSv3 did not define a caching protocol.– Individual implementations made decisions

• “Stale” data could exist for periods ranging from a few seconds to ½ minute

• NFSv4 made some improvements but many details are still implementation dependent.

• General structure of NFS cache model follows

Client Side Caching in NFSFigure 11-21.

Memory Cache

Clientapplica-tion

Diskcache

NFSserver

Network

What Do Clients Cache?

• File data blocks

• File handles – for future reference

• Directories

• Two approaches to caching in NFS– Caching with server control– Caching with open delegation

Caching Data with Server Control

• The simplest approach to caching allows the server to retain control over the file.

• Procedure– Client opens file– Data blocks are transferred to the client (by read ops)– Client can read and write data in the cache.– When the file closes, flush changes back to server

• Session semantics & NFS: the last (most recent) process to close a file has its changes become permanent. Changes made by processes that run concurrently but close earlier are lost.

Caching with Server Control

• In caching with server control – All clients on a single machine may read and write the

same cached data if they have access rights – data remaining in the cache after a file closes doesn’t

need to be removed, although changes must be sent to server.

• If a new client on the same machine opens a file after it has been closed, the client cache manager usually must validate local cached data with the server– If the data is stale, replace it.

Caching With Open Delegation

• Allows a client machine to handle some local open and close operations from other clients on the same machine.– Normally the server decides if a client can

open a file

• Delegation can improve performance by limiting contact with the server

• The client machine gets a copy of the entire file, not just certain blocks.

Open delegation – Examples*• Suppose a client machine has opened a

file for writing, and has been delegated rights to control the file locally.– If another local client tries to lock the file, the

local machine can decide whether or not to grant the lock

– If a remote client tries to lock the file (at the server) the server will deny file access

• If a client has opened the file for reading, only, local clients desiring write privileges must still contact the server.

Delegation and Callbacks

• Server may need to “undelegate” the file – perhaps when another client needs to obtain access.

• This can be done with a callback, which is essentially an RPC from server to client.

• Callbacks require the server to maintain state (knowledge) about clients – a reason for NFS to be stateful.

Caching Attributes*

• Clients can cache attributes as well as data.– (size of file, number of links, last date modified, etc.)

• Cached attributes are kept consistent by the client, if at all– No guarantee that the same file cached at two sites

will have the same attributes at both sites

• Attribute modifications should be written through to the server (write through cache coherence policy), although there’s no requirement to do so

Leases*

• Lease: cached data is automatically invalidated after a certain period of time.– Applies to file attributes, file handles (mapping

of name to file handle), directories, and sometimes data.

– When lease expires, must renew data from server

– Helps with consistency and protects against errors.

An Implementation of Leases*

• Data blocks have time-stamps applied by the server that indicate when they were last modified.

• When a block is cached at a client, the server’s time-stamp is also cached.

• After a period of time, the client confirms the validity of the data– Compare timestamp at the client to timestamp at

server– If server timestamp is more recent, invalidate client

data

CodaA Prototype Distributed File System• Developed at CMU – M. Satarayanan• Started in 1987 as an improvement on the

Andrew file system ( a classic research FS)– Andrew strongly influenced NFSv4 and some

versions of Linux

• Most recent version of Coda (6.9.4) was released 1/05/2009 (http://www.coda.cs.cmu.edu/news.html )

Objectives of Coda

• Support disconnected operation (server goes down, laptop is disconnected from network, etc.)

• Client side caching is extensive– Uses client disk cache

• Replication contributes to availability, fault tolerance, scalability

Caching in Coda

• Critical, because of Coda’s objectives

• Caching achieves scalability; provides more fault tolerance for the client in case it is disconnected from the server.

• When a client opens a file, the entire file is downloaded. This is true for reads and writes.

Concurrent Access

• In Coda, many clients may have a file open for reading, but only one for writing.– Multiple readers and single writer may exist

concurrently– In NFS and most other file systems, multiple

readers and multiple writers can exist concurrently unless locks are used to prohibit sharing.

Callbacks/Server Initiated Cache Consistency

• A Coda callback is an agreement between the server and a client. Server agrees to notify client when a file has been modified by another client, closed, and written back to server.

• At this time, the client may purge the file from its cache, but it may also continue reading the outdated copy.

• This is a blend of session and transaction semantics.

Coda Callbacks

• Callback promise: server’s commitment to notify client when file changes

• Callback break: notice from server that the client’s file is stale; called a “break” because it terminates the agreement. There will be no further callbacks unless the client renews it.

Figure 11-23, page 523

• Local copies of files can be used as long as the client still has an outstanding callback promise – No other client has closed a modified file.

client 1

client 2

cache

cache

server

Suppose clients 1 & 2 have cached the same file.Client 1 modifies the fileHow/when does client2 know?What role, if any, does the server have?Are Coda and NFS different in this respect?

11.6.2: Server-Side Replication

• Caching: replication at the client side.– Initiated implicitly by client request– Cached data is temporary– Unit of caching = a file, or less (usually)– Purpose: improved performance

• Server replication – Mainly for fault tolerance & availability– May actually degrade performance (overhead)– Replicated data is permanent

Caching & Replication in Coda

• Unit of replication = volume (group of related files)

• Each volume is stored on several servers, its Volume Storage Group (VSG)

• Available Volume Storage Group (AVSG) is the set of servers a client can actually reach

• Contact one server to get permission to R/W, contact all when closing an updated file.

ServerS1

ServerS2

ServerS3

ClientAOpen(f)

Client BOpen(f)

Brokennetwork

Figure 11-24. Two clients with a different AVSG for the same file

Writing in Disconnected Systems

• Each file has a Coda version vector (CVV), analogous to vector timestamps, one component per server. Starts at (1, 1, 1)

• Update local component after a file is updated.

• As long as all servers get all updates, all timestamps will be equal

Detecting Inconsistencies

• In the previous example, both A and B will be allowed to open a file for writing.

• When A closes, it will update S1 and S2, but not S3; B will update S3, but not S1, S2.

• The timestamp at S1 and S2 will be [2, 2, 1].• The timestamp at S3 will be [1, 1, 2].• It is easy to detect the inconsistency, but

knowing how to resolve them is application dependent.

Replication in P2P Systems

• In P2P systems replication is more important because– P2P members are less reliable – may leave

the system or remove files– Load balance is important since there are no

designated servers

• File usage in P2P is different: most files are read only, updates consist of adding new files, so consistency is less of an issue.

Unstructured P2P Systems(each node knows n neighbors)

• Look-up = search (in structured systems, lookup is directed by some algorithm)

• Replication speeds up the process• How to allocate files to nodes (it may not

be possible to force a node to store files)– Uniformly distribute n copies across network– Allocate more replicas for popular files– Users who download files are responsible for

sharing them with others (as in BitTorrent)

Structured P2P Systems

• Replication is used primarily for load balance

• Possible approaches:– Store a replica at each node in the search

path (concentrates replicas near the prime copy, but may unbalance some nodes)

– Store replicas at nodes that request a file, store pointers to it at nodes along the way.

11.7: Fault Tolerance in DFS*

• Review of Fault Tolerance

• Handling Byzantine Failures

• High Availability in P2P systems

Basic Concepts - Review

• Distributed systems may experience partial failure • Build systems to automatically recover from

crashes.• Continue to operate normally while failures are

being repaired; i.e., be fault tolerant. • Fault tolerant systems exhibit dependabilty.

– Availability: the system is immediately ready to use– Reliability: the system can run continuously without

failing. • (remember availability/reliability example)

– Safety: system failure doesn’t have disastrous consequences

– Maintainability: easy to repair

Failure Models

• Failure may be due to an error at any place in the system:– The server crashes– The network goes down– A disk crashes– Security violations occur

• Crash failure, omission failure, Byzantine failure:– Incorrect, but undetectable; – malicious servers produce deliberately wrong results,– ...

Handling Byzantine Failures in Distributed File Systems

• Replication handles many errors in DFS but Byzantine errors are harder to solve.

• Text presents an algorithm by Castro and Liskov that works as long as no more than 1/3 of the nodes is faulty at any moment.

• Clients must get the same answer from k+1 servers (in a system with 3k +1) to be sure the answer is correct.

Availability in P2P Systems

• Possible approaches– Replication (although must be at very high

levels due to unreliability of nodes)– Erasure coding: divides a file into m

fragments, recodes them into n > m fragments such that any set of m fragments can be used to reconstruct the entire file. Distribute fragments, rather than entire file replicas

• Requires less redundancy than full replication.

THE END