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Journal of Vacation Marketing

DOI: 10.1177/1356766705055719 2005; 11; 265 Journal of Vacation Marketing

Lori Pennington-Gray, Yvette Reisinger, Jung Eun Kim and Brijesh Thapa study for Kenya

Do US tour operators' brochures educate the tourist on culturally responsible behaviours? A case

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Do US tour operators’ brochures educate thetourist on culturally responsible behaviours?A case study for Kenya

Lori Pennington-Gray,* Yvette Reisinger, Jung Eun Kim and Brijesh ThapaReceived (in revised form): April 2005Anonymously refereed paper

*University of Florida, Centre for Tourism Research and Development, Department of Tourism,

Recreation and Sport Management, 325 FLG, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA

Tel: +1 352 392 4042 x1318; Fax: +1 352 392 7588; E-mail: [email protected]

Lori Pennington-Gray is an associate professor

of tourism in the Department of Tourism, Recrea-

tion and Sport Management at the University of

Florida. She is also the director of the University of

Florida’s Center for Tourism Research and

Development. Lori’s main research interests in-

clude tourism marketing and development and

policy.

Yvette Reisinger holds the position of Associate

Professor of Tourism in the School of Hospitality

and Tourism Management at Florida International

University, Miami, Florida. She is a specialist in

tourism marketing, and conducts research in the

area of cross-cultural differences in tourist behav-

iour, cross-cultural communication, and socio-cul-

tural impacts of tourism. Dr Reisinger is the author

of two books on tourism and also holds editorial

positions on various international tourism journals.

Jung Eun Kim is a doctoral student in tourism in

the Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport

Management at the University of Florida. Jung

Eun’s main research interests include tourism

marketing, particularly destination image, cultural

impacts of tourism and destination management

organizations.

Brijesh Thapa is an assistant professor of tour-

ism and outdoor recreation management, and is

the senior associate director at the University of

Florida’s Center for Tourism Research and

Development. He has been involved in numerous

research projects, and his research interests in-

clude studying issues that pertain to local, state,

national and international tourism. More specifi-

cally, he is studying the overall relationships and

positive/negative impacts of tourism on the

environment, host communities and respective

cultures.

ABSTRACT

KEYWORDS: tour operators, culturallyresponsible behaviours, USTOA, Kenya

This exploratory study examined the extent towhich US tour operators promote culturally re-sponsible behaviours to tourists who plan trips toKenya. An examination of the travel brochurescontaining information on Kenya was performedto understand the role tour operators play ineducating tourists. Brochures were examined forspecific words, such as ethics, values, tolerance,respect, religion, moral beliefs, social and culturaltraditions, responsible tourism, customs, rules andguidelines and education and training. Contentanalysis was used to analyse data. The resultsrevealed that US tour operators do not effectivelycommunicate culturally responsible behavioursto tourists. The implications of the results arediscussed.

65

Journal of Vacation Marketing Volume 11 Number 3

Journal of Vacation MarketingVol. 11 No. 3, 2005, pp. 265–284,& SAGE PublicationsLondon, Thousand Oaks, CA,and New Delhi.www.sagepublications.comDOI: 10.1177/1356766705055719



INTRODUCTIONThe tourism industry has been growing phe-nomenally with the movement of people tonumerous destinations and regions, both inthe USA and internationally. In addition tovisitation to the traditional beach-basedmass-tourism destinations, there has been atremendous increase in travel to cultural andnature-based destinations. With the growingdemand, destinations position themselves tocapitalize on the influx of such visitors with-out much consideration to potential impactson host cultures.1 As such, with increasedvisitation, culturally sensitive communitiesand regions come under increasing pressureand are vulnerable to change.Given the diverse encounters and inter-

actions between hosts and guests within adestination, the impact of these encounterson the host culture is evident, as cultures arenot static and susceptible to change. Theargument that tourist visitation generatespositive changes in the host culture,2 increasesunderstanding, tolerance and respect for newcultures,3 contributes to cultural enrichment4

and learning about others5 and even leads topeace,6 is questioned. Tourism also producesnegative cultural impacts on the host culture,including the demonstration effect,7 commo-dification of traditional cultures8 and arts,changing family and social structures,9 chang-ing morals and values,10 misunderstanding,11

stereotyping12 and ethnocentrism,13 re-sentment14 and communication problems,15

frustration and stress16 and loss of a sense ofidentity,17 security18 and emotional being.19

Tourists impact hosts and hosts impacttourists.20 The level of impact or the rate ofcultural change in the host community is ofgreat concern. Fragile indigenous and ethniccommunities are most vulnerable, as theimpact is more pronounced when there isgreater cultural divergence between the hostand the guest.21

It is evident that tourism has substantiallyincreased globally, and this growth will con-tinue. It is imperative for tourism destina-tions to be proactive in order to maximizetourism opportunities while at the same timesustaining the integrity of the host commu-nities. A tool to ameliorate socio-cultural

impacts of tourism on host cultures has beencodes of responsible conduct, largely for-mulated by host destinations and non-governmental organizations. Such codeshave had a positive influence on visitors ingenerating awareness of their potential im-pact upon the tourism destination visited.22

However, the process of awareness and edu-cation should also be a responsibility of touroperators, especially during the pre-tripplanning phase. It seems that responsiblevisitor behaviour is a major step in minimiz-ing socio-cultural impacts, as well as facilitat-ing a more enjoyable tourist and hostexperience. Given the role of global touroperators, the objective of this research is toexplore the content of promotional bro-chures provided to potential customers byUS tour operators that organize trips toculturally sensitive destinations. More speci-fically, the objective is to examine whetherthe travel brochures provided by US touroperators contain information about codes ofresponsible tourism and, in particular, cultu-rally responsible behaviour in Kenya. Kenyawas chosen because it is a culturally sensitiveand a very popular destination for interna-tional tourists. The Kenya Tourist Boardfigures showed 30 per cent growth in touristarrivals by December 2004, in particularfrom the UK, Germany, Italy, Switzerlandand the USA.23 There was also a further 30per cent and 28 per cent increase in visitorsfrom Oceania and Asia respectively. Manytourists who had planned to travel to thetsunami-ravaged regions are now makingenquiries about coming to Kenya instead.24

LITERATURE REVIEW

Responsible tourismResponsible tourism implies a proactive ap-proach by tourism industry partners to devel-oping, marketing and managing the tourismindustry in a responsible manner so as tocreate a competitive advantage. Responsibletourism is a management strategy that em-braces planning, management, productdevelopment and marketing to bring aboutpositive economic, social, cultural and envir-

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Tour brochures and culturally responsible behaviours



onmental impacts.25 This type of tourismpromotes responsibility to the environmentthrough its sustainable use, as well as invol-ving local communities in the tourism indus-try. In addition, responsible tourism isfocused on the safety and security of a visitor.These responsibilities are held by a combina-tion of government agencies,26 employees ofthe tourism industry, employees outside thetourism industry and members of local com-munities.27

Culturally responsible tourism is a compo-nent of responsible tourism that ‘contributesto mutual understanding and respect betweenpeoples and societies’.28 Respect for the localculture is advocated, as well as respect forethical values, diversity, religion, customs,moral beliefs and social traditions. Culturallyresponsible tourism requires culturally re-sponsible behaviour that is referred to as beingaware of and sensitive to cultural values, tradi-tions and customs of a foreign society, andcomplying with the rules of behaviour andways of life of the host society to match thehost society’s expectations. A culturally re-sponsible tourist learns about cultural differ-ences through verbal and non-verbalcommunication cues, food, dance, humaninteractions, religious beliefs, forms of ad-dress, manners, gestures or time orientations.Although these are cultural elements that havepotential grounds for cultural misunderstand-ing and conflict between international touristsand locals,29 some tourists may wish to experi-ence them. Tourists may be motivated totravel by the cultural uniqueness of the foreigntourism product. A culturally responsibletourist also understands how his/her behav-iour may influence the experiences and feel-ings of the host community. Destinationmarketers and tour operators can facilitate thisprocess by educating tourists on the culturalaspects of the destination visited. It is believedthat such education may create awarenessamong both groups (tourists and hosts) andprovide an opportunity for further learningabout each other’s culture. It may be a startingpoint not only for improving holiday experi-ences but also for more fundamental changesto tourists’ attitudes towards foreign cultures,which are an important base for promoting

knowledge and understanding, thereby lead-ing to an international cooperation and cul-tural and economic sustainability.30

The influence of globalization on

cultureThe tourism industry is increasingly experi-encing globalization. The pervasive argu-ment is that globalization leads to culturalhomogenization31 and the disappearance ofcultural characteristics and uniqueness thatrepresent a very attractive element of thetourism product. Robinson argues that‘trickle down economics’ is at the base of thiscultural homogenization.32 The dominantcultures of those who are economically stableprevail over minority cultures of those lesseconomically stable. As a result, the values,interests and attitudes of the dominant cul-ture replace the values and interests of theminority culture.Support for the above argument is seen

through the globalization and standardizationof consumer products around the world.Large companies have invested millions ofdollars in products hoping that customers,regardless of their location, share commontastes and preferences and are similar to oneanother. Ritzer and Liska argue that homo-genized products and global standards areattempts to imitate and assimilate patternsof social behaviour, language, dress andcuisine.33 Tourism scholar Jafar Jafari arguesthat standardization of products around theworld may blur cultural lines.34 This blurringof cultural lines may result in cultural homo-geneity and standardization of tourism desti-nations. In an attempt to avoid the negativeeffects of globalization in tourism, destina-tions would do well to use sustainable plan-ning practices and recognize the need topreserve local cultures and environments.Given both the demand for culturally re-sponsible tourism and the industry’s interestin preserving local cultures, the developmentof rules and guidelines determining resp-onsible behaviours is essential to limithomogenization of cultures and standardiza-tion of tourism products.

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Pennington-Gray, Reisinger, Kim and Thapa



Rules and guidelines for tourism

responsible behaviourMany countries have recognized the impor-tance of developing guidelines for responsi-ble tourism behaviours and have developedrules concerning how to act appropriately inculturally and environmentally sensitive re-gions. However, rules of behaviour aregoverned by the dominant cultural values ofa society35 and differ between cultures. Forexample, distinct cultures follow differentrules of social interaction and distribution ofrights and privileges, and create a distinctself-image through self-presentation and/orself-performance.36 Although there are rulesthat are universally accepted,37 the rules thatare accepted in one culture may have quitedifferent meanings in another. Hence, tour-ists often break the rules because of anunawareness of the cultural differences andtheir meanings. The lack of cultural aware-ness and sensitivity in rules of behaviourdevelops perceptions of tourists as ignorantand abusing, and with little respect for thehost community.38 Thus, learning and un-derstanding the rules of the foreign cultureare critical to ameliorating social, culturaland environmental conflict between thosewho are from different cultures. However,understanding the foreign rules of behaviourrequires a broader knowledge of historical,political, economic, religious and educationpractices as well as the locals’ values, beliefsand patterns. Without such broad know-ledge it is impossible to make sense ofbehaviours of those who are culturally dif-ferent and deal successfully with them. Edu-cating tourists about the foreign culture isthe responsibility of both the tourist-gener-ating and the receiving country (e.g. gov-ernments, tour companies and guides,destination marketing organizations and lo-cal communities).

Code of ethics: An application of rulesRecently, various voluntary rules of conducthave been created in order to generateawareness39 and compliance of potential visi-tor behaviours.40 Rules of conduct havebeen written by non-governmental organi-

zations and/or government agencies (e.g.South Africa). However, the best-knownframe of reference for responsible and sus-tainable development of world tourism is theGlobal Code of Ethics for Tourism issued bythe World Tourism Organization (WTO), aspecialized agency of the United Nationsand the leading international organization inthe field of tourism; it serves as a globalforum for tourism policy issues and practicalsource of tourism know-how. The GlobalCode of Ethics for Tourism outlines 10articles which cover areas of economic, en-vironmental, political, social and cultural re-sponsibility for travellers, destinations, touroperators, governments, developers, travelagents and workers (Table 1).Article 1 of the Global Code of Ethics for

Tourism emphasizes the importance ofmutual understanding and respect betweenpeople and societies (Table 2). It highlightsthe significant role of ethical values commonto humanity, and an attitude of tolerance andrespect. In addition, it focuses on culturalunderstanding, respect for diversity of reli-gious, philosophical and moral beliefs, socialcustoms, cultural traditions, laws and prac-tices, lifestyles, tastes and expectations of thehost community, safety and security offoreign tourists, protection of cultural andnatural heritage and the responsibility offoreign tourists to educate themselves aboutthe countries they plan to visit. The authorsargue that this code should guide the behav-iour of tourists when they travel to visitforeign cultures.

The role of tour operators in educating

tourists on responsible behaviourIn an effort to apply codes of responsibletourism behaviour, many tour operatorscommunicate with tourists to educate themon culturally and environmentally appropri-ate behaviours. The implementation of spe-cific codes of conduct by tour operators hasgrown in popularity in recent years. In 2003three-quarters of tour operators surveyednoted they had or are planning to produce aresponsible tourism policy designed to edu-

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cate tourists and/or set operating principles.41

Much of this growth can be attributed to ademand from consumers. However, the ap-plication of codes of conduct is also integral

to the underlying principles upon which thecompany is operated.According to the International Centre for

Responsible Tourism handbook,42 tour op-

Table 1: Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (WTO)

Article no Principles

1 Tourism’s contribution to mutual understanding and respect between peoples and societies2 Tourism as a vehicle for individual and collective fulfilment3 Tourism, a factor of sustainable development4 Tourism, a user of the cultural heritage of mankind and contributor to its enhancement5 Tourism, a beneficial activity for host countries and communities6 Obligations of stakeholders (governments, companies, local communities) in tourism

development7 Right to tourism8 Liberty of tourist movements9 Rights of the workers and entrepreneurs in the tourism industry

10 Implementation of the principles of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism

Table 2: Article 1: Tourism’s contribution to mutual understanding and respectbetween peoples and societies

1. The understanding and promotion of the ethical values common to humanity, with an attitude oftolerance and respect for the diversity of religious, philosophical and moral beliefs, are both thefoundation and the consequence of responsible tourism; stakeholders in tourism developmentand tourists themselves should observe the social and cultural traditions and practices of allpeoples, including those of minorities and indigenous peoples, and recognize their worth.

2. Tourism activities should be conducted in harmony with the attributes and traditions of the host regionsand countries and in respect for their laws, practices and customs.

3. The host communities, on the one hand, and local professionals, on the other, should acquaintthemselves with and respect the tourists who visit them and find out about their lifestyles, tastesand expectations; the education and training imparted to professionals should contribute to ahospitable welcome.

4. It is the task of the public authorities to provide protection for tourists and visitors and theirbelongings; they must pay particular attention to the safety of foreign tourists owing to the particularvulnerability they may have; they should facilitate the introduction of specific means ofinformation, prevention, security, insurance and assistance consistent with their needs; any attacks,assaults, kidnappings or threats against tourists or workers in the tourism industry, as well as thewilful destruction of tourism facilities or of elements of cultural or natural heritage, should beseverely condemned and punished in accordance with their respective national laws.

5. When travelling, tourists and visitors should not commit any criminal act or any act consideredcriminal by the laws of the country visited and abstain from any conduct felt to be offensive orinjurious by the local populations, or likely to damage the local environment; they should refrainfrom all trafficking in illicit drugs, arms, antiques, protected species and products and substancesthat are dangerous or prohibited by national regulations.

6. Tourists and visitors have the responsibility to acquaint themselves, even before their departure, with thecharacteristics of the countries they are preparing to visit; they must be aware of the health and securityrisks inherent in any travel outside their usual environment and behave in such a way as tominimize those risks.

Source: www.world-tourism.org/frameset/code_ethics.html

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erators have a responsibility to be sensitive topotential impacts at the tourism destination.Some of these potential impacts are loss ofprivacy, prevention of access to culturallysignificant places, invasion of sacred sites orthe demeaning of cultural ceremonies, all ofwhich can result from tourist visitation. Thetour operators’ responsibility is to demon-strate respect to the host country by nego-tiating with host communities the conditionsrequired for tourist visits. Some of theseconditions are the recognition of acceptableactivities, suitable group size and appropriateplaces for tourist visitation. Tour operatorsshould treat cultural heritage of the hostcountry with dignity and respect by inform-ing tourists about local customs and tradi-tions and appropriate behaviour. Theyshould ensure that tourists ask permission totake photographs or to videotape local peo-ple, and do not damage or remove religiousor cultural artefacts. The question is, how-ever, whether tour operators are truly in-volved in promoting responsible touristbehaviours in their travel brochures and inwhat ways they are involved in educatingthe tourist?

Travel brochures as a medium of

communicationAmong the most effective forms of commu-nication and promotion used by tour opera-tors are ‘direct mail and glitzy brochures’.43

Holloway and Plant note that the travelbrochure is one of the most widely utilizedinformation sources.44 Wicks and Schuettargue that the brochure is an attractive in-formation source for many vacation decisionmakers.45 Yamamoto and Gill claim the trav-el brochure is the most important source ofinformation for tourists planning overseaspackage tours.46

Travel brochures typically include infor-mation on prices, itineraries, company infor-mation and even testimonials. The objectiveof the travel brochure is to create attention,interest, desire and action. Potential touristsare influenced by promotional brochures intheir travel decisions.47 The role of travel

brochures in influencing responsible beha-viours of the tourist is advocated by Volun-tary Service Overseas (VSO WorldWise).48

Notwithstanding, Wicks and Schuett arguethat agencies and destination marketersshould improve the effectiveness of thispromotional tool.49 According to VSOWorldWise, a non-profit agency, the travelbrochure should provide ‘customers withmore information about the people and theplaces they will be visiting, including adviceon how they can visit locally owned facilitiesand resorts’.50 VSO WorldWise also suggeststhat policies should be developed for busi-nesses concerning ways in which the holidaycould be of more benefit to people living inthe travel destination.51 To date, informationon travel brochures which include such de-tails and advice for tourists is not well docu-mented.Many argue that the more information the

consumer has about responsible behaviours,the more responsible their actions will be.52

More than half of American tourists surveyed(54 per cent) had better travel experienceswhen they learned about a destination’s cus-toms, geography and culture.53 One in threeAmerican travellers was influenced by a trav-el company’s efforts to preserve the environ-ment, history or culture of the destinations itvisits.54 Recognition of the demand for andbenefits of educational services provided bythe travel industry has resulted in includingresponsible philosophies and practices in touroperators’ marketing communications.

KENYAKenya is located on the east coast of Africa,and is an attractive tourism destination.Although the growth of international touristarrivals to Kenya showed signs of declinethree years ago, the overall percentagechange from 2001 to 2004 was healthy. In2004 Kenya recorded an unprecedentedgrowth in tourist arrivals (18 per cent) fromJanuary to August.55 This growth was due tothe country’s diverse culture and naturalattractions, effective marketing campaignsand the lack of terrorism threats.56

Kenya has been described as the ‘old man

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of nature tourism’.57 The native habitat con-sists mostly of long grass savannas, dry openwoodlands and widely spaced mountains andseveral active volcanoes.58 The country’sspectacular wildlife resources are character-ized by big predators, high biodiversity and asignificant number of endemic species. Ken-ya is known for its safaris. This is the countryimmortalized in books and memoirs by Ern-est Hemingway and Theodore Roosevelt. Ithas long been known as the land of ‘biggame’ – big cats and mammals roam free intheir natural surroundings.Kenya offers a wide and exciting range of

tourism opportunities, including adventuresand discovery – game viewing, bird watch-ing, mountain climbing, hot-air ballooning,freshwater and deep-sea fishing, the openplains of the Masai Mara National Park, thediverse landscapes of the Great Rift Valley,the mountain ranges at Abedares and MountKenya (the country’s highest peak, located inthe central highlands), the lake regions ofNakuru, Naivasha, Baringo, Bogoria andVictoria (which is shared with Tanzania andUganda), the arid regions in the NorthernTerritories and the beaches at Mombasa andthe coastal islands.59

Kenya also offers the remnants of an un-touched and unique culture. With a popu-lation of over 31 million, 97 per cent ofwhom are of African descent, Kenya is hostto more than 70 tribal groups among theAfricans.60 Their culture still exists and canbe experienced today by many visitors.

Kenya and tourism impactsTourism is important to the Kenyan econo-my in both direct effects upon employment,incomes and the balance of payments, andindirect effects in terms of stimulatingsecondary demand on other sectors of theeconomy.61 Tourism is the number-oneforeign-exchange earner for Kenya, ahead ofcoffee and tea.62 Although it appears Kenyais in a strong position in terms of tourismearnings, other countries, such as Mauritiusand Tanzania, earn more from tourism.63

The Kenyan tourism industry suffers fromthe degradation and reduction of the quality

of the country’s tourism product, congestionat the game parks and reserves, destructionof the ecosystem and conflicts with compet-ing demand from other sectors of the econo-my or with community interests in general.64

International tourism has also had somenegative effects on the tribes of Kenya. Localcommunities are significantly vulnerable tothe deleterious impacts of tourism develop-ment, particularly indigenous cultures as theydirectly experience the socio-cultural im-pacts of tourism.65 According to LonelyPlanet publishers, distinctions between manyof the tribes are blurred and ‘western culturalvalues are becoming more ingrained andtraditional values are disintegrating’.66 Tour-ism development in Kenya has resulted indisruption to established activity patterns, in-creased crime and overcrowding issues.These ‘have a negative impact on local life-styles and the quality of life of both indigen-ous and non-indigenous communities’.67

This brings into question the role of theindustry in promoting the country’s sustain-able tourism development. The negativesocio-cultural and environmental impacts,which have often been downplayed, showthat Kenya’s tourism industry might be in-capable of promoting sustainable long-termdevelopment. Although the country putsmajor emphasis on the expansion of tourism,important socio-cultural and environmentalissues do not receive enough attention inplanning and policy responses.68

Kenya and culturally responsible

behaviourAs a result of the negative socio-cultural andenvironmental impacts of tourism in Kenya,local non-governmental organizations haveworked together to develop responsibletourism practices. Such organizations asKenya Ecotourism69 and the EcotourismSociety of Kenya70 have developed guide-lines for responsible tourism which are com-municated to both the industry (i.e. travelagents, tour operators) and tourists. Theseguidelines are presented in Table 3. An im-portant consideration is whether these

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guidelines are followed by the industry inpromoting the country’s sustainable tourismdevelopment.

ENVIRONMENTAL MARKETING AS

THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

FOR ANALYSIS‘Social and environmental concerns haveassumed a greater level of importance incustomer’s product choice and supplierselection.’71 The sale of products and de-mand for experiences which are environ-mentally friendly have grown tremendouslyin the last decade.72 As a result, demand forboth environmental marketing and corporatesocial marketing activities has increased inimportance.The communication of environmental in-

formation is of vital importance to touristsbecause it provides them with details thatenable them to act in a more environmen-tally responsible manner. The academic lit-erature has found that the more informationthe consumer has about environmentallyresponsible behaviours, the more responsibletheir actions are.73 However, Polonsky et al.argue that this relationship may depend onthe product category and the impact the

product has on the environment.74 Theysuggest ‘the more the product’s negativeimpact on the natural environment the morethe consumer would rely on such informa-tion when making. . . choices’ (p. 282).Similarly, one may argue that the commu-nication of cultural information enables tour-ists to act in a culturally responsible way.The more information the tourist has aboutculturally responsible tourism behaviour (andthe negative impacts of irresponsible behav-iour), the more likely he/she is to behave ina responsible manner.Further, corporate environmental adver-

tising typically contains three elements.75

First, the advertisement presents a generalstatement of the corporate concern for theenvironment. Second, the advertisementdescribes information about the company’sinvolvement and thus demonstrates commit-ment to the environment. Third, the adver-tisement describes the outcomes of itsengagement. These three elements are im-portant to the provision of informationlinked to behavioural change. Behaviouralchange is more likely if all three elements areincluded in the advertisement. Likewise,corporate cultural advertising is expected topresent a statement of the corporate concernfor the culture, information on how the

Table 3: Kenya Ecotourism culturally responsible tourism guidelines

Leave the world a better place. Responsible tourism is about getting more out of your travelexperiences by giving back to the environment and the people you meet. Those interested in travellingresponsibly should do the following:Research alternatives. Learn about the places you intend to visit, and support tourism that is notharmful to the environment or well-being of local people.Eliminate barriers and make meaningful connections with local people. Walk or use public transportwhenever feasible. Pack small gifts for new friends.Be culturally sensitive. Respect the values, customs and beliefs of local people. Foster a greaterunderstanding of their culture and their environmental issues.Generate economic benefits. Buy locally produced goods, become a patron of locally ownedbusinesses and enhance the well-being of host communities.Be environmentally friendly. Conserve natural resources when travelling just as you do at home.Offset your carbon emissions from airline and land travel.Make positive contributions to the conservation and preservation of natural and cultural heritageand to the maintenance of the world’s biodiversity.

Source: www.kenyaecotourism.com

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company is involved and committed to thepreservation of culture and explanations ofoutcomes of its engagement.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKA conceptual framework diagram for thisstudy is presented in Figure 1. It begins withthe premise that the role of a tour operator isto be a ‘culture broker’ who facilitatescommunication, understanding and actionbetween hosts and tourists who differculturally.76 Culture brokers are mediatorswho control or manipulate local culture forthe tourists’ purpose.77 One of the responsi-bilities of the tour operator as a culturebroker is educating the tourist on the cultureof the destination visited.Education of a tourist occurs at three

stages of the tourism experience: on site,pre-trip and post-trip. At each stage, thetourist develops knowledge via a variety ofsources of information that prepare her/himfor the experience s/he is about to embarkon. In the pre-trip stage of the travel experi-ence, high levels of interaction occur be-tween a travel provider and tourists.78 Touroperators supplement brochure informationwith broader knowledge about the destina-tion being visited.79 Usually, this pre-travel

stage involves the use of various methods ofadvertising and personal communication.Tour operators rely heavily on print materi-als such as promotional travel brochures andaudiovisual material (e.g. videos) to aid inthe decision-making process. The aim is toinform, persuade and remind tourists aboutthe resources and opportunities available atthe destination. Within advertising, the mes-sage goes through four stages: message gen-eration, evaluation, execution and messagesocial responsibility. The social responsibilitystage has drawn particular attention in recentyears. According to Kotler, ‘some companieshave begun to build ad campaigns on a plat-form of social responsibility’.80 In tourism,print materials have an opportunity to en-gage in the social responsibility of theirmessage. The tour operator, in particular,has an opportunity to inform and educatethe tourist on culturally responsible beha-viours.In the on-site stage of the tourism experi-

ence, information (for the tourist) is morelikely to be communicated through a tourguide, who plays a vital role in educating thetourist about a foreign destination. In orderto avoid a gap between information pre-sented in the print material and that pre-sented by the guide, tour operators and

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Figure 1The total tourism experience

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guides need to consult each other as to whatinformation needs to be provided in thebrochure. This is particularly importantwhen it comes to information related tosocially and culturally responsible beha-viours.In the post-trip stage of the tourism ex-

perience, the tour operator’s information iscommunicated through continued contactwith the tourist and updates on benefits ofthe tour operator’s policies. For example, ifthe tour operator has policies that reduce thecultural impacts of tourism, the outcomes ofthese policies can be communicated to tour-ists on an ongoing basis after returninghome.Because the initial contact of a tour opera-

tor with the tourist in the pre-trip stage oftourism experience is critical to generatingtourist interest in travel and decision making,the purpose of this study is to examine travelbrochures mailed to potential customers atthe pre-trip stage of their travel experience.The other communication and advertisingtools used in the on-site and post-trip stagesrequire a separate study.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS(1) The aims of this study are to examinewhether US tour operators which organizetrips to Kenya promote culturally responsiblebehaviours in their travel brochures, and (2)to investigate the ways in which the US touroperators educate the tourist on culturallyresponsible behaviours in Kenya.

RESEARCH METHOD

Sampling frameThe US Tour Operators Association (US-TOA) was chosen as sampling frame for thisstudy. The list of members of the USTOA isposted on its website.81 Only those touroperators which organize trips to Kenyawere selected. Of the total membership of118 tour operators in the USTOA, only 26met the criteria for inclusion in the study. Ofthe 26 operators, eight admitted they nolonger organized tours to Kenya and thus

they were eliminated from the study. Thetotal number of tour operators that were sentinformation was 18.The selected tour operators were all US

companies (the USTOA has members fromCanada, Europe and the USA). The finalsample was relatively homogeneous; where-by all operators were large US-based compa-nies, had multiple offices and conducted amultitude of trips around the globe. Thefinal 18 tour operators in the sampling framewere located in the states of Alabama, Cali-fornia, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Illi-nois, Massachusetts, Missouri, Nevada, NewYork, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, RhodeIsland and Washington.

Data collectionThe selected tour operators were personallycontacted in August 2004 and asked to sendtheir travel brochures with information onKenya to researchers. The researchers probedfor printed materials on culturally responsiblebehaviours by asking, ‘I understand thatKenya is a culturally sensitive place. Do youhave any materials that you provide to tour-ists which tell them how to behave whilethey are in the country? Can you send thatin addition to your regular packet onKenya?’Of the 18 operators, two asked the

researchers to visit their websites only. Inaddition, these two operators provided alter-native sources of information: one operatorsuggested ‘searching Amazon.com for anybooks which might help’ and the other onereferred the researchers to the Lonely Planetwebsite. These operators were eliminatedfrom the study due to the lack of brochuressent to the researchers. It was felt that theinformation provided on websites followed adifferent format than print material. In orderto maintain consistency in the type of printmaterial, only brochures were retained foranalysis. In addition, one operator dealt withtravel agents only and consequently was alsoeliminated. One tour operator did not re-spond at all. A total of 14 tour operators sentinformation packets back to the researchers.Thus the total response rate was 78 per cent

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(14/18). As for the total number of bro-chures, of the 14 tour operators which sentbrochures one operator sent three brochures,two operators sent two brochures each and11 operators sent one piece of material each.Therefore, the total number of brochureswas 18.

Data analysisThe print materials were examined using acontent analysis technique. Content analysishas been described as ‘analysis of the manifestand latent content of a body of communi-cated material (as a book or film) through aclassification, tabulation and evaluation of itskey symbols and themes in order to ascertainits meaning and probable effect’.82 It is aresearch technique for the objective, quanti-tative and systematic study of communicationcontent. It involves charting or counting the‘incidence, or co-incidence, or particularitems belonging to a set of (usually) predeter-mined categories’.83 Content analysis hasbeen used for almost a century in many fields,including literature, history, political science,education, psychology and journalism. Morespecifically, content analysis has a rich poten-tial for researching the nature of consumer-directed communications and their efforts.84

Woodrum noted that content analysis haswide applicability for studying beliefs, atti-tudes of organizations, and human relations.85

He also suggested that different kinds of con-tent could impact the reader and have cogni-tive, affective and behavioural effects.The analysis followed Neuendorf’s flow-

chart of the typical process of content analy-sis.86 The language content of the travelbrochures was analysed for responsible tour-ism practices guided by the principles ofsustainable tourism. Numerous ‘key’ wordsidentified in the Global Code of Ethics forTourism (WTO, Article 1) were used toexamine the content of brochures (Table 4).These words were also used to code andgroup the data into themes. Three codersexamined the print materials for referencesto culturally responsible tourism (guided bythe WTO). A total of 87 references wereidentified among the brochures. All refer-

ences to culturally responsible tourism werecoded and entered into a file.When examining the travel brochures it

was noted that there were three sections ineach brochure. These sections included first,an overview of the tour company philosophyand policy; second, a description of thedestination, including travel itineraries; andthird, information for the tourist, includingvisa requirements and prices of the tourpackages. As a result, the decision was madeto divide all collected information into threesections. The first section was called ‘touroperator information’, the second sectionwas called ‘destination information’ and thethird was called ‘traveller information’.Three coders were used to identify distinctthemes within each section and group themtogether.

RESULTSTen themes emerged when examining thetravel brochures: four from the tour operatorinformation section, five from the destina-

Table 4: Key words used to examinetravel brochures

Key concepts

1 Ethical values2 Tolerance3 Respect for diversity4 Religion5 Philosophy6 Moral beliefs7 Local environment8 Social and cultural traditions/norms9 Social and cultural practices

10 Indigenous cultures11 Harmony12 Laws13 Customs14 Rules of behaviour or social and cultural

behaviour15 Expectations16 Rules and guidelines17 Safety and security18 Cultural understanding19 Education and training

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tion information section and one themefrom the traveller information section.

Section 1: Tour operator informationIn this section, tour operators described theirphilosophies, policies and mission state-ments. This section was also used to informthe tourist of the rules and regulations of thetour operator. Many operators used thissection to discuss their sustainable tourismpractices. Several brochures discussed thefinancial contributions of the operator tolocal communities and their cultures. Littleinformation was provided on culturally re-sponsible behaviour in tourism. In general,four themes emerged from this section.These were named ‘tour guides’, ‘supportfor local culture’, ‘education’ and ‘localpeople’.

Theme 1: Tour guidesReferences to tour guides were made seventimes. Each tour operator used differentnames to refer to a tour guide, e.g. tourmanager, tour planner, naturalist or driver.Most often information relating to tourguides dealt with how much the tour guidewas trained or how experienced he/she wasin the local culture. One brochure discussedthe tour guide’s educational background andincluded his picture. References to the tourguides included such comments as ‘our per-sonnel and guides are unsurpassed in theirknowledge of. . . cultures’. In addition, someoperators suggested that their guides wouldprovide information on culturally responsi-ble behaviours by ‘relaying to you the his-tory of the destination. . . helping you withthe local customs’. This information impliedthat the tour operator might educate thetourist on responsible behaviours by relyingon the services of the tour guide at the on-site stage of the tourist experience.

Theme 2: Support for local cultureReferences supporting the local culture weremade four times. Policies and philosophiesthat the tour operators adopted to support

culturally as well as environmentally respon-sible tourism were presented. Such words asconservation, preservation, sustainable tour-ism, responsible tourism and responsibility toprotect and support community develop-ment were frequently used in the travelbrochures. One operator stated, ‘Westrongly believe that it is our responsibility toprotect the environment and local culturesof places we visit and to ensure that ourtravel programs have a positive impact inevery way.’ This operator also stated that thecompany ‘supports worldwide projects,which help to give local people a personaleconomic interest in preserving the uniquequalities of their habitats’. One brochureindicated specific support for Kenya. An-other operator stated that it provides a ‘tripto Masai villages where we support severalcommunity development projects’ and ‘aportion of the camp’s revenue provideswater to local wildlife and also powers all ofits facilities with solar panels’.

Theme 3: EducationThe word education appeared eight times inrelation to the trip to Kenya. Most brochuresused words such as ‘education’ and ‘learning’to emphasize the educational character oftheir trips. One operator stated, ‘Our vaca-tions are true journeys, in depth culturalexperiences’, ‘We are committed to provid-ing unique cultural experiences you won’tfind anywhere else’ and ‘Your family willreturn home with a wealth of education’.While tour operators wrote about educationthey did not give specific guidelines or in-structions about appropriate behaviourswhen travelling to this culturally sensitivecountry.

Theme 4: Local peopleThis theme related to the tour operator’sattitudes toward local people. Four refer-ences included information on the impor-tance of the local people in the touristexperience. The tour operators communi-cated the significance of respecting foreignlocal culture as a foundation for culturally

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responsible behaviours. One operator com-mented that ‘travelling to other lands givesyou the opportunity to meet people whoinhabit them and learn in an easy way aboutlives that may be very different than yourown’. Another one stated that its employees‘take great care to provide you with a com-fortable and pleasurable stay while exposingyou to the astonishing cultural diversities thatare the essence of any African travel experi-ence’.

Section 2: Destination informationThe second section of the travel brochuresdealt with information about the visiteddestination. This section was descriptive innature, and its purpose was to present thetravel itinerary and spark some anticipationfor the trip. Only one tour operator pro-vided information about culturally responsi-ble behaviours. All other tour operators didnot discuss appropriate tourist behaviours.The themes that emerged from this sectionwere labelled ‘local traditions’, ‘local people/cultural interaction’, ‘attractions’, ‘accom-modation’ and ‘dos and don’ts’.

Theme 1: Local traditionsThis theme appeared 10 times in the travelbrochures. Within this theme four sub-themes emerged, namely dance, food,language and handicrafts. Information wasprovided about local tribal traditions. Perfor-mances of African dances and ‘dances per-formed by tea-pickers’ were discussed.Opportunities for the tourist to participate in‘traditional dinners’ in ‘private homes’ werementioned by several tour companies. Ref-erences to using a specific language werementioned. Some operators taught the tour-ist how to pronounce ‘Kenya’. They wrote:‘Do pronounce the name of the countryKEHN-yah (KEEN-yah, which is the oldBritish colonial pronunciation, may offendresidents).’ Three companies included infor-mation on how to say ‘hello’ and ‘welcome’( Jambo na Karibu). In addition, two otheroperators drew attention to the importanceof cultural respect for ‘elaborate jewellery’

and ‘colourful beadwork’. However, not asingle tour operator provided specific direc-tives for culturally responsible behaviours.

Theme 2: People and cultural

interactionThe largest theme that emerged was relatedto cultural interaction with local people. Theopportunity to meet local people was men-tioned 10 times. One operator stated, ‘Youwill learn about. . . the harsh way of life forthe Samburu people as you walk and interactwith them.’ Another operator noted, ‘Sam-buru is the home of the proud Samburutribe – traditionally pastoral nomads; theSamburu culture is a fascinating, mysteriousand thrilling experience for any visitor luckyenough to witness it first hand.’ One opera-tor expressed the view that ‘East Africa’speople are exceptionally welcoming. Youlearn of the culture of the Masai, who haveretained many of their traditional ways, andalso how people have adapted to changingtimes and pressures of modernization.’ Oneoperator also wrote, ‘Get to know the realKenya – the friendly people. . .’ Most of thetour operators emphasized the importance ofthe ‘unique lifestyles and traditions’ of theAfrican tribes. Unfortunately, no guidelineswere provided on culturally appropriateinteractions with local people and the role ofthe tourist in maintaining and preserving thetraditional social customs.

Theme 3: AttractionsThe attractions theme was mentioned seventimes. Many references were made to cul-tural and natural attractions. Cultural attrac-tions typically included Nairobi and a visit tothe suburb of Karen (named after KarenBlixen, the author of Out of Africa) to see herhome. As some operators wrote, many ofher ‘personal mementos are on display’ at thehome of the ‘pioneering coffee farmer’. Asto natural attractions, several references weremade to safaris, game viewing and adventureactivities. Although much information wasprovided on specific attractions, no guide-

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lines were provided on behaviour that isculturally and environmentally responsible atthese attractions.

Theme 4: AccommodationThis theme dealt with accommodations thatoffer the tourist the opportunity to see localculture from a lodging perspective. Refer-ences to large hotels were omitted and onlysmaller, locally owned and operated hotelswere listed. Four references were made tolocally owned and operated accommodation.One operator mentioned that the accommo-dation on offer ‘blends the spirit of wildAfrica with colonial elegance in six cottages,which house antique furniture’. This touroperator also referred to the ‘Serena Lodge,which echoes the robust rhythms of river-front life in Samburu’. While one operatorinvited tourists to ‘private homes. . . withAfrican flavour and warm hospitality’, an-other talked about ‘bush homes which aresmall, privately owned properties in Kenya’.

Theme 5: Dos and Don’tsThe most socially and culturally responsiblemessages occurred in a theme called ‘dos anddon’ts’. This theme included references tohow the tourist should behave when travel-ling in Kenya. Six references to dos anddon’ts were identified. Interestingly, onlyone company included a truly effective cul-turally responsible directive. It wrote:

‘Kenyans are fond of North Americangoods, and many tourists enjoy bringingtoken items to offer as gifts or use whenbartering for souvenirs. Inexpensive itemsthat the locals value include t-shirts, base-ball caps, anything imprinted with profes-sional sports logos, pens, pencils, cosmeticsand toiletries. Although it has becomecommon for American visitors to offerKenyan children candy and gum, thispractice is somewhat controversial becausethe availability of dental care of thesechildren may be negligible. Instead ofsweets, children’s books in English are

enormously appreciated; small toys, gamesand crayons are also good gifts.’

Other references were made to photography.One operator wrote, ‘Please note that it isforbidden to photograph the President, anyuniformed member of the armed forces, statelodges, or the National flag. Local peoplecan be photographed with their consent.’Another wrote, ‘Don’t photograph the peo-ple or their homes and livestock withoutasking permission first (don’t be offended ifyou’re asked to pay for the privilege – it’scustomary in some areas).’Another company included the following

statement in its brochure:

‘Responsibilities of trip members: Culturalimmersion is part of the travel experience.All members should be ready to enjoytravelling as part of a group, and. . . experi-ence cultural differences with grace andsensitivity. Smoking and usage of cellulartelephones is prohibited at group meals,on buses, and during other group activ-ities. There will be ample stops forsmoking and cellular telephone breaks.Participants who are disruptive or endan-ger the group or the travel experience, orbreak local laws may be removed from thetravel program with no refund due and attheir own expense.’

The above statement contains directivesabout how to behave. However, informationon why a particular behaviour is requiredand/or how it might impact on local culturewas lacking.One operator provided information re-

lated to carrying US currency. The brochureincluded information on how much foreigncurrency the tourist could bring in or out ofKenya. However, the brochure did not ex-plain the reasons behind the legal rules andconsequences of breaking the rules. Anotheroperator advised not to change money in the‘black’ market. It wrote, ‘Don’t changemoney on the black market. The illegalmoney changers are often quick-change ar-tists, and the police will arrest you if theyeven suspect you’re changing money illicitly(to be safe, don’t even hand money to a

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friend in public). Also, it is illegal to exportKenyan currency, which, in any case, isdifficult to exchange upon departure. Werecommend only changing small amounts ofmoney at a time.’In addition, one operator included infor-

mation about proper dress codes. The tour-ists’ attention was drawn to the fact that ‘nosneakers or blue jeans are allowed at dinners’.Finally, one operator provided informationon safety and security measures that neededto be taken while travelling to Kenya, as wellas environmentally responsible behaviours.This particular operator did not mentionanything about culturally responsible beha-viours.

Section 3: Traveller informationThe third and final section of the travelbrochures dealt with general travel informa-tion for the tourist. This section includedsuch information as passport and visa re-quirements, US and/or Kenyan customs,safety measures, clothing suggestions andproduct pricing policies.

Theme 1: TippingThe only theme that distinguished itself inthis section was related to tipping. Informa-tion on tipping behaviours was mentionedsix times across all the examined brochures.The information on tipping included suchcomments as ‘It is customary to show yourappreciation to hotel personnel and to theguide and driver of your tour. . . [they]should be tipped as you would internation-ally, unless otherwise indicated.’ One opera-tor suggested, ‘For a good performance it iscustomary to reward your guide and driver/game spotter with a gratuity of about US$4to US$5 each per day and tour member.’

DISCUSSIONThe principal purpose of this study was toexplore travel brochures of US tour opera-tors for information on culturally responsiblebehaviour in Kenya. It was found that veryfew travel brochures of US tour operators

educated the tourist about culturally respon-sible behaviours. Several findings werenoticeable.First, it was noticed that the function of

the brochure was primarily descriptive. Adescription of the local culture, geographyand history of the area was given in all thebrochures. However, very few brochuresfollowed up with specific guidelines for be-haviours that conform to the unique culturalnorms of Kenya and the host expectations.Not even one brochure explained the rea-sons for and the importance of such guide-lines. Although one may argue that it is notthe tour operator’s job to explain the rules ofculturally appropriate behaviour in travelbrochures, but the tourist guide’s role onsite, it is strongly believed that such writtenguidelines can significantly add to the educa-tional aspects of the brochures and, mostimportantly, prepare the potential tourist foran overseas visit at the pre-trip stage of his/her travel experience.Second, in the traveller information sec-

tion, several operators described their busi-ness operating philosophies in terms ofsustainable tourism practices. This was inaccordance with Davis,87 who argued thatcorporate advertising typically contains ageneral statement of the corporate concernfor the environment. Unfortunately, veryfew operators discussed how they implemen-ted these philosophies and followed sustain-able practices. According to Davis,88 thecorporate advertisement should describe in-formation on how the company is involvedin and committed to the environment.Third, in the destination information sec-

tion the brochures rarely described appro-priate behaviours for the tourist; rather, theydescribed culturally sensitive elements of thedestination. Only one tour operator pro-vided meaningful information on how thetourist should behave. This operator indi-cated what items might be appropriate tobring to the host cultures, and highlightedcontroversies surrounding the act of givingcandy and gum to children by tourists. Thisoperator did not, however, explain whysuch practices are inappropriate. Explana-tions of how these practices might nega-

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tively impact on the tribal cultures werenecessary.Next, the section on traveller information

recognized only one theme – tipping. Simi-lar to findings by Pennington-Gray andThapa,89 tipping was the most common issuecommunicated to the tourist by tour opera-tors in relation to cultural sensitivity.Further, most tour programmes were

western-tourist-oriented and focused on theUS residents’ needs and preferences, eventhough the tour operator indicated its respectfor the host culture and its preservation. Thisis not surprising given that the products weredesigned by US tour operators for the UStravel market. However, one may argue thestudy results support the notion that the tourproduct has become standardized, and Ritzerand Liska’s idea that homogenized productsare attempts to imitate and assimilate patternsof social behaviour.90 The tour companieshave not recognized the demand for culturalsensitivity and responsibility to the localcommunity. The promotional travel bro-chures did not respond to the cultural needsof Kenyan society.Moreover, it was interesting to note that

two operators did not even send travel bro-chures to their customers. These operatorsrelied on a link to their websites. Since manysegments of the tourist population prefertraditional methods of communication andpromotion (e.g. brochures, magazines), it issuggested that a combination of print andweb information should be provided to cus-tomers until there is more acceptance forelectronic-only media.91

Finally, two operators relied on Amazon.com or the Lonely Planet for information.This may imply that these two operators didnot consider themselves as culture brokers ormediators. Given that most of the tour op-erators emphasized the importance of cul-tural sensitivity in their philosophical ormission statements, one would expect thatthey would be able to provide more infor-mation to the tourist on this topic in theirbrochures. Although some may find it hon-est on the part of operators to refer potentialtourists to relevant readings such as guide-books or magazines, it is also possible that

these two tour operators did not think thatcultural education of the tourist was theirresponsibility. Consequently, this findingwarrants further attention.To sum up, the study revealed that US

tour operators did not effectively communi-cate cultural issues to tourists. The findingssupport Pennington-Gray and Thapa, whopreviously examined 264 websites of varioustourist destinations in Asia, Africa, Europe,the Caribbean, Middle East, Central/SouthAmerica, Oceania/South Pacific and NorthAmerica for information on culturally re-sponsible tourism, especially customs, proto-cols and habits.92 They found that only 12per cent of the sampled websites includedcultural information important to tourists.Social customs and cultural respect issueswere the least frequently communicated.

IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONSThe results suggest that the promotionalbrochures distributed by US tour operatorsto tourists who plan trips to Kenya need tocontain more information on culturally re-sponsible behaviour. Tour operators cannotrefer to and rely on the services of the tourguide at the on-site stage of the touristexperience. Tourists travelling to Kenyaneed to be presented with specific guidelinesor instructions about appropriate behaviour– in particular, rules that conform to theunique cultural norms of Kenyan society.The promotional brochures need to explainthe importance of respecting foreign cultureand give practical examples of how thetourist should behave when interacting withlocal people, participating in or observinglocal tribal traditions or African dances orwhen being invited for traditional dinners inprivate homes. Specific instructions need tobe given as to how to address Kenyan peopleand say ‘hello’, ‘thank you’ or ‘please’. Also,more guidelines need to be provided on thebehavioural practices, habits and customsthat are inappropriate and/or have negativeeffects on local culture and environment.This particularly refers to tourist behaviourwhen visiting game reserves and participatingin safaris and adventure activities. In addi-

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tion, tourists need to be informed about thespecific facilities and services offered by theaccommodation and catering sector. More-over, they need to learn about local lawsrelated to photography, smoking, tipping,shopping and pricing, currency exchange,safety measures and even proper dress code.The travel brochures need to respond to thecultural needs of Kenyan society. Finally, UStour operators would do well to highlighttheir corporate concerns for the socio-cultural and physical environment of Kenyaand describe how their companies are in-volved in and committed to the preservationof this environment.Clearly, this paper highlights the emerging

trend for tourist education which is becom-ing an integral part of tourism activity. Withthe standardization of culture, it is becomingcritically important for some destinations tomaintain their cultural identities and heri-tage. The tour operator, as a culture broker,is a communicator of foreign culture totourists. As destinations continue to createcodes of responsible conduct, the role of thetour operator as a cultural communicator inconveying these codes to the tourist becomeseven more important. Particularly importantis the sustainability of the cultural aspects ofthe destination. In addition to providinginformation on appropriate tourism conductwhile on site, the tour operator needs to useall print materials, including travel brochures,to educate the tourist. Every single touroperator would do well to follow the WTOinternational codes of responsible tourismbehaviour and include the principles of suchbehaviour in its promotional materials.Without this, education will be the responsi-bility of the on-site tour guide only.Tour operators and wholesalers need to

develop educational travel brochures andoffer educational travel programmes (e.g.destination familiarization presentations) thatwould provide examples of the specific for-eign language and non-verbal behaviourcodes, explain the preservation programmesfor natural, historical and cultural resourcesin foreign countries, principles of conserva-tion, different customs and foreign culturalpolicies, as well as the tour guide’s training

and responsibilities, cultural assistance pro-grammes, and coordination of cultural andsocial requirements. The travel brochuresand programmes need to match the educa-tional needs of specific segments of visitorswith different educational backgrounds andinterests.Different forms of educational travel bro-

chures and information on responsible tour-ism behaviours need to be provided totourists based on the characteristics of touristsand their profiles, lifestyles or travel motiva-tion. For example, for culturally motivatedtourists there is a need to provide touristswith more detailed information on culturalheritage sites or availability of interpretationservices. Explorers as opposed to mass tour-ists would require more distinct information.For instance, explorers might require morespecific information about differences amongrural communities, whereas the mass touristmight require information on communicat-ing with locals in the city. Similarly, adultand seniors as opposed to younger touristmarkets (e.g. children and teenagers) wouldrequire different types of information, de-pending on their capacity to absorb andunderstand the provided information. Cur-rently, some tour operators in Europe usethis strategy to market their products toclients.Since cultural tourism and nature-based

tourism represent two major types of tourismproducts, where education plays a very im-portant role in achieving sustainable tourismdevelopment, it is highly recommended thattour operators include more information onresponsible codes of conduct when promot-ing any type of cultural or nature-basedproduct. For example, in the case of Kenya,teaching the tourist not to give gifts to everychild s/he comes across, or is approached by,needs to be followed with information ex-plaining that such behaviour sets up a senseof dependency and false expectancy for thechild, and that it is possible that every timethe child sees a Westerner s/he is going toexpect something.The proposed actions by tour operators

represent an important step towards thedevelopment of culturally responsible tourism

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behaviour. By using the WTO internationalcodes of conduct the present study was ableto demonstrate that culturally responsible be-haviour is an important aspect of the touristexperience. However, this study has merelyscratched the surface of culturally responsiblebehaviour, and the topic warrants greaterattention than it has been given so far byresearchers.

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(78) Ryan, C. (1997) The Tourist Experience: ANew Introduction. London: Cassell.

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(81) United States Tour Operator Association(2004) ‘Membership Directory’, URL(consulted July 2004): http://www.ustoa.com

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(84) Holbrook, M. (1977) ‘More on ContentAnalysis in Consumer Research’, Journal ofConsumer Research, 4(3): 176–7; Kassarjian,H. (1977) ‘Content Analysis in ConsumerResearch’, Journal of Consumer Research,4(1): 8–18.

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(92) Pennington-Gray and Thapa, ref. 89 above.

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