DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 088 692 SE 016 446

AUTHOR Boyle, Charles P.TITLE Space Among Us. Some Effects of Space Research cn

Society.INSTITUTION National Aeronautics and Space Administration,

Greenbelt, Md. Goddard Space Flight Center.PUB DATE Jun 73NOTE 140p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$6.60DESCRIPTORS Aerospace Education; *Aerospace Technology; life

Style; Mass Media; Science Education; *Social Change;*Space. Sciences

ABSTRACTA summary of existing and possible effects of the

space program on society is presented in this book to illustrate thesecond-order consequences of space exploration in the worldcommunity. Discussions are included concerning influences on humanattitudes toward technology and space, life styles, man's outlook,relationships among fellowmen, social structures, internationalcooperations, economic and industrial developments, design of powersources, world's communications connections, weather observations,geological survey methods, management skills, computer utilization,techniques of systems analysis, curriculum developments, educationaltechnology, plant growth researches, health services, globalresources exploration, criminal inspection, legal frameworks, andpolitical decisions. The author indicates the need for further spaceresearch by presenting an historical story of the Chinese abandoningof interests in naval research. A bibliography and detailedinformation relating to the content are given as appendices. Alsoincluded is an extensive index for use to complement the randomlyarranged content. (CC)

, ,. :'U. OEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,

EDUCATION & WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCE() EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

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SPACE AMONG US

Some Effects of Space Research on Society

Charles P. Boyle

June 1973

GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTERGreenbelt, Maryland

FOREWORD

Side I

"Never forget, Son, that your father sold oflice supplies to the companythat made the boy that carried the rocks back from the 1110011."

Side II

When I heard the learn'd astronomer,

When the proofs, the figures, were ranged in columnsbefore me,

When I was shown the charts and diagrams, to add,divide, and measure them,

When I sitting heard the astronomer where he lecturedwith much applause in the lecture-room,

How soon unaccountable? I became tired and sick,

Till rising and gliding out I wander'd off by myself,

In the mystical moist night-air, and from time to time,

Look'd up in perfect silence at the stars.Walt Whitman

1819-189,2

111

PREFACE

Actions in any area will inevitably have second-order conse-quences. These consequences are frequently of greater importancethan the original actions. This is especially true of 'technicalinnovations. They recurringly produce second-order social,economic, and political changes that were neither intended noranticipated.

One of the better known examples is the introduction of theautomobile as a means of transportation. "It has changed ourleisure life and (allegedly) our sexual mores and practices; spawnedsuburban living; changed our patterns of home ownership andretail distribution; introduced the use of road building as a sourceof patronage; decimated the railroads; and introduced a newholiday pastime of counting death tolls. None of these events,insofar as we know, was intended, few were anticipated, and notall are desired."

NASA and others are actively considering the wide range ofeffects, favorable and unfavorable, which may result from thespace program. NASA has commissioned studies in this area andothers have been done independently. Interest dates from almostthe start of the space program. For example, the Brookings reportof 1961 provides about two hundred pages of potential implica-tions.'

The exploration of space, a massive technical effort by manynations, will surely have many second-order consequences. Thebeneficial effects are more easily anticipated than the undesiredbecause in most instances they will be planned for. In some areas,effects are already being reported .. . favorable, unfavorable andinconsequential. In others prediction is active but is unavoidablyspeculation. This document reports on effects that have occurred,that are probable, and that seem possible.

NOTE:A new activity as vast and diverse as space exploration has second-order conse-quences on a global scale. The effects occur at random in the world community.They are examined at random in this publication. The extensive Index should offsetthe random Table of Contents.

CONTENTS

Page

"Take Me to Your Leader" 1

The Flat Earth Society 1

What Kinds of Effects? 2Source and Destiny 2Man's Outlook 3Motivation and Entity 3The Great Boon 4The Decimation of Society 5The Closed Society 5Competition and War 6Common Cause 6Curtailment and Trade 8Monopoly and Fear 9The Other Peoples' Prize 9Use of the Discovered 10The Transfer Concept 11The Forcing Function 11Power Sans Pollution 15Do Your Own Thing 18The Orbiting SwitchboardCulture, Fads and HorrorSociety's Nerve System 19Domesticate the International 20The Invisible Mesh 21Copper versus Air 21Bicycle-TV and Population Bombs 22The Good Life in the Bush 23The Mid-Ocean Traffic Jam 24"This is Your Captain Not Speaking" 25Satellites of the Sea 26People in Fire 27The Issue of Intellectual Hostility 28Response of the Artists 29Where Are the Poets? 30Mark Twain Was Wrong 32Not Since Noah 33The Ten Thousand Probes 33Big Synch Is Watching 33APT and the High School Wizards 33Sea Ice and Raisins 35

vii

Preparations and Other $ 35Spawning and the Delivery Anomaly 36The Allocation of Talent 37"The City That Waits to Die" 38The Management Push 39Ford Taps the Bank 39It's the System 40Shock and Follow On 40The Four Year Book Gap 41Link Rio Grande do Norte 41Tune to 2.5 GHz 42The New Vantage Point 42Lunar Dust and Planet Gases 43"Thum" and the New Astronomy 44The Pursuit of Excellence 44The Zero-Defects Society 47Response of the Doctors 48Fireflies at johns Hopkins 48Hammocks, Hearts and Hips 50Bleeding in Alaska 50Backwoods Radiologists 52Orbits and the Surgeon General 52The Coming Way to Reduce? 53Time for Inventory 53But Why Satellites? 55Data at Sioux Falls 55The Ground Truth Requirement 56The Price of Meat 5.6

Underdeveloped AND Underinformed? 58Where Poppies Grow and Locusts Go 59Forward into the Past 59The Flyby Interrogator 60Nature and Other Polluters 60See You In Court 61Radioactive Garbage 61The Longer Arm of the Law 61Food and Disaster 62Burros, Sensors and "Host Rocks" 63Minerals in the Tree Tops 65Factories Aloft 65Electrophoresis Sans Gravity 66Prophets of Profits 67Who Owns the Sky? 68Canada's Equatorial Resource 69The Law of the Void 69

viii

Silent Sentries 70Counting the Tubes 71Drama and Value 7IA Profit Grubbing Society.'America's National Style 72Society Impacts Space 73Mules at Cape Kennedy 73Technology and Poverty 73Claims and the Money 74Counterbudget 75Technology and the Black American 76Attitudes Toward Technology 76The Chinese Penalty 77REFERENCES 79APPENDIXES

A. The Public and the Last Apollo 84B. Pioneer 10 Plaque 85C. Brothers in the Eternal Cold 87D. Censorship of Satellite Broadcasts 89E. Space Travel Prospects 92F. The "Impossible Dream" 94G. The Value of Space Activity for Developing

Countries 95H. Conversation Pieces 97I. Spending Money Directly, or 98J. Explanation to the Artist 100K. The Poetry of Space 103L. The NASA Launch Schedule 107M. Space Delivery Service for the World 108N. Satellite-Peculiar Advantages 1100. Satellites Watch Over Your Farm 111P. Opposition in U. N. to U. S. Earth Data Offer 113Q. Volcanoes and Biological Systems 114R. Prospecting in Alabama 1 17S. Medication Manufacturing in Space 118T. Voices from 370 B. C. 119,U. The Nun and the Scientist 120

INDEX 127

ix

EFFECTS OF SPACE RESEARCH ON SOCIETY

In today's pell-mell society, we encounter and absorb thenew with little reflection on its significance. This may explainwhy the effects of space research are so little noticed althoughthey are all around us. But two other factors have been at work.One is the deluge of publicity accompanying manned spaceflights. The other is the national controversy over the lunarlanding program versus other priorities. Thus, due to beingfocused on these spectacular achievements and debates, thepublic's ability to see the many and varied effects of the entirespace program has been diminished.

"Take Me To Your Leader"

Some effects have been behavioral. For example, the inter-national sense of humor has broadened; sp.ace-oriented storiesand jokes abound, and many nations have their version of thecartoon caption "Take Me To Your Leader." The public vocabu-lary itself is influenced as space terminology leaves the lab-oratory and enters general usage. The precedent of mannedspace travel helps explain the public's open-mindedness aboutthe recurringly reported "sightings" of Unidentified FlyingObjects. Entertainment has been affected with a proliferation ofspace-related movies and TV dramas and series.

The Flat Earth Society

Age-old concepts have been impacted, and expressions ofpopular wisdom such as "What goes up must come down" areno longer heard in the land. The terms "Impossible!" and "Itcan't be done!" are less used nowadays, because recent expe-rience still smarts. Even Britain's Flat Earth Society accepts thefact of man in orbit (around the rim, of course). There is alsothe phenomenon of a public schizophrenia toward space, to wit:funding support has been declining for years while manu-facturers increasingly use admiration for the space program asthe basis for campaigns advertising their products. And we areapparently proceeding to the astounding situation in which someof the people of the future may ask, "Remember when menused to go to the moon ? "*

Appendix A

What Kinds of Effects?

Some space-related influences have already revised our styleand our standard of living. Others have affected our ways ofthinking and enlarged the scope of our planning. Still otherinfluences are futuristic: they are providing alterntn.wes thatnever before existed for the solution of difficult societalproblems. The futuristic effects will be felt increasingly withtime, and they will be considered extensively in this publication.

In their nature, the effects of space research are believed tobe humanitarian, technological, political, legal, educational, eco-logical, managerial, motivational, governmental, social, medical,philosophical, conservational, economic, and spiritual.

The factors which fuel these beliefs deserve to beexamined.

Source and Destiny

Inquiring into the origin of our universe is a major aspectof the space program; it thus contributes to man's age-old searchfor the Creator. Man has always puzzled over who and what heis. His concept of himself and his universe was never the sameafter Galileo's telescope came into use. The achievement ofmanned space flight marks a comparable point of change inman's thinking. Man, who once thought of himself as theeminent created being, located at the center of the heavens, nowtries to communicate with creatures of equivalent or superiormentality. The spacecraft Pioneer. 10, the first whose flight pathwas chosen to fling it out of our solar system, carried a plaquewith a message to these possible unknown beings in other starsystems.* Newspaper coverage of this plaque producedcomments to NASA. Some objected that Earthmen should notlet "them" know we exist or where we live. Others approved, inthe spirit of exploration. Still others rejoiced, seeing the plaqueas verification of St. John, .10th Chapter, 16th Verse: "achersheep I have which are not of this fold."

The reality of the universe in which man lives is nowplainly evident to him for he has been out into it. Now, morethan ever, it creates great wonder in him about himself and hisdestiny, Few who heard Astronaut Borman reading from Genesiswhile rounding the moon on Christmas Day, 1968, can everforget the emotions sparked by those words. For many it was amoving spiritual experience. A few were angered including Mrs.

'Appendix B

2

Madalyn Murray O'Hair who promptly filed suit against theNASA .Administrator, seeking (unsuccessfully) to ban prayerfrom space as she had from schools.

From obscure origins man has evolved over a billion yearsas a prisoner of this planet. Now, when he is capable ofinvestigating his origin and speculating about his future, he mayhave no future. Given our human nature and our weapons,permanent extinction will remain a distinct possibility untilmankind is dispersed in space. After that the human race mightwell be invulnerable. From the moon colonies and the orbitingstations may come the handful who would repopulate the Earthafter the radioactivity has cooled off. Only by such dispersioncan there be assurance that man would evolve toward a differentdestiny.

Man's Outlook

Alexander Pope said long ago: "The proper study ofmankind is man." Such study could not be fruitful without alsostudying man's environment, for his environment influences hisbehavior. We have been out into the universe, the environmentof our planet. The view should humble us, but the deed shouldmake us proud. We are gaining something philosophically valu-able: perspective. We see our significance in the cosmos clearlynow, and yet we venture still. This striving and seeking makes usmore human, less animal. All animals instinctively feed andreproduce. Only man spends most of his time in efforts beyondthose necessary for survival. Sculpture and painting and attemptsto explain his world are basically superfluous activities. But howattractive would life be without such activities? And historyshows us that what is superfluous today may benefit societytomorrow. Years ago, studying electrical phenomena was con-sidered superfluous. Yet all social planners of today assume intheir proposals the ready availability of electric power.

Motivation and Entity

The space effort provides examples, techniques, methods,and inspirations to help solve some of the nation's greatproblems. This is especially true of problems which are socio-technical in origin. With these, we can properly be intolerant ofexplanations for non-performance which plead technologicalinability. It is other factors, principally time, expense, andhuman behavior, which become controlling influences. TheApollo program has shown us that the needed technology exists

3

or can be produced. This does not mean that the managementconcept of Apollo is applicable to such problems, however. AsNASA Administrator Dr. James C. Fletcher puts it ". . . essen-tially we were dealing with machines, not people." And Astro-naut Frank Borman emphasizes, "I don't think that I would careto live in a country that solved its social problems in the sameway we solved the Apollo problems." Dr. Fletcher calls for anew breed of public leader, one who can combine science andtechnology with administrative ability, simultaneously con-sidering science and human needs.

Space research has also provided us with additional moti-vation to work together and to help one another. Why? Becausethe Earth is now seen as one entity, not numerous politicalsubdivisions. Because the view from the universe has trulyclarified our relationship to our fellow man . . . the other passen-gers on spaceship Earth. Ignoring certain needs of the humans ofother nations is now seen to be equivalent to telling a shipmate,"Your end of the boat is sinking."

Pulitzer Prize author Archibald MacLeish said it best: "Tosee the earth as it truly is, small and blue and beautiful in thateternal silence where it floats, is to see ourselves as riders on theearth together, brothers on that bright loveliness in the eternalcold brothers who know now that they are truly brothers. "*

The Great Boon

Awareness of Earth as an entity has produced what manyregard as the greatest space research effect of all. It is wellexpressed by Dr. Gordon Go les, a volcanologist from theUniversity of Oregon.

"Ecologists and biologists and geochemists have beenscreaming their bloody heads off for decades about what we'redoing to our environment and nobody gave a damn. Nobodyeven listened.

"Now, all of a sudden, in the' same year when there istelevised to millions of people a view of our planet from outside

from far enough outside that you can see, and you can feel itin the pit of your stomach, that here is one entity, one closedsystem on which we all must live in that same year, we getthis sudden concern.

"I do not think these two things have occurred in the sametime span by accident.

"Appendix C

4

"In fact, I would like to suggest that in future years ... his-torians will say that far and away the most useful result of themoon program was a change in the psychology of many millionsof people who realized for the first time, in a way that could notbe denied, that they were all on one small planet, a planet that'sunique in the solar system, and that they depended on it fortheir lives."3

The Decimation of Society

The greatest impact space exploration could have on. society would be the extinction of society. Some people fearedthat this would occur when lunar material was brought here.The contamination of Earth by entirely foreign organisms whichcould be disastrous to crop, human or animal life must beconsidered a distinct possibility in any round trip planetaryprobes, manned or unmanned. The safeguards and quarantinearrangements for the initial landings on the arid moon proved tobe unnecessary. With other planets, e.g., Mars, the risk will befar greater. Because no quarantine is absolute, it may benecessary to include a lengthy test period aboard an Earthorbiting space station, wisely avoiding direct return to thisplanet.

The Closed Society

Social change also includes the laudable goal of trying toopen up the closed societies of the world. America's spaceactivities performed openly on the world stage, in dramaticcomparison to Soviet secrecy, have unquestionably helped.

Later in this century totalitarian regimes may find itdifficult to censor news of the outside world because thepowerful direct broadcast satellites of other countries will beamdown on neighboring territory.* We must realize however, thatcommunications methods such as direct broadcast TV also havea detrimental potential, that of propaganda and opinion control.Those who remember the effectiveness with which Nazi Prop-ganda Minister Goebbels utilized radio alone can truly appreciatethe potential.

Social change may be promoted also by what we arelearning. Astronomer John O'Keefe says: "One result of spaceresearch is the realization that the universe seems to have been

Appendix D

created rather suddenly about ten billion years ago. This is avery awkward point for the apostles of dialectical materialism,the philosophy that goes with Communism. They have alwayssaid that the universe must be infinite and eternal; they havealways fought against the idea that it was created at someparticular time."

Competition and War

Peoples of all nations are concerned when brave men are indanger. This has led to offers of assistance in astronaut emer-gencies. These offers have produced agreements. The agreementsmake cooperation necessary. Such cooperation can lead tocollaboration, and real collaboration seems to have started atlast. Recently in Star City, near Moscow, a NASA team reachedagreement with a Russian team about the design of compatibleequipment that would provide ea;11 country the ability torendezvous, dock with, and enter the other's spacecraft. Themotivation is mutual rescue capability. There is also an agree-ment to exchange lunar samples. And a Joint Editorial Boardhas already met to publish a review of space biology andmedicine. Who knows where this collaboration may lead?

There are some spokesmen who believe that even werethere no cooperation in space, society would benefit fromcompetition in space. They believe that competition has alreadyserved as a substitute for war. It is seen as a public concentrationof national resources, imagination, technological advancementand energy against an opponent in "an alternative to destructivewar."4 More surely, however, humanity will benefit from the nextphase: cooperative international space efforts.

Common Cause

NASA has already cooperated with some 74 countries inactivities which have included atmosphere probes, informationexchange, communication satellities, aid in developing their ownlaunchers, and the launching of foreign experiments on U.S.spacecraft.

The new phase of space cooperation is intended to involveforeign countries in the building of manned-flight space vehicles.It may include the most challenging project undertaken in spaceto date the development of a reusable space shuttle ( Fig. 1).This will transport crews and cargo from earth to orbit and laterland like an airplane. Costs will be significantly lowered becausewe will not be throwing away the launch vehicle (Appendix E).

6

7

a)

Ten years ago it cost $100,000 per pound to deliver a payloadto orbit. Now it costs only one percent of that, about $1000.The shuttle is expected to reduce the price to near $100 perpound. The technology resulting from the development of theshuttle could lead to a global passenger transportation system,according to Najeeb Halaby, recently chairman of Pan AmericanWorld Airways (Appendix F).

Competing companies have put together international teamsto. work on this demanding job. One bidder, North AmericanRockwell (NAR) teamed up with German, British, and Frenchfirms. The president of NAR, W. F. Rockwell, says: "Let meemphasize that these companies are paying their own way. Thesecompanies and their countries can see tangible benefits for boththeir national and business interests."

Curtailment and Trade

It seems strange that as our country is curtailing its spaceprogram, other countries are striving mightily to develop theirs.It is possible that they see benefits to a space program which wedo not see? Perhaps more is at stake than international cooper-ation. Consider international trade. How many Americans realizethat space exploration is treating a new and rapidly growingexport business for the U.S.? Here are a few examples fromissues of Space Business Daily:5

Japan has cancelled the development of its Qrocket ... and will seek instead the use of a UnitedStates liquid first-stage booster, with interest centeredon the THOR DELTA or the ATLAS.Telesat, Canada, has signed a contract with HughesAircraft for development and fabrication of a $28million domestic communications satellite system forCanada.North American Rockwell has agreed with WannerIsofi Isolation of France to form a new company toproduce advanced insulation materials developed forthe S-II second stage of the Saturn V. The material istwice as effective as conventional insulation materials.The RCA Corporation satellite communications groundstation used in Shanghai for televising PresidentNixon's visit was purchased by the Peoples RepUblicof China for $2.5 million.Bendix Corp.'s Aerospace Systems Division has beenselected to design and build an Earth Resources Tele-metry Recording System and a Data Processing Station

8

for Brazil. The station will process magnetic tapes ofdata received from the U.S. Earth Resources Tech-nology Satellite (ERTS).

A major trade example is the U.S. export that increased1400% in the first decade of the space age. It comes from thefastest growing U.S. industry, and contributes most to theAmerican balance of trade, i.e., computers. The ChristianScience Monitor said recently: "Almost every major computersystem in the world is made in America, but without the forcingfunctions of NASA's requirements, these computers would notbe available today. And now the computing industry is an $8billion-a-year business that pays the highest wages of all U.S.industry." It is estimated that these advances in computertechnology will save more money in the next decade forgovernment and industry than the entire Apollo program cost.'

Monopoly and FearSome American companies are applying. to their operations

the knowledge emerging from space exploration. This has causedconcern among some Europeans about a space "technologygap." Recently Professor Herman Bondi, former DirectorGeneral of the European Space Research Organization, said:"Much of Europe has a deep fear that the U.S. will use itsdearly acquired launching capability to grant its space industry avirtual monopoly in commercially valuable space exploration."8

That was a statement from a potential competitor em-phasizing the direct commercial value of space. Is space basic tothe economic strength of our nation or are we deluding our-selves? Consider these words from a man who spent 18 days inorbit: " ... we conducted more than 50 experiments, a greatnumber of which are of primary importance to the nationaleconomy."' The speaker was Cosmonaut Andrian Nikolayev ofthe recordbreaking SOYUZ 9 flight, proclaiming benefits to theRussian economy.

The nations of Europe and Asia which are striving todevelop a space capability recognize clearly that today's scienceis tomorrow's technology and the day- after - tomorrow's, worldtrade position.*

The Other Peoples' Prize

Space is indeed significant for our economy, for what doesthe U.S. have to export? We don't have many raw materj?.!2, and

*India's reasons are given in Appendix G.

9

almost anybody can make things cheaper than we do. The answeris that advanced technology is really the only unique product wehave to export. Our sole advantage is brainpower and research.

Dr. W. D. McElroy, Director of the National ScienceFoundation, said recently, "Over most of the past decade, onlyone category of exports has produced a favorable balance ofAmerican trade. That category is high-technology manufactureditems. During this time, agriculture, fuels and minerals, andlow-technology manufactured items had a negative balance oftrade. Here is convincing evidence that science and technologyare the basis for our economic success in competition with othernations. In other words, what we have that other people prizemost depends, to a large extent, on the results of our researchand development."10

The influence of high-technology exports is clearly evidentfrom the Dept. of Commerce statement, "The export of a singlejumbo jet offsets the importation of 12,000 small cars."11 Andas the U.S. Patent Commissioner, Robert Gottschalk has pointedout, "The U.S. receives over a billion dollars annually forlicensing its technology abroad."

Use of the Discovered

There is, however, a problem of delay in getting newknowledge put to use in industry. Michael Faraday produced anelectric motor in 1840, but it was not put to use until overforty years later. Even adapting the military jet engine tocommercial use took more than ten years. To speed this process,for the benefit of our economy, NASA's Office of TechnologyUtilization has placed heavy emphasis on three steps iden-tification of innovations, documenting them, and spreading theword. It uses two systems:

(1) A bank of 900,000 scientific documents, indexed oncomputer tapes for instant retrieval. It grows by 6,000documents per month.

(2) A subscription service for distributing knowledge ofnew technology to industrial clients via Regional Dis-semination Centers (RDCs) operated by universities orresearch institutes and partially funded by NASA.

These systems have helped companies improve productionprocesses,, establish priorities for research and development, avoidduplication of research already done elsewhere, improve man-agerial practices, and create new products.

10

The Transfer Concept

One means of transmitting this information is the TechBrief (Fig. 2) that is widely circulated to industry by NASA.One Brief announced a new type of shock absorber originallydesigned for the astronauts' couches. Industry picked it right up.The concept is now being used in highway crash barriers,effectively cushioning a 50 mph crash to the equivalent of 5mph (Fig. 3).

There are hundreds of such transfers of technology toindustry, but we are interested in concepts, not lists. There isalready evidence that the value of transfers is clear to ourcompetitors. For example, this item appeared recently inNewsweek: "The Omron Tateisi Electronics Co. of Japan re-cently hired ten topflight American engineers and technicians,many of whom once worked for U.S. companies involved inAmerica's space program. The Japanese firm intends to installthe Americans in a unique 'industrial think tank' at MountainView, Calif., and set them to work on consumer applications ofspace technology. The new techniques and products the Amer-icans develop will, of course, be sent off to Japan for com-mercial exploitation."1 2

One American company engaged in such efforts is theIndustrial Products Division of Hughes Aircraft. It has appliedlaser technology to the $50-billion-per-year clothing industry anddeveloped. a computer-driven laser cutter which reduces responsetime for orders from six weeks to three weeks (Fig. 4). Itprovides a fast reaction, small order, small inventory capabilityfor American firms to remain competitive with overseas pro-ducers.

The Forcing FunctionSpace technology has forced numerous basic improvements

in production processes in U.S. industry. Most companies, inorder to meet NASA requirements for space hardware, had toreach new standards of quality control and reliability. Theserequirements forced the creation of new materials, manufacturingmethods, and testing procedures which will eventually save con-sumers billions of dollars. Corporations have already adaptedmany of these improvements for their commercial products andare proudly telling the world about it.

A recent magazine ad showing egg cartons made of a newmaterial proclaimed "On the way to the moon, LTV Aerospace

11

Jul. Intin

NASA TECH BRIEF

Noel bh11.1318

NASA let h Brief. alt wwwil ta %pectin. innovation. &rt..] from the ti S spaceprogram and to encourage their application tOpin. VC a. odohle to the public fromthe Ckoringhowe fin I whim' ...rental. and lishnical Information. Springfield, Virginto 22151

Torus Elements Used in Effective Shock Absorber

The problem:o demon a high rate energy ohwirption door.: that

will operate equal!, well in tenoon Or COMM %Minoilh repeatabilityThe solution:

An energ. obsorhing dot. that foNoe nom clemem+ to revolve annular!) between two condemn.tube. when a load implied to onto( the tube.

How WS dons:the de.neconow. ol two comentric tubes between

whnh a wising number of WM elements con bemounted. 1hc taro. clement. MC loops of ductile maserial either in the form of mg. ors continuous spiral.A. illolrated. wth a load imposed on one of thetube, the torus clement. arc forced to revolve betown the tubes, introducing etch, tension and con..

inn aiwenwm ...pa. undo ow u.asawp .0 ins ...wart 1:mannoni An. bah.. r.itinp mum lM UV UI rawIntrOnJuixnand 1;non.I . InlorneJhon ...awed on inn .unoni.nr.....1 .11 IonGoroonont nor JO. prmin on Inchall ni .1.. Ala. sill no 'weir. proalci, omnid cop.

Figure 2. Sample of the single sheet Tech Briefs pub-lished by NASA to publicize technological developmentsavailable for utilization by American business and industry.

12

Figure 3. Highway crash barrier utilizing a shock absorption principle orig-inally applied in cushioning astronauts' couches for splashdown impact.

learned a great deal about making life better on earth." Fullpage ads have appeared, stressing the adaptability of the techno-logical base developed by corporations which performed toNASA standards. (Appendix H.) One ad mentioned a company'swork in producing a heart-assist pump. It read in part, "Thesevere reliability levels called for by flight to an outer planetmake you refine and sharpen your technology to extremes,where-upon it suddenly becomes useful here at home within thebody of a living man."

Current advertising by Volkswagen clearly shows how thespace-prodded development of sensing devices is finding com-mercial usage: "When man went to the Moon, the success ofeach mission depended to a great deal on a highly technicalcomputerized system that told the Astronauts the exact condi-tion of their space vehicle. A similar system is now built intoevery 1972 Volkswagen. stunning throughout the car is anetwork of sensors, each reporting the condition of variousparts of the car ... providing 60 vital service checks."

Space technology has also forced the growth of newindustries, or created new companies within existing industries.

13

Figure 4. Engineers observe the results of cloth cuttingperformed by a computer-driven laser cutter.

For. example, NASA's demands and specifications moved thescale and standards of vacuum technology so far and so fast thatvacuum processing techniques quickly became practical in pro-duction line operations. Also, NASA's requirements for largeamounts of super-cold liquids caused the cryogenics industry toblossom.

Another example is the first significant improvement inpipeline material in 50 years. The United Aircraft Companyproduced it from knowledge gained in research and developmentof rocket cases made by winding glass thread onto a mandrel.The new pipe is nearly six times lighter than some in use today,low in cost, and practically indestructible. It was recently used

14

for an 11-mile pipeline tapping the Great Salt Lake in Utah. Thelight weight of the pipe makes helicopter installation practical indifficult terrain (Fig. 5).

Power Sans Pollution

Nations desperately needing more electric power can cur-rently obtain it only at the price of increased pollution, whetherthermal, gaseous, or particulate. The prospect of space-developed

Figure 5. Small helicopters can easily position large sections of the new,light-weight, filament-wound piping in relatively inaccessible sites.

15

power sources gives society a different choice than pollution -versus- brownouts.

One non-polluter is the solar cell, which has long been usedon spacecraft to convert sunlight into electricity. Extensiveefforts are in process to develop mass-produced solar cells at lowcost. Progress is encouraging. Arrays of these cells could aug-ment our power supplies. In fact, if these devices covered 1% ofour land area, they could provide the total U.S. electrical powerrequirement in the year 1990.13 Some energy specialists envi-sion these in orbit. Solar arrays can now be launched in a

rolled-up condition and opened into flat sheets in space. Theirelectrical energy could be converted into microwave energy,beamed to earth and reconverted into electrical power. A fivemile square array at synchronous orbit* would supply tenmillion kilowatts of power (Fig. 6). Fanciful? Not if the needdictates. The inventors of the log canoe could never haveimagined, the liner Queen Elizabeth. We are probably at acomparable stage in space transportation.

Figure 6. Solar Satellite Power Station Concept

'A satellite at 22,300 miles above the equator orbits the earth in 24 hours. It is thus"synchronized" to earth's rotation and always sees the same area.

16

Another non-polluter appeared in the Apollo spacecraftwhere fuel cells combined hydrogen and oxygen to produceelectric power without pollution. Forbes magazine reports thatthe Pratt and Whitney Company has a research contract with 28gas utilities to develop fuel cells for generating electricity fromnatural or manufactured gas on-site in homes, hospitals, apart-ments, and shopping centers. Exhaust products will be harmless(water and carbon dioxide). Fuel-cell efficiency is five times thatof conventional generators. There are no moving parts, littleupkeep is needed, and the cells operate without noise.

The Chairman of the Illinois Commerce Commission isworried about the market conflict that this may bring onbetween the gas companies and the power companies. "It'spossible," he said, "that they could fight this battle the wholeway up to the Supreme Court."14 Meanwhile, however, theConnecticut Natural Gas Corporation is field testing a 12.5kilowatt fuel cell in an apartment complex in Farmington(Fig. 7).

Also a non-polluting source of power is geothermal steam.Molten magma at various points in the earth transmits its heat

d.

do

axl .4.4p NO.ft-v.16 voodoom,

t.

Figure 7. Experimental model of fuel cell designed for generation of electricpower in homes. Size is evident from comparison with typical home furnacein background.

through solid rock above it to porous sedimentary rock that hascaptured water. The water boils and escapes upward whereverbreaks occur in the rocks. Geysers, hot springs and steam jetsresult. Italy, Iceland and New Zealand have for decades tappedsuch steam for power generation. Satellite sensor detection ofunusually hot areas or of fault lines indicative of such trappedthermal energy could disclose potential power sources of thistype. Such sites can become the locations of new cities, designedfor an improved quality of life, and based on clean industry.This is happening at the geothermal site of Cerro Prieto, Mexico,where the Toshiba Company of Japan is installing specialturbines, beginning with a 75,000 KW power plant.

Do Your Own Thing

This is not to say that the space program is justified by itssolutions to other problems, such as pollution. We need apollution-solution industry for pollution problems. Space explor-ation must first have its own purposes and goals.* And it does;for space is being utilized to do things that cannot be doneeconomically, or done at all, in any other way: This is happen-ing, for example, in geodesy, astronomy, geology, navigation,oceanography, meteorology, and communications. The NationalGeodetic Satellite Program beginning in 1962 learned more inthe first few months of satellite geodesy than was learned in theprevious two centuries.15

The Orbiting Switchboard

The best known economic result of the direct utilization ofspace is the Communications Satellite Corporation, traded on theNew York Stock Exchange as Comsat.* Unfortunately, peoplebecome accustomed quickly to progress and lose sight of its origin;so, to many of us, the international TV provided via Comsat seemsa natural heritage rather than a space bonus. But without satellites,there could be no truly global TV.1 6

In 1963, there were only 500 circuits available by cable fortransoceanic phone conversations. Today, Comsat's satellite,Intelsat IV, can alone handle 5000 circuits. A single TV channelis roughly equivalent to 1000 voice channels.

For a controversial, alternate viewpoint, see Appendix I.

*NASA will build no new communications satellites; this new industry is now capableof any further research needed.

18

Culture, Fads and Horror

Global satellite TV affects society in innumerable ways,some obvious and some vague. Coronations, eclipses, riots,elections, and athletic or cultural events are seen in real timefrom the other side of the world. The oneness of mankind isthus emphasized as is the concept of one world, and a shrinkingworld at that. Marshall McLuhan's work, Understanding Media,professed the concept of the "global village" which will resultfrom such communications, hopefully produchig active aware-ness of and concern for other men in other places.

"Within this decades" predicts Comsat president Joseph V.Charyk, "electronic libraries in one country could be instantlyavailable to scholars in another. Newspapers, magazines andbooks, sent by facsimile from central editorial offices, could bepublished in a dozen distant cities simultaneously. School-children in developing nations will have available, on command,the most advanced educational materials and techniques."

Fads, fashions, life styles, and behavior patterns (especiallyof students) will spread more rapidly and widely. The impact ontraditional, isolated, or conservative societies will be enormous.Societies which preserve certain values by censoring books andmovies may be unable to offset the content of transmissionsfrom neighbors' direct broadcast satellites (Appendix D).

Some sociologists foresee cultural harm from such outsideinfluences. Dr. Charles Osgood, Univ. of Illinois psychologist,believes that people of different cultures are acting more and morealike as the result of modern technology; and he isn't very happyabout the possible "homogenization of the human race." Whatcould result is a dull uniformity of mankind from pole to pole.

Issues and worthy causes have an almost immediate inter-national audience. Responses to disasters are improved becausesympathetic donors can experience the urgency of live coverage,as in the cultural emergency caused by the 1970 flood destruc-tion of Florentine art. Some believe that the process of with-drawal of American forces from Vietnam naturally followed thewithdrawal of the American public from its daily TV-broadcastfare: the immediately transmitted horrors of the battlefield."Certain truths are obviously more palatable in print; the TVwatcher cannot digest them without getting heartburn."'"

Society's Nerve System

Television, however, represents only 2 percent of theworkload of the 83-nation Intelsat communications system now

19

in operation. The biggest payoff has come in direct economicgain to world commerce. Business efficiency has been increasedimmeasurably by the satellite's ability to provide cheaper andmore reliable long-range communications. Before satellites, aWest Coast-to-Japan cable circuit cost $15,000 per month;Comsat was soon able to offer this service at a charge of$4,000.1 8 Satellite competition, reports COMSAT, forced downthe New York-to-London rates for a 3-minute call from $12.00to today's $5.40. Point-to-point communications satellites havebeen h expensive than submarine cables, and it is expectedthat eventually the breakeven distance will be reduced to 100miles or less.I 9

Undeniably, this incredible communications system isbecoming the new nervous system of our global society. Asscientist-writer Arthur C. Clarke whose fertile brain envisionedthe communication satellite long before any man-made objectwas propelled into space informed the signatories of theIntelsat agreement in 1971: "Whether or not you intend or wishit, you have just signed a first draft of the Articles of Federationof the United States of Earth.2°

Domesticate the international

Inspired by the success of Intelsat, the Federal Communica-tions Commission recently lifted a long standing ban on privatesatellite systems and requested suggestions for a U.S. domesticcommunications satellite system to provide new services (includ-ing low-cost message, data, telephone, and television transmis-sions) coast to coast and anywhere in between. One of the eightapplicants for licenses, Fairchild Industries, says its proposedsystem can cut the costs of our long-distance telephone service toone-tenth of the existing rates.2 I Because U.S. long distancephone calls total over $6 billion a year ($6,561 million in 1970), itappears that the savings in this area alone could exceed the spaceprogram's current budget.

Eight other large firms have also applied. The businesspotential is very high indeed, because new- customers appearevery day for communications services: major banks, stockexchanges, law enforcement agencies, hospitals, computercenters, airlines, hotels, and corporations with functions such asinventory, purchasing, sales, shipment, or production-controldata.

On August 3, 1972, Western Union Telegraph Co., prior toFCC final approval, announced that it had ordered three com-

20

munications satellites from the Hughes Aircraft Co. to transmittelegraph signals, data communications, and internal "privateline" messages for major businesses. It moved in advance ofapproval of its license in order to realize savings by buying thesame satellite Hughes had just finished building for Canada.2 2

A spokesman for the National Cable Television Associationanticipates that cable systems around the country will beinterconnected by way of domestic satellites into a nationalcable network." And due to time zones, communicationssatellites could enable computers to be used and shared econom-ically around the clock across the nation and throughout theworld. Recently, for example, engineers in Argentina, workingon a complicated bridge building problem, punched data into akeyboard in Buenos Aires and received solutions a few minuteslater from a computer in Massachusetts.

The Invisible Mesh

A synchronous satellite can see nearly half the Earth'ssurface. This creates the potential for an infinite number ofcommunications connections for every point within the satel-lite's huge cone of visibility." It is the equivalent of anunlimited number of crisscrossed' cables and land lines whichwould constitute a global communications mesh, Commercialoperations of this equivalent began with the satellite, Intelsat3-F6. The system is called Multi-Destination Communications.The next operational step, already in use in a few countries, isthe Demand Assignment System. It allows a country such asChad, which has little international telephone traffic, to dial intoa pool of frequencies set aside in the satellite and to beconnected through one of them to any other country which thesatellite can see. Argentina now telephones Peru, and Chile talksto Brazil, for example, where no telephone lines cross the Andesand the jungles.

Copper Versus Air

To achieve these capabilities even partially, the conven-tional wire and cable methods would have to put millions ofadditional tons of copper in the ground, The cost of copperwould become exorbitant. There probably would not be enoughcopper to do the job. So here a NASA development is conserv-ing a short-supply natural resource not only for the U.S., but forall nations.

21

Consider the cost savings! The developing countries will notneed the billions of dollars for materials and labor required to setup a conventional system. Their communications network can beachieved in a small fraction of the time normally required.

Consider what this will mean for vast countries like Canada,mountain-strewn countries like Ethiopia, or island-sprinkledcountries like the Philippines and Indonesia. A transmit-and-receive earth station that costs about $2 million is the price ofadmission to the 83-nation Intelsat system. This can connect anation's existing telephone, television and other services to theoutside world. Many nations have achieved a comparable leap inthe field of transportation by going directly from ox cart toaircraft, by-passing the historical steps of roads and railways.

Bicycle-TV and Population Bombs.

India will soon be a beneficiary. NASA's ApplicationsTechnology Satellite-F is planned for use by the Indian govern-ment in 1975-76 to beam mass instructional broadcasts intocommunity TV receivers in 5,000 villages (Fig. 8). India willprepare and transmit the information on topics such as health,agriculture, sanitation, and population control. In some remoteareas the T

; sets may he powered by batteries charged by solarcells; in other, by men pedaling bicycle-driven generators.

Figure 8. NASA's Applications Technology Satellite-F (ATS-F) communi-cations will beam instructional television programming to more than 5000Indian villages, beginning in 1975.

22

Figure 8a. Artist's concept of a community instructional session in anIndian village. (Courtesy of General Electric Co.)

Emphasis will be placed on family planning, the key to anyfuture for India. The basic concepts will be presented partly bypuppet shows in the tradition of the generations of India'straveling puppeteers. Some officials believe that India can stopits population explosion only by mass communications via itsown direct broadcast satellite. Only this, they feel, can projectthe "unique authority and impact of the TV set into everyvillage in the land."

The Good Life in the Bush

People in the developed countries cannot imagine theinformation starvation experienced by the villagers of a back-ward nation. The villagers have little or no access to knowledge.Ignorance, superstition, and illiteracy are both causes and resultsof poverty in a self-perpetuating cycle that runs for centuries.Social planners believe that this cycle can be broken by educa-tional satellite TV.

In some countries it may be the key to overcoming problemsof tribalism and of multiple languages. In newly emergingcountries it will be important in creating a national cohesiveness.

An article in the London Express described the impact ondeveloping nations, and those with frontiers, in an interestinglight: "Men need information, news, mental stimulus and enter-

23

tainment. For the first time in 5,000 years, a technology nowexists which can halt and perhaps even reverse the flow from thecountry. to the city. The social implications of this are profound;already, the Canadian Government has discovered that it has tolaunch a satellite so that it can develop the Arctic. Menaccustomed to the amenities of civilization simply will not livein places where they cannot phone their families, or watch theirfavorite TV show. The communications satellite can put an endto cultural deprivation caused by geography. It is stratge tothink that. in the long run, the cure for Calcutta may lie 22,000miles out in space."'

The Mid-Ocean Traffic Jam

In a recent issue, Fortune magazine said: "Because of theabsence of mid-ocean surveillance, transatlantic flights mustfollow a preset course that, for safety's sake, keeps planesspaced 120 miles apart laterally, as against eight-mile spacingover the contintental U.S., with its extensive navigational beaconand radar networks. There is only one shortest and mosteconomical route across the Atlantic between any two points,and as traffic has increased many planes have had to be divertedfarther north or south of this route, in order to maintainseparation, at added costs in fuel, time, pilots' pay, and otherexpenses. A space satellite system is the only hope.',2 5 Theeconomic penalties of non-optimum flight paths will mount asthe current 400 aircraft per day aterage rises to almost athousand by the year 1980. "This could cost airlines an averageof $1000 per flight and by 1980 could total some one milliondollars per day. ,,2 6

In January 1971, the White House's Office of Telecom-munications Policy directed the Federal Aviation Administrationto initiate a pre-operational satellite services system on leasefrom commercial sources.

Synchronous satellites are proposed because each maintainsa direct line of sight with some 63 million square miles of theearth's surface and the airspace above it. Two such satellitesspared some distance apart could provide any properly equippedcraft within their view with a precise fix on its position (Fig. 9).In addition, by automatically reading out data from an airplane'sinstruments, the satellites could relay back to ground controlstations the exact identity, position, altitude, speed, and bearingof all craft within their huge cones of vision. Here are all theessential elements of a coherent anti-collision, traffic-controlsystem ... on a global scale.

24

Figure 9. Traffic control system in which two geo-synchronous orbitsatellites continuously monitor for ground controllers the progress of a planein flight. The traffic control of hundreds of aircraft simultaneously will bepossible with this method, pinpointing locations to within a mile.

"This is Your Captain Not Speaking"

Millions of passengers have been unaware that "modernaircraft continue to operate in transoceanic areas with marginalhigh frequency communications"." This means that there areperiods of no radio contact with the ground. If an emergencyforced a plane to ditch at sea it could be an hour or morebefore ground control is aware of any trouble. Such delay wouldadd to the hundreds of thousands of square miles which wouldnowadays have to be searched. A satellite surveillance systemwould not only pinpoint the aircraft location within a mile, butits reliable communications could conceivably allow air /sea

25

rescue teams to be on the way even before an aircraft in distresshad hit the water. NASA's applications satellites have alreadydemonstrated the feasibility of uninterrupted communicationwith transoceanic aircraft in paving the way for an operationalsystem to improve public safety.

Satellites of the Sea

The Merchant Marine has begun to capitalize on satellite ad-vantages. Recently, the 1T&T Corporation installed in the Britishcargo liner, Prometheus, the system utilizing the TRANSITnavigation satellites which the U.S. Navy and the Royal Navyuse to position ships to within a quarter-mile. Britain's NauticalAdvisor to Ocean Fleets, Capt. A. C. Sparkes, says: "This newtype of satellite navigator will pay for itself in one to threeyears through the saving of time and fuel." The U.S. Depart-ment of Transportation has ordeicd a study to determine thecost of adding a navigation and/or a position surveillancecapability to a satellite system designed primarily for maritimecommunications.

The Comsat Corporation is experimenting with the CunardLine's Queen Elizabeth 2 to prove the feasibility of establishinga high quality and reliable 2 way communications link from shipto ship or to shore stations. It could improve shipping manage-ment, safety and passenger service. The Queen carries an 8 footparabolic antenna for communicating via Comsat's Atlanticsatellite INTELSAT IV (Fig. 10).

Exxon and Sun Oil Co. engineers are investigating with NASAthe feasibility of precisely locating by satellite the Gulf Streamand other powerful currents which meander daily. The warmGulf Stream shows up clearly on an infrared photo from aweather satellite. If ships knew the location of its core, theycould ride it going north and avoid it going south. The U.S.Maritime Administration is exploring with NASA an experimentto utilize satellite weather photos transmitted to commercialocean vessels. The stakes are high: avoidance of the delays,hazards, and damage of storms, plus speed of passage viacurrents.

Senator Mike Gravel of Alaska has said that he will askNASA to include an ice monitoring system into the NIMBUSprogram and that he may press for compulsory use of TRANSITnavigation equipment on every tanker serving U.S. ports. Hebelieves, "We could improve navigational accuracy on the highseas by a factor of ten, and accuracy means safety and lesschance for collision and pollution."2 8

26

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AZ ..' ........ ---

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Figure 10. An Intelsat IV generation sateiiite, with dimensions approximately18 feet high and 8 feet in diameter and weighing almost 3100 pounds.

People in Fire

In the area of public safety society is being affected innumerous other ways. For example, NASA recently showed theresults of its fire prevention research on 3200 non-metallicmaterials by demonstrating hundreds of fabrics, coatings, andother substances that will not burn. They are finding use inprotective clothing, hospitals, building materials, aircraft, and

27

automobiles. In one test, a C-47 fuselage was placed in a pool ofburning jet fuel to simulate a crash condition. The forwardsection had conventional insulation, while the rear test sectionhad NASA-developed foam insulation (polyisocyanurate). Within2 minutes, the air temperature in the forward section was above500°F. In the NASA section it was about 100 °F. After 5minutes, this section was still under 150°F. The Avco Corpora-tion, which conducted the tests for NASA, reported that theapplication "of the foam to passenger aircraft will dramaticallyincrease the time for rescue and survivability."29

The need for such NASA-developed knowledge was high-lighted in Congressman Robert Steele's testimony before theNational Commission on Fire Prevention and Control when hesaid: "The United States experiences a per capita death rate fromfire that is twice that of Canada, four times that of the UnitedKingdom, and six-and-a-half times that of Japan."

The Issue of Intellectual Hostility

Shortly bcfore his death Bertrand Russell applauded theskill and courage of the moon flights, but doubted that theywould contribute to wisdom, thought or enlightenment. "It isfor us to grow to the level of the cosmos," he wrote, "not todegrade the cosmos to the level of our futile squabbles." Britishhistorian Arnold Toynbee compared the moon landing to thevain building of the pyramids or the palace of Louis XIV atVersailles. He lamented man's staying "practically stationary inmorals and social behavior, while so marvelous in his technol-ogy." Philosopher-historian Lewis Mumford complained that weshould be exploring not space, but "the innermost recesses ofthe human soul." Such spokesmen imply that man wouldsomehow be a better creature if he had not gone to the moon;or that he should have tried to become a better creature bydoing some other (unspecified) activity in place of going to themoon.

The literary world's "almost total recoil from the SpaceAge" plus the attitudes quoted above spell out at least anon-endorsement of the space program by the intellectuals.Social critic Thomas Wolfe takes it further, describing "thephenomenon of the intellectuals' amazing hostility to NASA'ssuccess in reaching and exploring the moon."3° 'He believes, infact, that Norman Mailer's lengthy book Of a Fire on the Moonwas actually "a-: announcement that the whole enterprise wassterile." Writer Edwin McDowell summarizes, "What Mailer and

28

other critics, home and abroad, were really saying, according toMr. Wolfe, is that these nonintellectual Americans may haveaccomplished a feat but the feat was worthless."31

And so the argument sizzles, with opponents driven toextremes of opinion. Columnist D. J. R. Bruckner declares, "Ifall we get from them is knowledge, science research budgets willsuffer. We have trimmed away the funds for scientific research,for high energy physics, for space research. Americans will stunttheir uncle standing and lop off pieces of their minds to savemoney. This is the economizing of brutes and barbarians. I, forone, would rather be counted a citizen of that nation whichopened up the heavens and sent men to the moon than one of anation which built more highways than any in history, or wasricher than any in history, or which . . . at unspeakable cost,went to Vietnam."32

Response of the Artists

"The camera sees everything and understands nothing,"believed Honore Daumier the great 19th century artist. NASAcame to appreciate the sigr.ificance of this statement early in itshistory. Although several hundred cameras recorded everyinstant of activity during major launches, the photo record hadcaptured only the cold facts. NASA Administrator, Dr. Thomas0. Paine, observed "... the emotional impact and hidden mean-ing remain within the scope of the artist and the poet." Heconcluded ".... we have a solemn obligation to leave for futuregenerations a truthful record at all levels of perception, and forthis the imagination and insight of the artists are invaluableassets."

NASA acted on these beliefs in collaboration with theNational Gallery of Art, and began an effort to create an artisticrecord of American space activities. Dozens of America's fore-most artists were invited to the centers of NASA activity andhad carte blanche to sketch and paint whatever interested them.They functioned on a slightly more than expenses-only basis,although some of these were people whose paintings sold in the$60,000 bracket. All paintings became the property of the spaceagency and many are included in a large exhibition sent on tourof the U.S. by the Smithsonian Institution.

Several who were invited did not participate. Regarding hisinvitation, one artist said in a Life interview ("Tom Benton atEighty"): "I just put it out of my mind. What can I do to makea painting of a damn rocket? You'd show it better in a moving

29

picture." Benton elaborated on his feeling: "The harmony manhad with his environment has broken down. Now men build andoperate machines they don't understand and whose inner work-ings they can't even see. That is why I still prefer the estheticsof a steam engine to a jet plane, or a Model T to my own car.You could observe the insides of these machines. Their partshung out all over the place and you could see them work againsteach other. When you can't see something, how do you expectit to move you emotionally?"33

The artists who participated prowled launch facilities atCape Kennedy, lived the mission control dramas at Houston,observed Apollo recovery operations at sea, and visited the testfacilities at the Goddard Space Flight Center. Their works wereassembled in a large book entitled Eyewitness to Space (H. N.Abrams, Inc., Publishers, N.Y.) by Hereward Lester Cooke,Curator of Painting at the National Gallery of Art. The artistsare described as varying "... from the most conservative to themast avant garde, yielding a fantastic range of sensibility andimagery." They included men with styles as diverse as RobertRauschenberg, Jamie Wyeth, Norman Rockwell,. and DongKingman.

It has been said that the artist is the weathervane andprophet of history in the making. The Director, of the NationalGallery of Art, J. Carter Brown, explains, "He records what hesees, adds what he knows, remembers and feels, and thusimmeasurably expands our knowledge." Mr. Brown feels that theunique insight of the artist on-the-spot captured the essense ofearlier momentous events, many involving exploration from the17th to 1.9th centuries. The artistic, historical and social valueswere very clearly expressed by Mr. Cooke in his orientation forthe artists (Appendix J).

The artist responded and left a legacy of sensitive andperceptive impressions of one of history's great achievementsthrough the intimate, human medium of his eye and hand.

Where Are the Poets?

One of the most perplexing aspects of the exploration ofspace is its minimal influence on literature, especially poetry. In1963, Newsweek stated, "The literary world has its own expla-nations for its almost total recoil from the Space Age. 'More hasto happen,' says Stephen Marcus, assistant editor of the PartisanReview. 'We have to land a man on the moon before the writerscan go ahead. It's still machines. It's got to be humanized.' "

30

Numerous lunar landings have since occurred but, with oneor two exceptions, the writers did not "go ahead." Yet theingredients for epic poetry were at hand. Mythology wasequalled and exceeded. Man rose toward the Sun on a columnof fire. Automatic creatures took wingless flight through thedust of Creation to explore other worlds. Men fell day upon daytoward the planet. Spacecraft circled us amidst vast silences andspoke a telemetered tongue. Voyagers struggled home aboarddamaged vessels meteorically ablaze. And from the poets, yearsof silence.

An explanation is ventured by the eminent poet, JosephineJacobsen. She is the current Consultant in Poetry, situated atthe Library of Congress. Her objectivity is apparent; a recentwork is "The Planet" (Best Poems of 1970, Pacific Books, PaloAlto, Calif.). "Writers," she believes, "are all tied up with humanbeings. In contrast, most writers I know see space activities asthe result of a government program, not in terms of anadventure of the human spirit. To them space flight is not anachievement like Lindbergh's; it's more like something done by acorporation. Incredibly, some of them do not even feel thatthere is someone pushing back the limits of science.

"In addition, they are against spending money in this way,and they sense military implications. This makes them disillu-sioned and hostile. There's also the inevitable impression thatwe're going on to other things, elsewhere, instead of remedyingthe mess we've made of this planet.

",Now it's quite understandable to poets that the paintershave expressed their emotional response to the visual impact ofspace activities, because painters can do it free from all verbalarguments. There is no appearance of endorsement, there is noverbal involvement in the program, and there is no suggestion ofpolitical docility."34

Admittedly, all space flight nowadays is part of somegovernment's program. And avoiding the status of captive poetis, of course, of urgent importance. (In fact, such a creatureseems impossible, a contradiction.) But no subject is outside thepoet's domain, and none may be-verboten. Yet on- the-subject of

with a few eloquent exceptions, the poet spoke. neitherfor, nor against, nor about. And so, to the explanations above,perhaps another should be added: the obstacle of an extremelytechnical activity and its language. Perhaps validating thisthought is the considerable poetic expression during this sameperiod by people steeped in the action ... space employees.They published repeatedly in their house organs and trade

31

magazines. These reputedly unemotional technical people sawbeauty in their exploring machines, a new oreed of vessel, andsaw mystery in their destinations (Appendix K).

This is a complex, troubling phenomenon. It puzzles KarlShapiro, Pulitzer Prize poet: "You would think that the poetswould be the first to leap in delight at such apparitions astelevision and missiles to the moon ..."" Additional explana-tions for the non-participation may emerge with time. Mean-while, it continues perplexing to believe that a poet wouldignore lunar pioneers Armstrong and Aldrin as subject matterbecause they were government-funded. On this basis they couldeliminate Lewis and Clark. In related correspondence, poetArchibald MacLeish reasoned, "What these people are saying isthat current intellectual fashions are anti-Establishment and thatmost writers accept the fashionable intellectual rule. Which ispossibly true but doesn't change the fact that currentintellectual fashions are bad for writers. Take the anti-Establishment cliche and apply it to the background of mythout of which all truly creative work comes. Who ran theexpedition against Troy? What was Odysseus? Lear? No, thetrouble with the space voyages as material for poetry is not that`the government' pays for them (who paid for Columbus?) butthat the voyagers serve not only as explorers, but as guinea pigs.But that only means that the voyage is exploration in moredirections than one. Poetry needs to step back a step and seethe whole a man in space. Will it reject that perspectivebecause it rejects 'the Establishment'? I think it improbable."' 6

Mark Twain Was Wrong

A humanitarian application of satellites lies in weatherforecasting. The weather 'satellite's greatest boon to date is itsability to save human lives by a forewarning of destructivestorms. Before the satellite, a storm could frequently be bornunobserved at sea and sweep into an inhabited coastal zonewithout warning, driving a wall of water before it, and wind-ripping towns into kindling. Despite the weather satellites whichthe U.S. is now flying, disasters still can happen in countrieswhere communications systems are insufficient to carry thewarnings. In November 1970, a cyclone struck Pakistan at theGanges River delta and flattened thousands of heavily-populatedoffshore islands, killing more than 300,000 people.

The U.S. itself narrowly averted massive tragedy in 1969from Hurricane Camille, a storm carrying 200-mph winds that

32

did hundreds of millions of dollars' damage. The weather serviceestimates that 40,000 lives would have been lost without earlyaccurate warning of Camille's path. Satellite photos gave thewarnings immediacy and believability, and convinced people toevacuate. The death toll numbered hundreds, not 40,000.

Not Since Noah

The National Geographic magazine, in describing the valuesof weather satellites, included predictions of floods and said"Not since Noah has man had such authoritative warning of highwaters to come."31 The satellites observe the extent of snowbuildup and send the information to computers which estimatethe impending runoff.

Such satellite warning permits flood control reservoirs to belowered in advance to provide storage space. There is no way toidentify, let alone evaluate, the damage prevented and the livesspared in a flood that did not occur.

The Ten Thousand Probes

Weather is a global process. It requires satellite observation.Nothing else will allow development of the understanding we needto achieve long-range weather forecasting ability (Fig. 11). Therecent Nimbus III satellite proved the practicality of acquiringvertical profiles of temperature and water vapor measurements ofthe atmosphere. It provided every day, electronically from orbit,the equivalent of 10,000 conventional atmospheric probes byrocket. As a result, there are improved wind analyses for theincreasing numbers of aircraft flying in the stratosphere.

Big Synch is Watching

The ultimate weather view awaits the synchronous meteor-ological satellite (SMS). It will always watch the same largeregion of earth. Goddard Space Flight Center has contractedwith the Philco-Ford Corporation to produce such a satellite foroperational use by the National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration in 1974. It will provide advantages to meteor-ologists by letting them study the actions of entire weathersystems.

APT and the High School Wizards

Meanwhile, the current weather satellites beam down theirimmediately broadcast APT photos (automatic picture transmis-

33

SAS1 !My 71102S Oftambit 105145

Figure 11. Two views from space of the same region at'approximately thesame time. On the left is a visual (TV) image; on the right is an infrared (heatradiation) image. Recognizable land masses are (A) California, and (B) theBaja California peninsula, Mexico. In comparing these images, note thedramatic intensity differences in the (C) cyclone, (D) cumulus cloud cells,and (E) "pipeline" cirrus clouds. The high, thin, cirrus clouds (E) arealmost invisible in reflected light (ESSA 8); however, they appear bright(being high-altitude, cold clouds) in the infrared image, better enabling themeteorologist to analyze and predict weather.

sion), in visible light and infrared, to over 50 countries whothereby Team of the daily weather patterns over their ownterritory. These nations thus profit from improved air trafficrouting, marine navigation, water management and protection orevacuation of threatened areas. APT pictures are received onportable oscilloscope sets costing under $10,000, including theantenna. Some high school weather clubs have built sets for about$400, working from a publicly available NASA document (NASASP5080).

34

Navy aircraft carriers equipped with APT sets accomplishmore flight training per cruise because they Jose less timesearching for cloud free areas acceptable for practice exercises.APT photos could also help a vessel hide from aerial recon-naisance and locate relatively calm areas for rendezvous pointsto transfer supplies, fuel, and men at sea.' 8

Sea Ice and Raisins

A fascinating operational use of weather satellites is theirice mapping capability. The Fleet Weather Facility has global..responsibility for forecasts of sea ice conditions for the U.S.Navy. Its director told NASA, "The Nimbus IV satellite imageryprovided to this command by NASA is of inestimable value. Ourice forecasters, using your product as a base, are just nowconcluding a successful season in the Antarctic with no reportedice damage to shipping."39

Direct cash savings are occurring because satellites areimproving weather forecasting. Consider the San Joaquin Valleyof California where the raisin crop is worth $100 million. EachSeptember it must be sun dried (Fig. 12). If more than a tenthof an inch of rain is forecast the drying raisins must be covered.This costs from $100 to $200 thousand a significant percent-age of a year's profits, and it requires up to 24 hours advancenotice. Satellite data is an essential ingredient in improvingforecasting reliability in that area.

Preparations and Other $

Areas which lie in the path of a hurricane must takeextensive precautions to minimize damage. For the city ofMiami alone, the preparation cost har; been calculated at twomillion dollars for a single storm. Satellite photos minimize thepossibility of false alarms and their exceedingly high costs.4°

Savings also occur in aerial photo mapping where satelliteweather photos have increased the productivity of mappingteams by 200 to 300 percent. Such mapping requires accuratepredictions of clear skies over flight tracks of 50 miles or morein length, and only the satellite can provide that necessaryknowledge. One such project in Ethiopia was finished a full yearahead of schedule because of guidance by satellite pictures, andwith cost savings that exceeded $5 million.

Observations of the weather in the oceans and sparselyinhabited land areas surrounding the United States, impossible

35

0r

!- fM

jet :4.

*4

16, eter

Figure 12. Raisins drying in the sun, San Joaquin Valley, California.

before the advent of weather satellites, should lead to aquantum jump in .the accuracy and range of weather forecasts.

Large savings through improved weather forecasting can beexpected in the weather-sensitive sectors of the U.S. economy,because the volume of business in these industries is substantial.In agriculture, transportation, construction and roadbuilding, forexample, the total annual volume in 1970 was about $270billion, and estimated losses due to weather were in the neigh-borhood of $13 billion. A relatively modest reduction of 20percent in these losses would correspond to a $2.6 billionsavings. These circumstances lie behind the estimate of impor-tant gains to the U.S. economy from this single application ofspace technology. 4 1

Spawning and the Delivery Anomaly

Some of the offspring of space research take on a momen-tum, growth and direction of their own, yet they continueindefinitely dependent on NASA, the spawning organization.This occurs because they have no satellite launching capability.The Comsat Corporation is in this situation for its commercial

36

communications satellites, as is NOAA* for its weather satellites.Other agencies and corporations are scheduled to follow: for airtraffic control, for navigation, and for the U. S. domesticcommunications satellites. Foreign nations and consortiums (e.g.,ESRO*) are selectively provided launch service. Note that halfof the scheduled NASA launches for 1972 are for otherorganizations than NASA (Appendix L).

An anomaly emerges. NASA, created to research anddevelop so that others might use its results operationally, hasthus itself become' operational. This is welcome at the launchsites for it increases experience and the use of facilities. Ofsignificance to society is the development of an orbital deliveryservice, available for the benefit of science, commerce, communi-cations, resources management, and public safety to governmentagencies, corporations, and friendly nations. Compensation forthis specialized, highly technical service goes by law to theTreasury Department and cannot be used to reduce the NASAbudget (Appendix M).

The Allocation of Talent

Views clash on where the technical talent of the nationwould be best employed. Nobel Prize physicist Max Born said,"There is the claim that a country which does not take part inspace travel will remain behind in all these areas (electronics,fuels, metallurgy), and will not be capable of competition.Against this stands the fact that the technique of space travelabsorbs a high percentage of available brainpower and withdrawsit from other purposes. It is questionable whether the damagethus inflicted upon the overall economy is balanced by thebenefits. A pure blessing seems not to be hiding here."42

This opinion seems to be supported by certain compari-sons: "One recent study showed that eight European countrieswhose combined Gross National Product was one-third that ofthe U.S, had three times as many engineers, scientists andtechnicians engaged in civilian-oriented R&D. Comparisonsbetween the U.S. and Japan are even more striking."43

Vigorous dissent is voiced by those who believe thatspace-developed technology will permeate industrial society. Onedefender asks, "Do they really believe that scientists, engineersand managers in other areas are not going to avail themselves of

NOAA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationESRO, the European Space Research Organization

37

new scientific knowledge, new alloys, and new ways of workingthem, new inventions, new devices for refining tolerances andupgrading standards, new techniques for radically improvingmanagement? Do they really believe that these new andadvanced things required to be taught and learned in graduateschools and research centers and industry will be put to use onlyby those who actually go into aerospace careers? History hasalways proved the converse to be true. The effect of straining,reaching and developing new muscle and sinew in a particularfocus of technological advance has always proved, sooner orlater, to be all-pervasive.""

This dissenting opinion emphasizes that the talent andtechnology actually is available in America but is inadequatelyutilized for domestic products, pointing out that "Between50,000 and 65,000 engineers and scientists are unemployed intheir own fields as a result of aerospace and defense layoffs,high academic output, scarce research funding and the sluggisheconomy. Unless national policies change, says a new NationalScience Foundation report, there will be a surplus of 41,700Ph.D. engineers and Ph.D. scientists alone by 1980, not tomention lesser degree holders."'"

"The City That Waits to Die"

Thus titled, a Time-Life documentary film explores SanFrancisco's earthquake history and prognosis. San Francisco,astride the infamous San Andreas fault, is a wing-walker amongcities, casually doing ordinary things in an extraordinary setting.Her citizens accept the inevitability of serious, perhaps disastrousearthquakes to come. They intend to rebuild if necessary. Thatrequires survival, which requires evacuation, which requiresadvance warning. But no pre -quake detection system exists.However, a current satellite experiment is designed to seekindicators.

Current theory about the surface of the earth sees it as aseries of continent-sized blocks (called tectonic plates) slowlymoving past each other. Where these plates are in contact witheach other, a fault or fracture in the earth's crust exists. On theeastern side of the San Andreas Fault the continental U.S. isthought to be moving southward at a rate of 3 to 4 centimetersper year with respect to the other side. When friction along thefault impedes the local movement of tectonic plates, the energyof the plates' motion is stored along the fault until the frictionalrestraining forces are overcome and the earth's surface along thefault line "snaps" to a new position. This happened in 1906,

38

producing the disastrous San Francisco earthquake. Since thattime, that section of the San Andreas Fault has been locked andstrain is again being stored.

NASA will conduct this experiment and provide the datafor analysis and utilization by the U.S. Geological Survey, theNational Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration and ColumbiaUniversity scientists. They hope to measure to a precision of afew centimeters the distance between two widely separatedpoints (about 600 miles) at opposite ends of the Fault and onopposite sides. By simultaneously measuring the distance to apassing satellite from these two laser tracking sites, the distancebetween the two sites can be calculated more precisely than byconventional methods. Repeating this measurement over severalyears will enable the relative motion of the two tectonic plateson either side of the fault to be determined. This informationwill be important in the study of the relationships betweenslippage, rate of energy storage and energy releasing along afault. Hopefully it will contribute to our eventual alleviation ofsome of the problems of earthquakes.

The Management Push

Management skills are basic to the productive strength of acountry. These have been tremendously advanced in the U.S. bythe space program. New management systems are now availableto us for planning and controlling the millions of actionsrequired over a period of years by thousands of people on anylarge project the nation may undertake. Revolutionarycomputer-based developments have been achieved to implementthese systems, including equipment, mathematical techniques,and programming languages.

Ford Taps the Bank

Hundreds of the resulting adaptable computer programshave been sold to American industry at a fraction of theiroriginal development cost by NASA. They are available fromCOSMIC, the computer program bank at the University ofGeorgia.

The Ford Motor Company purchased from COSMIC aNASA-developed stress analysis program called NASTRAN and isusing it in the design of its vehicles, especially on steeringlinkages and suspension systems. This program analyzes stressesin complex structures under load, heat and vibration. Ford callsit "an extremely powerful tool," which has so far achieved a

39

60(); improvement in accuracy and detail, and a 2/3 time savingfor calculations predicting the behavior of components understress. Ford has reported a savings of S12 million per year fromNASTRAN.

It's the System

Space developed "systems engineering" techniques are nowbeing applied to the design and development of tasks innon-space fields. The laser cutter for the clothing industry, forinstance, was achieved by a systems engineering team whichinvestigated 42 methods of doing the job. The tools of systemengineering include analytical techniques, systems modeling,requirements specifications, design reviews, and test programs.The method is being used to design hospital complexes, improvelaw enforcement, reorganize court procedures, develop transpor-tation systems, distribute electrical power, and design suchsystems as the 500-mile project for moving water from Northernto Southern California. The non-space needs will be met sooner,cheaper, more effectively, and more reliably because of thesystems engineering approach developed for space requirements.

Bearing the caption, "The North American Rockwell Co.Where Science Gets Down to Business," a center fold ad in TimeMagazine told one of the results of the "systems engineering"story this way:

"Heard what happened when the people who helpedput men on the moon, began exploring the textile andfashion industry?"They built a new kind of knitting machine Electro-Knit 48. But this is no ordinary run-of-the-mill knit-ting machine. Every one of its 1700 needles is elec-tronically controlled. It can change patterns in the fewseconds it takes to change a computer tape fasterthan a girl can change her mind, or her outfit. It givestextile mills greater flexibility, larger patterns andquicker response to the market than ever before."ElectroKnit 48 wa'. developed by engineers from ourTextile Machinery Divisions working directly withsystems engineers from our Electronics Group."

Shock and Follow On

In the field of education, the benefits of space research areprofound and continuing. A bonus for the educational system of

40

the U.S. resulted from the Russians' many space firsts. TheirSputniks burst on an astonished world with all the impact of apsychological atomic bomb. Nationwide fear and embarrassmentresulted, and American educators responded and improved ourscientific educational practices at all levels. Curricula changed.New maths and physics appeared. Instruction in other scienceswas radically altered and updated. American policy makerspassed the National Defense Education Act of 1958 in anattempt to improve the educational system. The support fromthroughout the nation was so strong that it withstood theagonies of massive educational restructuring and the cost.

The Four Year Book Gap

NASA actively disseminates its research findings to educa-tors, short-cutting the 4- to 5-year gap from discovery of newknowledge to appearance in a textbook. In the January, 1970,edition of Social Education, the . periodical of the NationalCouncil for Social Studies, is this statement: "The curriculumpublications of the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-tion (NASA) are far ahead of anything educational publishershave produced."

In addition, the research facilities of U.S. universities havebeen substantially improved. In the 1960s, NASA grants fundedthe building of research centers at 34 institutions for work inspace science, materials research, biomedical investigations, andpropulsion studies.4 7

Link Rio Grande do Norte

The prospects for reducing illiteracy in every society of theworld have been brought decades closer because global educa-tional television via satellite is now possible. A request fromBrazil is now under evgluation by NASA for a year's excorimentaluse of ATS-F to directly broadcast classroom instruction into 500schools throughout the state of Rio Grande do Norte in thenortheast corner of the country. An operational system of thistype could help overcome a severe shortage of teachers in sparselypopulated rural areas.

Dr. Arthur C. Clarke concludes, "The emerging countries.may need rockets and satellites much more desperately than theadvanced nations which built them. Swords into ploughshares isan obsolete metaphor: we can now turn missiles into black-boards."

41

Tune to 2.5 GHz

In Geneva, in the summer of 1971, the World Administra-tive Radio Conference considered frequency allocations for awide variety of space applications. Especially significant was theallocation of 2.5 GHz for educational purposes. The implicationis that educators and government officials are preparing forsignificant educational uses of communications satellites. Theplanners are mobilizing. For example, the University ofWisconsin has created an educational satellite center (dubbedEDSAT) for multi-disciplinary study of the satellite's educationaland social applications, and to develop hardware, systems.methods, programs and models to most effectively utilize satel-lite broadcasting potential.

The way is also being paved by experiments by Dr. S. P.Mar land, Jr., Commissioner, U.S. Office of Education: "In thefirst experiment we have established a unique two-way radiohookup to assist teachers in 21 remote native villages in Alaskato improve both their own skills as well as the educational farethey can offer their pupils. Actual transmissions by means of aNASA satellite (ATS-1) began late last month, providing thesevillages, most of which are without telephone service, a combina-tion of in-service training and other support for teachers as wellas the means for conducting forums on educational health andnative cultural topics. The teachers can also use the communica-tions system mutually to reinforce their performances by talkingto each other from village to village as well as to a centralsource of consultants located in Fairbanks.

"We are also planning to use another NASA satellite, asomewhat more complicated device that is scheduled to belaunched in March 1973, for experimental educational telecastsand broadcasts to remote areas of the Rocky Mountain States,many of which are inaccessible to conventional educationalbroadcasting."

The New Vantage Point

In the field of science, spacecraft have given investigatorswhat can only be described as "a new vantage point" (AppendixN). Without it we would be unable to conduct much of thestartling new research in radio astronomy, X-ray astronomy, andhigh energy physics. Vast gains in knowledge have alreadyoccurred and may find practical application in the near future. Forexample, here is a portion of an interview with the volcano andearthquake scientist quoted earlier Dr. Goles.

42

QUESTION: "What difference does it make, forinstance, that we can now measure the distance to themoon with an accuracy of one fdot rather than theprevious accuracy of a quarter-mile, thanks to theemplacement of a laser beam reflector on the moon?"

GOLES: "It makes a great deal of difference. Ifwe measure Cite distance to the moon from otherpoints in both Europe and North America, and thenrepeat those measurements in 10 years, we'll know forsure whether or not the continents are drifting apart.Such direct observational confirmation of the theorywould give us a great deal of confidence in some otherthings that the theory suggests about the structure ofthe earth. We might, for one thing, gain a betterunderstanding of some of the mechanics behind earth-quakes and volcanic activity, and I think anyonewould agree that a better understanding of just thosetwo things would be of very direct importance tohumanity."

Lunar Dust and Planet Gases

Concerning the moon, experiments at NASA's LunarReceiving Laboratory showed that lunar dust mixed in ordinarysoil stimulates many plants to grow faster and several timeslarger." This action of the moon dust has dramatized theimportance of trace minerals in metabolism and is rejuvenatingexperimentation in this aspect of plant nutrition. The motivationis timely, because fertilizers can take us just so far in increasingthe world's food production.

Conversely to this spur to plant life, the lunar dust hasproven lethal for certain types of earth bacteria. The mechanismfor producing this effect is not yet known.

In studying the atmospheres of planets, NASA is trying tolearn how they became what they are. Our own atmosphere ischanging and we need to know what we are doing to it. Forexample, in the. last 70 years the amount of carbon dioxide hasincreased 8 percent, We need to know what the effects may befrom such changes, and what controls may be needed. We needsome very smart people thinking about planets, knowing whathas happened to planets, and what can happen to planets. Thepossibility of subtle, gradual atmospheric changes reaching apoint of irreversibility may exist.

43

"Uhuru" and The New Astronomy

Space flight is giving astronomers powerful new tools suchas NASA's Orbiting Astronomical Observatories (0A0 series),because satellites provide the only practical means for makingfull-range observations in the radio, infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray,and gamma ray wavelengths. Some wavelengths are blocked byearth's atmosphere. The knowledge gainable by observing stars inways other than by visible light at grourid level is dramatized bycomparing photos in different wavelengths of the same area ofthe sky (Fig. 13). The satellite "Uhuru "* recently found a .r,tarin the Milky Way that pulses X-rays for nine days and thenstops pulsating for 27 days.

Some stellar objects emit energies at prodigious rates,suggesting that we may be witnessing new, powerful modes ofenergy production very different from those we know about.Newsweek magazine gives an idea of these energies, saying, "Thepower of a quasar is to an H-bomb what an H-bomb is to anordinary light bulb."" Recalling that our present-day know-ledge of nuclear energy stemmed from studies into how the sunoperates, we can speculate that satellite astronomy may eventu-ally yield results of practical importance.

In his speech accepting the 1970 Nobel Prize for his workin plasma physics, Swedish-born scientist Hannes Alfven pre-dicted that the direct study of plasmas in space is likely to leadto the ability to achieve control of thermonuclear fusion power,an ability currently eluding earth-bound scientists.

The Pursuit of Excellence

In 1907, William James said in an address at RadcliffeCollege, "Democracy is on trial, and no one knows how it willstand the ordeal ... What its critics now affirm is that itspreferences are inveterately for the inferior ... elbowing every-thine superior from the highway; this they tell us is ourirremediable destiny." James did not believe this doctrine, buthe knew that free men, men not driven, must drive themselvesto high standards or their society will not survive. John Gardner,in his book, Excellence, says it very well: "The importance ofcompetence as a condition of freedom has been widely ignored(as some newly independent nations are finding to their sorrow).

The Swahili ward for"Freedom."One of the Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS) series, itwas launched from a sea platform in the Indian Ocean, off Kenya, for an equatorialorbit.

44

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In a society of free men, competence is an elementary duty. Theidea for which this nation stands will not survive if the highestgoal free men can set themselves is an amiable mediocrity."

Fortunately, this nation has repeatedly set difficult goalsfor itself, and free men have indeed been their own hardtaskmasters. Space exploration falls in this category. Further, itset example, something much more vital in a free society than ina driven society. After Roger Bannister ran the first four-minutemile, other runners soon duplicated the feat. A free societyneeds such outstanding pace setters, in multiple activities, or itsstandard will be mediocrity. It also needs outstanding organiza-tions. Because of the workmanship examples of the spaceindustry, for instance, the standards for industrial performancehave risen throughout the nation. This is especially true in theareas of precision, cleanliness, quality, and reliability. Manyorganizations have seen what can be done and they are follow-ing.

A significant question was recently put to Congress byRepresentative Jerry L. Pettis, "I ask my colleagues, Mr.Speaker, how many other programs that they have voted formeet the same standards required in the space program? Howmany other programs have provided stimuli of this significanceto oui youth and to our country ...? Certainly it is a programof excellence, setting a high standard for our people and theworld."

The Zero-Defects Society

There has also resulted an awareness of the recurring highperformance levels which people can ask of themselves. Theconcept of "zero defects" which was applied throughout theApollo program demonstrated the capabilities of people to doerror-free work. But the space effort didn't start with thecapability; it had to be built step by step.

The loss of a screwdriver at Cape Kennedy ten years agoforced a launch cancellation and return of the rocket to thefactory for disassembly. There the tool was found. The incidentmotivated engineer Philip B. Crosby to found an organization tostudy and help eliminate causes of human error. Called theAmerican Society for Performance Improvement, it concentratedfor years on the aerospace industry with the precept "Do it rightthe first time." The principles learned have since been appliedelsewhere and are set forth in the ASPI's Performance Improve-ment Handbook, recently co-authored by I I men who have

47

instituted and directed performance improvement programs fortheir own companies. Commending the publication, Representa-tive Charles Gubser reported that the main thrust of the text ishow to go about putting theory into practice "... in acontemporary society that raises its children to consider 30%error acceptable."

Response of the Doctors

Benefits to society abound in the field of medicine. Fromstudies of the astronauts here and in space, some extraordinarynew knowledge has been acquired concerning the human organ-ism and its functioning. Most medical research has focused onstudies of the sick. The medical research on astronauts hasprovided an extensive and detailed body of knowledge onsubjects in superb health.. This program has been a forcingfunction in the study of the human organism. New medicalknowledge has emerged in various areas including hypothermia,cell evolution, circulatory physiology, metabolism, bodyrhythms, environmental effects and stress, medical instrumenta-tion and education, data collection and information systems, andhospital planning and design.

Hundreds of space-based materials, methods, ideas, andapparatus have emerged for use in the health care field. Suchapplications are not occurring at random. Special groups areunder contract to NASA to actively seek answers to medicalproblems. Dr. Carl G. Baker, Director of the National CancerInstitute recently wrote: "I want to express my deep apprecia-tion for the support of NASA's Bio-Medical ApplicationsTeams."5° One problem said, "It would be desirable to have afrozen storage 'bank' of white blood cells for leukemia patients,but white cells are destroyed by existing freezing proceduressince the rate of temperature change is nut constant (a cooling .

rate plateau occurs due to latent heat release at the freezingpoint)." Engineers at the NASA-Goddard center took this problemand achieved the constant freezing rate needed.

For an excellent summary of the advances in space-relatedmedical research, consult "Space Age Research and Medicine" bythe E. R. Squibb Co. (See Reference 48.)

Fireflies at Johns Hopkins

NASA's latest contribution to medicine was announcedrecently, a device for detecting bacterial infection in urine

48

f

Figure 14. NASA researchers examine the readout paper from a new bacteriadetector that is hundreds of times faster than the standard culture technique.

samples (Fig. 14). It takes only several minutes, versus thestandard and less reliable culture growth technique that requiresup to four days. The device uses a substance (luciferase) fromthe tail of the firefly. When this chemical contacts any livingorganism, it flashes. Photoelectric devices measure the minutebursts of light created when this substance is contacted byinfectious bacteria. Urinary tract infections are associated withmaladies such as kidney/bladder disease and diabetes. This makesthe examination of urine one of the most important andfrequently done tests in the clinical laboratory today. The JohnsHopkins Hospital, co-developer of the device, sees it as the firstpractical application of automation in the field of bacteriology. Itresulted from NASA research into ways of detecting life on otherplanets.

49

Hammocks, Hearts and Hips

Because of such developments, a basic idea of immensebenefit to society is catching on in medical circles: the value ofutilizing space-oriented companies to solve medical engineeringproblems. For example, Baylor University's Medical School gavethe Grumman Aerospace Corporation team at Houston thisproblem: develop a means to transport a donor's live heart andlungs to a distant patient who cannot be moved. Grummandeveloped a nylon hammock to suspend lungs and heart within achamber, and a spray fog ring to maintain the required 100percent humidity. Previously, the organs had been immersed in asaline solution and had become "waterlogged."

Implantable heart pacemakers of a unique design have beendeveloped by the Applied Physics Laboratory in conjunctionwith the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions. Existing pace-makers are four times as large and require replacement at about20 month intervals due to battery exhaustion. The new pace-maker will not require the risk or cost of repeated surgicalentries because it can be recharged by magneCc inductionthrough human skin. Its miniature electronics and rechargeablenickel-cadmium batteries were originally produced by the Labora-tory for use in spacecraft (Fig. 15).

In another instance, the Moore and Hanks Co. of Californiamarkets an operating room developed for the Hollywood Presby-terian Hospital, with super sterile conditions never beforeachieved. They used the environmental controls and the laminarair flow techniques they had developed for the "clean rooms" inwhich NASA spacecraft are assembled. Surgeons are now safelyperforming artificial hip joint installations in rheumatic arthritisvictims, an operation in which large incisions must remain open for.,everal hours. Formerly, thousands of such cripples had little hopeof finding a surgeon willing to perform this operation because ofits unacceptably high rate of infections 1

Bleeding in Alaska

A promising area for improving health services for the publiclies in the use of satellites for communicating medical informa-tion. NASA has received proposals for experiments in this field,and tests are underway. Even in the test phase lives are beingsaved. On Oct. I, 1971, two women were dying in distant villagesof Alaska, one due to appendicitis and the other to hemorrhaging.In a striking demonstration of the value of static-free satellite

50

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communications. doctors transmitted emergency instructions viathe ATS-I. This satellite, orbiting at 22,300 miles, south ofHawaii, provides medical communications to 26 Alaskan villagesin a test program by NASA and the National Institutes of Health.

Some spokesmen see the need for a medical servicessatellite in synchronous orbit. Others believe that channels canhe rented from commercial satellites and used to carry medicaland public health information. Either way, an isolated or remotecommunity using its own antenna could draw upon the facilities,experience, and skills existing at a distant medical center.

Backwoods Radiologists

Medical satellite communications could include live colorTV. radio conversations, electrocardiogram and facsimile trans-mission, interrogation of computerized medical libraries, andteletype-to-teletype transmissions. Medical education programsfor health personnel at the remote locations could becomestandard practice. The consultative service of specialists wouldbe available. Diagnostic assistance or vital instructions in emer-gencies would be vastly improved.

One radiologist reports that in the rural areas of his statethere are no medical personnel with the skill for interpretingX-rays. Consequently, the photos have to be shipped to a distantmedical center where there are trained radiologists. Meanwhile,critical hours or days are passing for the patient. In themanpower-short field of radiology alone, prompt transmission ofX-ray and fluoroscopic pictures via satellite would vastlyimprove medical services.

In a January 1972 press release, the Duke UniversityMedical Center announced a 50,000 mile transmission of fluoro-scopic examination video tapes through NASA's satellite ATS-1with the received pictures of the same quality as those trans-mitted. Doctors said, however, that more research is requiredbefore acceptable X-ray pictures can be so transmitted.

Orbits and the Surgeon General

The Surgeon Gcneral's office in the U. S. Public HealthService is helping in the planning of future photographic obser-vation satellites. What possible interest could the Surgeon Gen-eral have in data relayed from a satellite 500 miles out in space?The answer is malaria. "Malaria is still a vicious scourge in manyplaces. Malarial outbreaks tend to occur in the vicinity of newly

52

cleared land, and new clearings show up conspicuously inpictures taken at high altitude."' 2

The Coming Way to Reduce?

On the Reader's Digest's 50th anniversary. Time magazinewaggishly commented on the unrelenting optimism of theDigest's articles and indicated that there should be no surprise tosomeday find one entitled "New Hope for the Dead." Not quitethat extreme is a possibility emerging from NASA research thatmay provide "new hope for the obese." It developed fromexperiments in which chickens, quail, mice, rats and rabbits livedon a centrifuge for over six months at two to five times normalgravity. These animals ate twice as much of the same diet as acontrol group living at normal gravity, or one "g." Yet they didnot fatten. The chickens, for instance, had behaved in a verylogical manner and had activated a mechanism to reduce theload their legs had to hold up under the increased gravity. Thechickens remained perfectly healthy (Fig. 16).

The apparent cause of the weight reduction is a substancewhose production is defensively increased by increased "g"force. It is a hormone-like substance, protein-like in nature,produced by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus. This secretionis similar to that found in the humAn disease known aslipodystrophy and has "fat mobilizing" properties which allowedthe animals' fat to be utilized for energy purposes rather than tobecome stored in body tissues. When this substance was adminis-tered to other animals at one "g," they lost body fat.

Experiments with this substance are continuing at theUniversity of California at Davis. The optimists arc hoping thatit will prove out in rigorous testing to truly be a "fat mobilizingsubstance" and to have no detrimental side effects. Then, if itcan be synthesized for production in commercial quantities, itmight become for obsesity what insulin became for diabetes.This is speculation at present, but we do have a promising cluein the research effort to control fat production in humans.

Time for Inventory

Now, consider resources. While we are the crew of this bigspacecraft called Earth, it is apparent that someone else put thesupplies aboard; and He has hidden some of them rather well.NASA has launched the first in a series of satellites to help findsome of the earth's scarce resources and to help manage the use

53

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Figure 16. Healthy chickens of the same age raised on the same diet. Theexperimental Chicken was centrifuged for 200 days at gravity levels of 2 "gor higher. This stimulated secretion of a "fat mobilizing substance" whichallowed body fat to be consumed for energy purposes rather thanaccumulated in tissues.

of certain others. The early spacecraft, called ERTS (EarthResources Technology Satellites) are intended only for testingequipment and methods.

More than 700 experiment proposals for the analysis ofERTS data were received by NASA from the U. S. and foreigncountries. The data's potential value is recognized world wideand scientists of 40 countries are participating in experiments.The New York Times on 2/23/73 quoted scientists about theERTS-1 (launched the prior July) as "a success beyond ourwildest dreams." Canada has become the first foreign nation toinstall its own station for obtaining data directly from ERTS inorbit. Over $500,000 of special equipment was purchased fromRCA and installed at the antenna site in Prince Albert,Saskatchewan, and at the Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing inOttawa. A similar station is being installed in Brazil.

A recent Wall Street Journal article said, "The value ofERTS-type information was demonstrated by the Apollo 9

54

astronauts, who photographed Taiwan's southern peninsula incolor. The waters to the west of the peninsula have been afishing ground since ancestral times. But the waters to the eastare turbulent and largely unexplored. The Apollo 9 photographshowed that there could be as many fish in the eastern area asin the western. A research expedition later found this to be thecase. 'This one photograph of Taiwan could double that nation'sfish yield,' says Dr. Robert E. Stevenson, a Governmentbiologist."s 3

But Why Satellites?

Some ask. "Why not simply fly appropriate sensors inairplanes?" William A. Fischer of the United States GeologicalSurvey estimates "it would take 20 years for aircraft to assembleas much data as could be acquired by a single robot satellite inthe 18 days the robot would take to completely survey theEarth from pole to pole."54 In addition the satellite data wouldbe up-to-date.

However, the potential is so great that some smaller scaleinventories of natural resources are already being done byairplane. Algeria is being so surveyed by Litton Industries with(1) sensors seeking radiation from thorium, potassium anduranium, and (2) magnetometers sensing variations in the mag-netic field due to subsurface geology differences sometimesindicative of oil, gas, or water deposits.s s

Data at Sioux Falls

The Wall Street Journal further reported that by 1975 theoperational satellites, to be called EROS (Earth ResourcesObservational Satellites), will have followed ERTS and should beflying. The Department of the Interior has contracted $4.8million for construction of an earth resources data center atSioux Falls, South Dakota, to process information from thesesatellites.

"The EROS program plans eventually to inventory theglobe's resources with a hitherto unattainable efficiency. Amongother things, it would show the health of crops, the sources andextent of pollution, the existence of forest fires, the location oficebergs, and where commercial fish may be. It could indicateunsafe locations for new cities, the possible locations of oil andmineral deposits, and sources of fresh water near the surface.The sensors EROS will carry can penetrate various thicknesses ofvegetation, snow, soil, or cloud cover to gather information."5 6

55

Here is the "Forcing Function" at work again (see p. I 1).These initial surveys of earth resources are, in the words ofNASA Administrator Dr. James C. Fletcher, the "... beginningof a whole new industry in aircraft and satellite operations, dataprocessing, sensor development and so on ..."

The Ground Truth Requirement

"Establishing 'ground truth' information is an indispensablefacet of the ERTS system.* For instance, each variety of fishgives off a distinctive oil slick by which it can be identified. Butthis 'signature' must be established by direct examination of theobject before it can be programmed into the system and usedproductively."57 Recognition of a "signature" will vary with thetime of day, the season, the amount of shadow, the stage ofgrowth, wind movement of crops, and the angle of observation.But once the identification is made, the signature can beaccurately picked out of a multitude of other signatures auto-matically for computer recording and processing into interpretivedisplays.

Sensor development is continuing in aircraft overflights ofknown territory. Recent flights with infrared film producedphotographs which distinguished between fields of lettuce, oats,carrots, onions, peppers, and other crops." Airborne sensorscan also detect fresh water sources (Figs. 17a, b). Precious freshwater has been found seeping into the ocean from the HawaiianIslands and from our continental shelf.

The Price of Meat

The Washington Post of April 2, 1972, said, "Very fewhousewives noticed 18 months ago when nelminthosporiummaydis southern corn leaf blight struck the American farm.They are noticing now. For that attack of corn leaf blight isprobably the single most important fact explaining the recentsurge in food, especially meat, prices. The increases have badlyscarred the administration's wage-price control policy." In the yearof the blight, 1970, about 15% of the U. S. corn crop, some 710million bushels, was destroyed. The price farmers had to pay forfeed increased and was eventually passed to the consumer.

F or the process of applying ERTS1 data to farming, see Appendix 0.

56

Figure 17a. Photo from Apollo 9 showing area east ofBirmingham, Alabama.

Earlier detection to allow control of blight in corn andother crops appears feasible. The Department of Agriculturereports, "Scientists have begun learning to detect from the skyplant disease, insect infestation, and drought before a man onthe ground can detect them." The General Electric Co., workingon ERTS-type sensors believes, "Satellites could monitor cropconditions and help predict diseases and droughts and even soilconditions to aid in preventing the spread of blights." Hardevidence for these prospects emerged from the joint research ofNASA, Purdue University, and the Indiana Agricultural Experi-ment Station: "Results indicated that the disease was detectable

57

Figure 17b. Photo of same area taken at the same time with an infrared filterand film. Because water shows up black on infrared film, a very sharpcontrast of the waterways with the surrounding vegetation and terrain results.This film technique has been used in the problem of dam weakening to findsuspected leakage points.

from aircraft at altitudes ranging from a few thousand feet toabout 60,000 feet, using advanced remote sensing technol-ogy."' 9

Underdeveloped AND Underinformed?

Questions regarding the dissemination of such economicallyvaluable data need to be faced. It will soon be technicallypossible for an advanced nation to obtain more informationabout its underdeveloped neighbors' resources than they know,

58

thus acquiring potential economic advantages.* President Nixonhas told the United Nations General Assembly that as the EROSprogram "proceeds and fulfills its promise," it would be dedi-cated "to produce information not only for the United States,but also for the world community." Training programs inaircraft-based sensing programs were offered to member nationson the model of the NASA-Brazil and NASA-Mexico "groundtruth" cooperative flight projects. Three months later (December16, 1969) the General Assembly adopted a resolution entitled"International Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space"inviting "...member States with experience in the field ofremote Earth-resources surveying to make such experience avail-able to other member states which do not have suchexperience..."

Where Poppies Grow and Locusts Go

The International Narcotic Control Board has been unableto obtain accurate information on the number and specificlocation of opium producing poppy fields. Congressman LouisFrey regards this as "one of the greatest weaknesses in presentnarcotic enforcement efforts." NASA is investigating with theDepartment of Justice the remote sensing of drug-producingplants. Mr. Frey reports: "It is believed that poppy fields assmall as 10 acres can be detected from ERTS-type satellites.Poppies cannot be concealed; they must grow in direct sun-light."6 ° ,6 Such detection plus cooperation between nationscould produce worldwide elimination of illicit production of thisscourge.

One accepted experiment came from researcher D. E.Pedgley of the Anti-Locust Research Center in London, fordetecting from ERTS data the potential locust breeding sites ofsouthwest Saudi Arabia.

Forward into the Past

An archeological experiment was among the 700 proposalsNASA received for the ERTS satellites. The proposer, Dr. JohnP. Cook of the University of Alaska believes that certain instru-ments in orbit may detect the locations of vanished com-munities. He reasons that over generations of use these areasbecome layered with materials which make them observably

For U. N. debate on this issue, see Appendix P.

59

different from the original territory. The accretion of importedmaterial and community waste eventually changes the chemicalproperties of the village soil. It becomes distinguishable from itssurroundings when viewed by multi-spectral scanning instruments.

Elmer Harp, Jr., of the Department of Anthropology,Dartmouth College, believes of such remote sensing imagery that"Ultimately, I suggest, we may penetrate to the stage of aboriginalpreliterate societies, perhaps even to pre-historic levels ofPaleolithic culture."' 2 By this means we may gain more know-ledge of past civilizations, perhaps including societies previouslyunknown.

The Flyby Interrogator

ERTS is successfully pioneering another concept of greatpotential. Numerous data-collection platforms equipped withtemperature, humidity, wind-speed and other instruments havebeen set up throughout the U. S. and its coastal waters. Data isradioed up to ERTS, which then beams it to central receiving siteson the ground for use by meteorologists. Sensors located instreams and rivers beam data to ERTS, providing advance warningof floods.

Dr. Wernher Von Braun wrote recently: "Many additionaluses of the ground-to-ERTS data-collection system have beensuggested. One example: Tiltmeters a type of precision levelgauge could be installed in the craters of some 220 active ordormant volcanoes. Since volcanic eruptions are invariably pre-ceded by a volcano's subterranean 'magma chamber' filling up, apassing satellite could relay changes in tiltmeter readings to aground computer; endangered regions could then be alerted."6 3

Nature and Other Polluters

Nature has done a lot of polluting on her own. Thevolcanic eruption of Krakatoa in 1889 and of Katmai in 1918caused variations in upper atmosphere turbidity with globalimpact on many biological processes (Appendix Q). Thisnaturally-produced contamination eventually subsides. One dif-ference with man-made pollution is that it does not subside; it iscontinuous and increasing. The significant chilling of the globesince 1950 cannot be accounted for except by the accompany-ing sharp increase in the concentration of fine particles in theupper atmosphere in the same period.64 Another difference isthat the man-made pollution forces are controllable. However,

60

control can succeed only after identification of the pollutingsource and constant monitoring of that source. The problem isglobal and the monitoring technique will have to be global.Satellite sensing thus offers great promise for the detection ofpolluters. Without detection and control capabilities the environ-mental degradation will continue, for as the famous Pogo of thecomic strip so accurately observed, "We have met the enemyand they are us."See You In Court

Specialized instrumentation is already being used (New YorkHarbor) in airplane tests to trace pollutants. NASA researchershave developed radiometers for detecting and determining the sizeof oil slicks, and distinguishing between light and heavy oils. Thiscan help to identify the polluter. In a recent legal dispute,Vermont used images from the ERTS-1 multi-spectral scanner toshow that pollutants plume from a paper mill on the New Yorkshore of Lake Champlain.

Radioactive Garbage

The wastes from atomic power plants now in operation areaccumulating at an increasing rate. Currently they are beingstored underground in metal tanks by the countries utilizingnuclear reactors. Traces of plutonium, with a half life of 24,000years, remain in the waste. There are proposals to store thiswaste in abandoned salt mines. Queried on this, the Chairman ofthe Atomic Energy Commission, Dr. James Schlesinger, said: "Inaddition to that, we are exploring other methods of disposal,including encouraging NASA to look into the cost of shootingthese high-level radioactive wastes into the sun taking themright out of the world. Now, this would depend on developmentof the space shuttle (approved by President Nixon on January 5,1972), and that is a decade away. We hope to remove thesewastes permanently from the environment of man."65 Disposalinto interplanetary space, using Jupiter's gravity field as a slingshot, "could result in a cost of one tenth or less of the cost ofwaste disposal into the sun"6 6

The Longer Arm of the Law

For the protection of society and the rights of a suspectthere is need at the time of an arrest for a high-speed verifica-tion of any prior criminal history. Courts in many states expectno more than a 4 to 8 hour delay between arrest and initialarraignment hearings. Currently, fingerprints are transmitted tostate central files or to the FBI. They normally go by mail

61

because of the need for accuracy. A seven to ten day period isgenerally required to obtain a reply. The FBI receives about30,000 print sets a day.

The ATS-I satellite was recently used in a finger printtransmission test funded by the Law Enforcement AssistanceAdministration (LEAA). Conducted by the State of California,for a consortium of 20 states seeking to apply technology forthe improvement of law enforcement, the experiment sent printsfrom Los Angeles through the synchronous satellite to centralfiles in Sacramento. They were verified within minutes. Printsincluded sets from actual suspects and these resulted in "hits" oractual identification (Fig. 18). Paul K. Wonnelli, coordinator ofthe experiment, said in Business Week (Jan. 29, 1972): "TL,ns-mission of fingerprints with land lines would be very expensive. Adedicated satellite might cost as little as $15 million. We couldprobably pay for it with the money saved in LEAA's travelbudget."

Some officials express a need for satellite facilities shared ona national basis for many functions in law enforcement includingdata, video (conferences, training, coordination, etc.), and voicecommunications (particularly useful in disaster control), as well asdocument transmission. It is significant that "a computer interfacelink is already carried by satellite between the Honolulu policesystem and the California Highway Patrol... "6 7

Food and Disaster

The precautions taken with food for the astronauts haveled to new and improved methods of processing, preserving andsterilizing edibles. Dr. Werhner von Braun summarized the needand some effects as follows: "It now seems that the foodindustry, facing increasing problems in the use of food additivesand nutritional quality, may be able to draw on NASA'sextensive knowledge about food processing, preservation, andnutritional value. We have extremely rigid requirements for thefood we supply the astronauts since any type of food systemfailure would have grave consequences. Food must be free frombacterial contamination; it must be of high, known nutritionalvalue; it must be stable without refrigeration under wide temper-ature variation for long periods of time; and it must be capableof fast, reliable and fool-proof preparation.

"Using NASA-developed methods, certain foods can beprepared and stored for emergency situations. If a disaster

62

3 RIGHT MIDDLE 4. RIGHT RING S F.

r4

L,marFligG

,p,

10. I

RIGHT FOUR FIN

Figure 18. Fingerprints as received after transmission through the synchro-nous orbit satellite ATS-1 by the California Crime Technological ResearchFoundation.

occurred, the food could be immediately shipped to the strickenarea with no loss in preparation time and no need for refrigera-tion." A report titled "Food Technology" describes NASA'sresearch in the effects of processing, preserving and additives onthe nutritive value of foods.6 8

Burros, Sensors and "Host Rocks"

There is a scientific basis for the optimism about the use ofsatellites in prospecting for minerals. In a recent article in

63

Foreign Affairs, these thoughts were expressed by Dr. RobertJastrow and Dr. Homer E. Newell:" "The prospector and hisburro are essential in the search for mineral deposits. but aircraftplay an important supporting role, and so should satellitereconnaissance in years to come. In some cases geological faults

cracks in the earth's crust which are likely to be associatedwith ore deposits can be seen in photographs taken fromorbit. In other cases the presence of a buried ore deposit issignaled by a particular type of rock on the surface. Experienceshows that an ore deposit is often surrounded by a special kindof rock, known as the 'host rock' for that type of ore. Sincedifferent kinds of rock reflect sunlight in different ways, wide-area photographs of the region taken from a satellite can revealthe telltale host rock that indicates an ore deposit.

"The stakes are high in this game. One estimate places theyield from potential satellite discoveries of mineral deposits inthe United States at S2 billion a year in royalties alone. Thetotal value of mineral deposits discovered each year by ordinaryprospecting on the ground in the United States, Canada, andMexico amounts to roughly $10 billion. It is possible thatseveral times this sum could be the global yield from majorimprovements in mineral prospecting. Here we reach the neigh-borhood of tens of billions of dollars in direct economic benefitsfrom a single application of satellites. These gains would dwarfthe investment in the underlying space technology.

"Mining activities in northern Canada illustrate the eco-nomics of satellite prospecting versus ground prospecting. Asingle rock outcropping near Kitt Creek in Ontario led to thediscovery of the famous Timmons deposit, one of the world'slargest bodies of copper, zinc, gold and silver. This single find isestimated to have a value in the neighborhood of $10 billion.The find was made by a lucky fluke when a prospectorstumbled across a small outcrop of ore that gave him a clue tothe massive treasure-lode lying beneath the surface.

Geologists believe that many deposits as rich as the Timmonsfind may exist in the area because it belongs to one of a number ofbelts of green schist a type of rock deposit frequently associatedwith rich ore. The total area of the belts in this region is roughly100,000 square miles. The terrain is too rough for jeeps or burros.Recovery of its mineral wealth requires systematic exploration ofthe entire region on foot, by prospectors stopping every hundredyards to collect soil samples for laboratory analysis. Tens ofmillions of dollars would be required to complete a survey of thisone region. A complete exploration on foot is a workable

64

approach in principle, but forbidding in practice because of theprohibitive cost."

Minerals in the Tree Tops

"The same analysis applies a fortiori to the still moredifficult terrains of Brazil, equatorial Africa and Southeast Asia,in which a heavy cover of trees and vegetation makes groundexploration exceedingly difficult and expensive. The availableevidence suggests the presence of large deposits of mineralwealth in these regions. Again it seems incredible that a satellitehurtling through space hundreds of miles above the surface ofthe earth should be able to detect mineral deposits concealed bya heavy tree-cover. But an example will indicate how this mightwork. Research has shown that trees growing in metal-rich soilabsorb the metallic elements of the soil into the structure oftheir cells. As a consequence, the tree leaves reflect sunlightdifferently from leaves on the same type of tree growing nearbyin ordinary, metal-poor soil. The rest of the story is clear:Measure the intensity of reflected sunlight over a continentalexpanse of forested regions by means of instruments mounted ina satellite, and look for the critical patterns that betray thepresence of mineral deposits.

"As a test of this method, measurements have been madeat tree-top level at a site near Cooper Creek. Arizona. Theyshow large differences in the reflected sunlight from two neigh-boring trees, one located in soil with a high abundance ofcopper and molybdenum, and the other growing nearby inordinary soil. The tree growing in the metal-rich soil reflectstwice as much yellow light as the tree growing in ordinary soil,but half as much blue light. This combination is an unmistakablesign of the presence of the metals. Such measurements obtainedfrom a satellite can be used to guide the prospector to themineral wealth of millions of square miles, with a great saving intime and money."*

Factories Aloft

Also of great potential for society are the products whichcan come from manufacturing in space. General Electric Co.foresees the fabrication of crystals up to 6" in diameter in zerogravity. On earth they can't exceed 11/2". They could find use as

For other evidence of satellite utilization in prospecting, see Appendix R.

65

very large power transistors. or. if made of pure quartz, asoptical blanks for lenses of near perfect quality. These large.homogeneous and pure crystals are prime candidates for com-mercial space manufacturing even at today's cost of spacetransportation,

It is expected. without gravity's stratification effects, toproduce a foamed steel having the weight of balsa wood, butmany of the properties of solid steel. Also possible are metals ofa purity not attainable on earth.70

The levitation-melting technique is expected to producealloys and composites with maximum intermixing of constitu-ents, minimum contamination, and previously unachievableuniformity. On Earth, the desired embedded fibers or particleseither float or settle, but in space this should not occur.Materials of superior characteristics are expected to be formed.Extensive work in these experimental areas will be done in themanned Skylab missions.

Electrophoresis Sans Gravity

The first zero gravity experiments in materials processingwere conducted on Apollo 14. One employed the principle ofelectrophoresis which utilizes an electric field to cause directedmigration of organic molecules having an electric charge in anacid or alkaline solution. With gravity's influence removed, theelectrophoresis technique can separate different molecules toprepare organic materials of uniquely high quality for valuableroles in medicine and biological research (Appendix S).

Some pharmaceutical firms are working on vaccines forviruses that sicken or kill humans. One process consists ofbreaking the virus and extracting the protein of its skin todevelop the vaccine. Unfortunately, the genetic material insidethe virus frequently causes tumors in mice. For a human vaccinethis material would have to be completely removed. The bestforeseeable centrifuges will apparently not be able to do the job.Pharmacologists believe that electrophoresis processes in zerogravity aboard spacecraft might do it and produce a great boonfor mankind.

Other scientists wish to use space electrophoresis to sepa-rate blood cells. Immunologists believe there is more than oneclass of lymphocytes, or white bood cells. One apparently resistsviral infections. The other resists bacteria and the presence inthe human body of foreign matter (such as a kidney transplant).At present, only space electrophoresis holds promise of being

66

able to provide the purity and quantity needed for clinical use.Success could allow removing from the patient's blood thoselymphocytes which reject transplants while leaving in the typewhich resist infection.

Prophets of Profits

Almost totally unknown to the American public are thevery serious ideas coming from industry for generating a profitfrom manufacturing operations conducted in space. With punrecognized, these operations could be the highest of the high-technology activities of American industry. If pilot plant opera-tions bear out the promise, the products manufactured couldnot be duplicated by any non-space nation. Our balance of tradecould be favorable for decades. The volume of business potentialis described by Mr. Daniel J. Fink, a vice president of GeneralElectric Company: "It has been estimated that by the end ofthis century the total value of electronic materials and biologicalsmanufactured in space could run upward of $15 billion."

This estimate is supported by the following table from"Manufacturing in Space Payloads for the Space Shuttle" by L.R. McCreight and Dr. R. N. Griffin.7 I Conservatively, it omits anyestimate of markets for new metals, composites of materials, andthe new class of highly refractive glass which would allowsignificant size reductions with equivalent optics performance.

NASA's planning for research in space manufacturing in-cludes experiments to be flown on the Skylab spacecraft and in

Table I. Predicted Space Manufacturing (ElectronicMaterials and Biologicals) in 2000 A.D.

Product

ProductQuantity/

Year(Tons)

S/PoundProductValue

(SMillions)

Shuttle Flights/Year at25,000

Pounds/Load.._Electronic Materials

Float Zone RefinedSemi-Conductors 70 to 250+ 450 60 to 225 6 to 20Oxide Crystals 10 to 50 1,000 16 to 100 Ito 4

BiologicalsVaccines I 100K to I M 12000 to 15000 10

Blood Cells 10 1,000 20 10

67

"sortie labs" placeable in the payload bay of the Space Shuttle(Fig. 19). It is hoped that this development work will lead topilot-plant manufacturing operations in permanently orbitingspace stations, with some full-scale commercial manufacturingstatus for urgently needed items in the 1980's. By the turn of thecentury space manufacturing may account for a significantfraction of all space operations and be an essential function in theworld's economic activity.'

Who Owns the Sky?

Professor James Allen of the University of Colorado be-lieves that space exploration will compel creation of a new legaland judicial process and approach to the problems of inter-national law. The United Nations is hard at work on thisproblem. Allen asks, "How far does national sovereignty extendbeyond the narrow band of atmosphere?" Such questions causehim to say "I maintain that the principal challenges of space liein the broad field of government and society. It is there that its

I'

,,,- e''t?

,lye i -"- -4 -.11 c'e- ,4.:1

,-54...,.,01/-

.% ,.

4

NASA HO MT71-717110-1-71

Figure 19. Artist's concept of a "sortie lab" to be carried in the cargo bay ofthe Space Shuttle. Modular units like this will serve as laboratories forexperimental work in materials science and manufacturing in space.

68

effects will be felt, as have all technical progress of the historicalpast."

Domestically, he is already right, for the executive andlegislative arms of government are now grappling with solidproblems from the vacuum of space. One area alone, communi-cations satellites, has been the subject of Presidential policypronouncements, Congressional filibusters, and policy participa-tion by the Departments of State, Defense, aid Justice; theFederal Communications Commission (FCC); and the New YorkStock Exchange. The FCC is beset by a flood of issues stemmingfrom the desire of TV broadcasting companies to orbit theirown satellites for private carriage of programs. Included arequestions of monopoly, rate setting, frequency allocation, andinterpretations of the meaning of the policy phrase "in thepublic interest, convenience and necessity."

Canada's Equatorial ResourceApparently no nation is going to "own" the sky, but some

seek to beat potential rivals to utilization of choice locations.Canada's "Chapman Report" of 1967 recommended to the PrimeMinister that Canada take immediate steps to claim an 18,000 milelong equatorial band at 22,300 miles orbit (between 75°W and115°W longitude). It feared that some other nation would stationa synchronous satellite there and that the "territory" would be"lost forever" to Canada's need for a domestic communicationssatellite system. The report continued: "This territory should betreated as prudently as Canada's water resources. It should beshared, rented or sold only on terms that are good for Canada.""Ironically, Canada's operating system now leases circuits tosubscribers in the U. S.

The Law of the Void

A Soviet Draft Declaration for a U. N. resolution declared"Sovereignty over outer space or celestial bodies cannot beacquired by use or occupation or in any other way." TheCanadian recommendation for preemptive use of a space area isonly one of a growing number of space related issues societymust cope with..,hopefully by agreement, regulations or inter-national law.

The subject is primarily the province of the United Nations,where a body of Soace Law is being developed." It is notmerely an extension of aviation law, although some acts havealready begun to fall under existing rules. For instance, the

69

International Telecommunications Union has added to its juris-diction problems of interference with space communications.

The nature of the space business makes some types ofaccidents conceivable and credible. A few primary areas ofliability appear to be: falling boosters, spacecraft and debris;collisions of spacecraft or of spacecraft with aircraft; inter-ference with communications; provision of erroneous naviga-tional information; and nuclear and biological or other pollution.Rapidly developing technology makes it imprudent to attemptan exhaustive list.

To cover some of the areas of liability, the U.N. hasconcluded a treaty called the Convention on InternationalLiability for Damage Caused by Spacr Objects. There is no dollarlimit on claims. It covers aircraft in flight or objects on earthwhich are damaged by objects falling from space; it also coversdamage one spacecraft may do to another in space. At present theU.N. treaties and resolutions are self-policed, self-denying ap-proaches to conflicts on such issues and ownership or control ofspace resources.

The legal framework includes: numerous U.N. resolutions: the1967 General Treaty of Principles on the Exploration and Use ofOuter Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies; atreaty banning nuclear weapons tests in space; an agreementregarding commercial communications satellite systems; and anagreement on the rescue and return of astronauts plus the returnof objects launched into outer space. Most of the U.N. work is theresponsibility of the Legal Subcommittee of the Committee onPeaceful Uses of Outer Space, created in 1959.

Silent Sentries

The security of society is advanced by certain spaceactivities. Dr. Edward C. Welsh, formerly of the Nationil SpaceCouncil, says "... we are using space to increase our alertness todangers and to lessen the likelihood of aggressive action byothers. .." Emphasizing the value of observation satellites tonational security, Time magazine recently said, "Aside frommaking telescopic spying and communications eavesdroppingmore effective, a well-outfitted space lab can easily detect thethermal wake left, for (-xample, by a nuclear submarine.' Therecent book "Secret Sentries in Space," suggests that satelliteshave considerably diminished the danger of war through miscalcu-lation by allowing the major thermonuclear powers to examineone another's military installations in exact detail.76

70

The potential influence of observation satellites on con-ventional warfare is intriguing. General MacArthur's successfulamphibious end run recapture of Seoul in the Korean War couldprobably not proceed in secrecy today. Of more recent vintageis the India-Pakistan war which created the nation of Bangla-desh. The aerospace magazines reported that the USSR sent upseveral "quick look" satellites over a period of days to see whatthe U. S. 7th Fleet was doing. The intelligence obtainedsupposedly accounted for a Russian naval force arriving in theBay of Bengal on the heels of American vessels.

Counting the Tubes

Former Vice President Hubert Humphrey emphasized thereconnaissance satellites' value when he said, ... "I don't think it'sany breach of security to tell you that I have seen pictures of theshipyards in which the Soviet "Polaris" submarines were being built.And the picture was so accurate that we could tell how manytubes the submarines had."" Progress since then has yielded aninspection tool for making arms limitations agreements practical.

Dr. Wernher von Braun believes that, because of satellites,"secret military moves by any nation will be almost impossible bythe year 2000." To achieve these security benefits, others believe,"We cannot afford to allow the Soviet Union to dominate space.No matter what the treaties say about peaceful use of space theywill be useless if there is none to challenge a violator. We do notyet know the extent of the military value of space domination. Itcould be supremacy over the earth. At present the U. S. alone iscapable of seeing that it does not happen."7 8

Drama and Value

The areas of effect on society far exceed what have beenconsidered here. For instance, public participation. It is a factthat hundreds of millions of TV viewers were personally in-volved in some of the greatest dramas in man's history ofexploration, participating as it occurred.

Participation generated personal opinions. A recent tax-oriented letter to a newspaper said, "It cost me $4.97 forApollo 15, it cost me the same for a recent record album Ibought. Which has given me more for my money?"79 For many,America's manned flight achievements often seemed like theonly good news around in the 1960's. For others, manned flight

71

demonstrated what they called "NASA's stunt man philos-ophy."

A Profit Grubbing Society?*

Neither have we considered world opinion. An article in theLos Angeles Times said: "Little we have done recently hasevoked as much admiration as our achievements in space. Itwould be unfortunate it' curtailing our space objectives strength-ened the foreign image that views America us a wholly material-istic, profit grubbing society striving almost exclusively forimmediate gain."80

And in terms of international influence: Dr. Foy D. Kohler,former U. S. ambassador to Moscow believes that "Sovietinfluence in the world increased by leaps and bounds after Sputnikand the U. S. was hard put to hold its own." He explained: "Anation's reputation for leadership and technology is regarded as abasic political factor, a basic factor of the power potential of thatnation. And other nations that don't have it take note and trimtheir sails accordingly."

America's National Style

Some observers believe that one element in PresidentKennedy's lunar landing decision was ". straightforwardbalance-of-power politics" as an instrument of American foreignpolicy, and that space competition was "... part of an effort tocontain the expansion of Soviet power."8 I Dr. John Logsdonbelieves that the decision to compete in space technology was "areflection of the American national style." This style is based onour experience from the Puritans to today of directing Americanenergies at a mastery of nature, not a mastery of people. This isencouraging, for as historian and philosopher Salvador deMadariaga observed, "It is from men who act on nature, and donot merely suffer to be acted upon by her, that history flows."

Dr. Logsdon also believes that the reasons for the lunarlanding decision were "political, not military," and consistent withour historical attempts "... to spread our way of life bydemonstrating the economic and social success it has produced."Walt Rostow has explained this ideology-export drive as a survivaleffort, saying ". . under modern conditions it is difficult toenvisage the survival of a democratic American society as an islandin a totalitarian sea."

'For a comment from 370 B.C., see Appendix T.

72

Society Impacts Space

There was willing funding When Sputnik exposed ourtechnology lag and society feared the implications. However,society has since changed its priorities, and NASA funding is nowabout half what it was in 1966. Influential spokesmen have singledout space research for attack, balancing the NASA budget againstthe elimination of poverty. Proponents of space research point outthat even total elimination of the entire space budget (which noopponent is proposing) would add only a penny and a fifth toevery 47 cents now going to social needs; and they wonder ifanyone seriously believes that this would significantly affect theproblems of schools, crime, urbanization, pollution, housing,transportation. poverty and hunger.*

Mules at Cape Kennedy

NASA Administrator Dr. Thomas 0. Paine participated in adramatic confrontation on such issues the night before NeilArmstrong's Apollo 11 launch to the moon. At the gates of CapeKennedy he discussed these complex social problems with theReverend Ralph Abernathy and the poverty marchers who hadarrived with mules and wagons to protest what they called themisapplication of the nation's resources.

Dick Gregory, nationally known comedian and a blackactivist, saw the situation differently: "I've always felt that we as anation are rich enough to get to the moon and solve the problemof poverty too. I don't agree with the people who say we shouldspend the money to go to the moon on poverty instead. We coulddo both. What happened to poverty before we had a spaceprogram? What happened to poverty before we had a Vietnamwar?"8 2

NASA has been on the defensive financially since about 1966as a result of the diverse beliefs concerning national priorities. Thesituation has led to great debates in Congress which have helpedclarify a more basic issue: the importance of technology to amodern nation.

Technology and Poverty

In today's world, technology is the scientific tail that wagsthe social dog. It should be apparent that in the name ofhumanity as well as enlightened self-interest we must maintain

See Appendix U.

73

and promote our national technology. It is not by chance thatthe most underprivileged, poverty -stricken nations are the veryones whose science and technology are the most backward andprimitive. Senator Mike Monroney once expressed the need verywell. He said: "Starving our technology mortgages the future ofour society. Twenty years ago Britain picked immediate socialgoals over technical progress. Today it is paying the price,lacking the production base to support either social or technicalprogress."

Claims and the Money

Several conclusions were recently expressed by the Presi-dent of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,Dr. Karl G. Harr, Jr. He says there is a direct and beneficialrelationship between America's space effort and:

(1) the strength and growth of our overall economy;(2) our standing among the peoples and nations of the

world;(3) our national survival;(4) our capacity to deal effectively with all national needs.

And what does it cost? The average citizen doesn't know.But he is convinced that it must be extremely high. For somereason society behaves as if the cost of the space effort isproportional to the publicity which it receives. When questioned,even critical audiences (who should be better prepared) usuallydo not know the space agency's annual budget. A frequent"guesstimate" is 20 billion dollars per year. This version stemsfrom space opponents' continual emphasis on "the cost of goingto the moon." This amount was the target price and theachieved price of the 9-year-long lunar landing national goal.

It comes as a shock to many to learn that it would takeeight years for NASA's annual budget to add up to one year'spayment of interest on the national debt. To bring the issue ofexpenses into perspective, here are some budget comparisons:83

Proposed Fiscal Year 1974Expenditures

Total for the FederalGovernment

National Aeronautics &Space Administration

74

Billions of Cents PerDollars Dollar

$268.7 100

3.1 1.15

Proposed Fiscal Year 1974Expenditures

Billions ofDollars

Cents PerDollar

Interest on the National Debt 24.7 9.2

Defense 81.1 30.2

Human Resources (education 125.5 47& manpower, health, incomesecurity, veteran's benefits& services)

Counterbudget

Some far-sighted social planners have come to realize theneed for balance in allocating national resources. It is based onthe reality that disbursing tax dollars to effect social changeinvolves the redistribution of existing wealth, but spending toeffect technological change involves the creation of new wealth.The National Urban Coalition's "Counterbudget" states that".

. . without some minimum rate of investment in research, thissociety will find itself economically noncompetitive in worldmarkets and losing ground in the struggle to keep pace withmany public problems."84

The situation becomes more urgent as we lose majorportions of our markets to foreign competition. It is not merelycompetition in cameras, watches and radios any more. Ourcompetitors' technology has improved to the point that we arelosing markets, jobs and income to them in the production ofsteel, autos, ships, electronics, heavy machinery and machinetools. Business Week reports "In recent years, U. S. imports ofhigh technology prcducts have been growing 21/2 times as fast asour exports of such items."85

We all know that the very act of spending federal moneyhas an influence on the economy. It produces at least a shortterm benefit, especially in the region where the money is spent.However, when federal funds have been directed into trulycreative efforts, there have been far greater long term benefits asa result. "Government-sponsored research has, over the years,produced the discoveries that have triggered the development ofcomputers, lasers, atomic power and many others."86 As oneeditorialist recently put it, "A nation of dam builders and leafrakers may have been adequate to stave off economic disaster inthe 1930's, but it will not suffice for survival in the 1970's."

75

Technology and the Black American

Spending to effect technological change can also producedirect social change. For example, the status of minorities inour society has been impacted by technology through thecreation of new industries which spawned new jobs and newprofessions. The NASA-propelled growth of the computer in-dustry in the 1960's opened up tens of thousands of jobs toblack citizens. Peter Drucker points out that 'there is lessresistance to the Negro in knowledge jobs than in manual jobs.Knowledge jobs are expanding so much more rapidly that theNegro is less of a competitive threat." He believes this can affectrelationships between the races: "Social status is determined atthe top of the social ladder. And the knowledge worker,needless to say, is the leading group in the knowledge society.Negro knowledge workers have been increasing at twice the rateof the white knowledge workers." Drucker believes that thegrowth of knowledge jobs is providing "the greatest opportunitythe black man has yet had in America.'"

Attitudes Toward Technology

There are large numbers of people who can applaud theyoung medical missionary administering vaccine to a nativechild, but who have no appreciation for the young chemicalengineer working the night shift in the factory producing thatvaccine. His skills and his labor and the benefits of his tech-nology are taken for granted. At least this is a neutral attitude.Unfortunately, however, there is growing in America a hostileattitude toward technology. One dramatic evidence of attitudeappeared when the men of the Apollo 15 science mission weredeploying e;Teriments on the moon. At that time there was onsale in Times Square a life sized photo poster of a fully suitedastronaut standing on the moon beside an American flag. Theposter had a large caption reading "So What?"

Some anti-technology spokesmen advocate a return to thesimpler life of decades ago, while others wish to at least restrainthe pace of technology and still others wish to control whichtechnological advances are allowed into practice. Many seek amoratorium on change, at a time when the rate of technologicalchange is accelerating. Some of these people show symptoms ofthe syndrome which is called "future shock" by author AlvinToffler. He defines it as "the mass effect of the dizzyingdisorientation brought on by the premature arrival of the

76

future."" 8 Dr. Wernher von Braun tells the story of the littleold lady who was asked if she was ever going to ride in anairplane. She responded. "No siree! I'm just going to stay righthere on earth and watch television, like the good LordintendeL."

Some spokesmen blame technology for many of the sourproducts of modern life. But the villain is not technology; it isthe mismanagement of technology. Of itself, technology isneutral. Neil Armstrong, first on the moon, expressed it well,"Technology does not improve the quality of life; it improvesthe quality of things. Improving the quality of life, however,requires the application of wisdom." As Dr. Max Lerner ofBrandeis University put it, "You have to use technology toheal the scars left by technOlogy."

We do not need less science and technology;'we desperatelyneed more if we sincerely intend to keep this planet flyable.

The Chinese Penalty

It has been said, "Good judgment is the result of experi-ence and experience is usually the result of bad judgment." Letus hope that America isn't following that route to learning. Theconsequences for the nation ?xercising bad judgment areenormous. Other nations bear scars from their bad judgments.For example,' 9

"Early in the 15th century, the Chinese had become aformidable maritime power, far ahead of the rest of the worldin the sciences and technology of the sea. Their ships rangedfrom Madagascar and the Arabian Gulf to the East Indies andKorea. Unlike Europeans of the time, the Chinese had learnedto sail against the wind and in direct route out of sight of land.Their ships were huge, almost four times as large as theSpanish galleons of three centuries later, and were capable ofcarrying 2,000 passengers each on months-long voyages. Theywere in the forefront of a new technology.

"Abruptly, the Chinese government closed the hugeshipyards in Canton and other coastal cities and used themoney earmarked for maritime development for other pur-poses 'closer to home.' Young people's interest in the seawaned for lack of inspiration and guidance. Thus came amajor turning point at a critical time in Chinese history, forwithin a century the Portuguese and other Europeans withinferior knowledge of the sea came to the Far East by ship,eventually to humiliate the Celestial Empire. The Chinese still

77

pay the penalty for abandoning their interest in naval researchand education."

President Kennedy's goal to create a "space faring nation"and "sail this new ocean" has been achieved. Will we now, likethe Chinese, abandon our preeminence? America should neverhave to pay a similar penalty.

78

REFERENCES

1. Raymond A. Bauer, "Social Indicators," The M. 1. T. Press,Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1966, prepared for the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences, p. 3.Donald N. Michael. Proposed Studies on the Implications ofPeaceful Space Activities for Human Affairs, a documentprepared for the Brookings Institution (Washington, D. C.,1961 ).

3. Congressional Record, May 6. 1970, p. S6761.4. Pournell, J. E., and Possony. S. T., The Strategy of

Technology: Winning the Decisive War, Dunellen PublishingCo., N. Y., Nov. 1970.

5. Space Business Daily, 1341 G. St., N. W., Washington,D. C.

6. "Aerospace Fallout Something for Everyone," ChristianScience Mo,dtor, Aug. 29, 1970.

7. James Cayton, "Apollo Lesson: Where There's a Will ...,"The Washington :lost, July 25, 1969, p. A26.

8. Space Business Daily, March 16, 1971.9. 'bid, Oct. 26, 1970.

10. Dr. W. D. McElroy, Director, Nat'l. Science FoundationAddress to the 30th Annual Talent Search Awards Banquet,Wash., D. C., March 1, 1971.

11. "Aerospace Technology: The Fight to Build Momentum,"Gov't. Executive, March, 1972, p. 43.

12. "Japan: Reverse Flow," Newsweek, Nov. 23, 1970.13. Wm. R. Cherry, "The Generation of Pollution-Free Elec-

trical Power from Solar Energy," NASA/GSFCX-760-71-135, March 1971.

14. "From Apollo to the Home?" Forbes, July 1, 1968, p. 72.15. Vary Taylor-Coates, "Technology Assessment of Space

Stations," Program of Policy Studies in Science and Tech-nology, Geo. Washington Univ., Wash., D. C., May 1971, p.17.

16. House Report No. 92-748, 92nd Congress, 1st Session,U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Dec. 14, 1971, p. 10.

17. "Dark Corners of TV Journalism," A Survey of Broad-casting, Life Magazine Jan. 21, 1972, p. 16.

18. The Washington Post, May 11, 1971.19. Benefits to Developing Countries of Space Science and

Technology, United Nations Conference on the Explorationand Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Vienna, Aug. 1968.U.N. Publication Sales No. E68.I.11, p.5.

79

20. Ronald Schiller. "Those Incredible 'Talking Birds' Out inSpace," Popular Mechanics Magazine, May, 1972.

21. Space Business Daily, April 21, 1971.Robert J. Samuelson, "Western Union Plans Three Sate-lites." The Washington Post, Aug. 4.. 1972.

23. Ralph Lee Smith, "The Wired Nation," The NationMagazine, May 18, 1970, p. 582.

'4. Dr. Arthur C. Clarke, "The Promise of Space," Congres-sional Record, Jan. 27, 1972, p. E 570.

25. Fortune, Aug. 1970, p. 184.26. "Trans Atlantic, 1980," Rendezvous Magazine Summer/Fall

Issue, 1971.27. The National Program on .Satellite Tekcommunications for

International Civil Aviation Operations, The ExecutiveOffice of the President. Office of TelecommunicationsPolicy, Wash., D. C., March 17, 1971, p.1.

28. Space Business Daily, Vol. 56, No. 1, page 1, May 3, 1971.29. tack Strickland, "Space Fireproofing Finds Wide Use,"

Aviation Week and Space Technology, April 5, 1971, p. 14.30. Arnold Blechman, Nine Lies about America, Library Press,

Freeport, N. Y., Foreword.31. "Can Man Turn His Back on Space?" Wall Street Journal,

April 21, 1972. p.8.32. D. J. R. Bruckner, "A Work of Merit, Even of Glory," The

Los Angeles Times, April 17, 1972.33. Wm. A. McWhirter, "Tom Benton at Eighty." Life

Magazine, Oct. 3, 1969, p. 64.34. Joseph Jacobsen, Letter to the Author, April 28, 1972.35. "Shapiro Sinks Barbs in Fellow Poets," The Washington

Post, Jan. 28, 1964.36. Archibald MacLeish, Letter to the Author, May 20, 1972.37. Peter T. White, "Satellites Gave Warning of Midwest

Floods," The National Geographic, Oct. 1969, p. 574.38. An Assessment of the First Five Years of the Environ-

mental Satellite Program, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Wash-ington, D. C., Feb. 1971, p. 20.

39. Commander W. E. Willingham, Letter to Nimbus FlightOperations, Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA March 11,1971.

40. An Assessment of the First Five Years of the Environ-mental Satellite Program, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Wash-ington, D. C., Feb. 1971, p. 14.

41. Dr. Robert Jastrow and Dr. Homer E. Newell, "The Space

80

Program and the National Interest." Foreign AffairsMaga:ine, April. 1972.

42. Dr. Max Born. "Blessings and Evils of Space Travel."Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 22:12-14, Oct. 1966.

43. Robert Anderson. President. North American Rockwell Co..Address to the Society of Automotive Engineers in LosAngeles, Calif., January 10, 1971.

44. Karl G. Harr, President of the Aerospace Industries Associa-tion, Address to the Wright Brothers Memorial Banquet,Dec. 17. 1967.

45. Victor Cohn, "Scientists Are Harnessing Our RunawayTechnology," The Washington Post, Sept. 5, 1971.

46. The San Andreas Fault, Geological Survey Leaflet Series,U. S. Dept. of the Interior.

47. Congressional Record, May 6. 1971, p. H. 3591.48. Space Age Research and Medicine, E. R. Squibb and Sons.

Inc.. March 1971. p. 43.49. "New Eye on the Cosmos." Newsweek, Oct. 12, 1970.50. Carl G. Baker, M. D., Director, National Cancer Institute,

Letter to Acting NASA Administrator George M. Low,April 12, 1971.

51. J. Griffith-Jones, Temple City. Calif., Letter to Congress-man Barry M. Goldwater, Jr., of California. Sept. 8, 1971.Excerpt: "Were it not for the space age technology, I andliterally thousands of other people would be hopelesslyconfined to a wheelchair."

52. John Lear. "Infrared Exploration-New Light on theEnvironment," The Saturday Review, April 3, 1971.

53. "Sizing up the Planet," Wall Street Journal, June 8, 1970.54. John Lear, "Infrared Exploration-New Light on the En-

vironment," The Saturday Review, April 3, 1971.55. "Advanced Sensors Used to Survey Algeria," Aviation Week

and Space Technology, March 15, 1971, p. 42.56. "Sizing up the Planet," Wall Street Journal, June 8, 1970,

p. I.

57. Ibid., p. 1.

58. Imprint on Living: A Report on Progress, U. S. Dept. ofAgriculture Information Bulletin No. 333, Jan. 1971, pp.2, 3.

59. NASA Management Issuance NMI 1052.149, Attachment"A", Jo it Plan for Operations and Management, U. S.Dept. of. AgriL;uiture/NASA, 1971 Southern Corn BlightWatch Experiment.

81

60. Congressional Record, June 2, 1971, p. E-5316; Nov. 18,1971, p. 11-11273.

61. "The Spies Above," Time Magazine, Aug. 30, 1971, p. 42.62. "An Interdisciplinary Feasibility Study of The Application

of ERTS-A-Data to a Survey of the Alaskan Environment,"Research Proposal to National Aeronautic and SpaceAdministration," from the Technical Section, University ofAlaska, April 9, 1971.

63. Dr. Wernher Von Braun, "Saving Earth's Resources WithPhotos from Space," Popular Science, June 1971, p. 77.

64. Dr. Kenneth Watt, University of California, Presentation atthe Conference on the Environment and the DevelopingProfessional, Institute for the Study of Health and Society,at Air lie House, Warrenton, Virginia, Oct. 23-26, 1969,Proceedings, pp, 33-56.

65. "Nuclear Energy Its Peacetime Use," U. S. News andWorld Report, Feb. 14, 1972, p. 46.

66. Dr. Kraft A. Ehricke, "Man Can Use Interstellar Space,"Los Angeles Times, 6/28/72.

67. "Project SEARCH," Satellite Experiment, Public Systems,Inc., Sunnyvale, California, October 10, 1971, p. 4.

68. Food iechnology, A Technology Transfer Profile Report,prepared for NASA by Technology Management Group,Abt Associates, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., Sept. 1971.

69. Dr. Robert Jastrow and Dr. Homer E. Newell, "The SpaceProgram and the National Interest," Foreign Affairs Maga-zine, April, 1972.

70. Neil Ruzic, The Case for Going to the Moon, G. P.Putnam's Sons, N. Y., 1965.

71. L. R. McCreight and Dr. R. N. Griffin, Manufacturing inSpace, Space Division, Gen. Elec. Co., Phila., Penna., March1971.

72. William 0. Armstrong and Dr. James H. Bredt, "Status andPlans of NASA's Materials Science and Manufacturing inSpace Program," Presented at the Association of TechnicalSocieties Space Congress, Huntsville, Alabama, Nov. 15-19,1971.

73. Jay Wale, "A Canadian Role in Space is Urged," New YorkTimes, March 8, 1967, p. 21.

74. S. Houston Lay and Howard J. Taubenfeld, "The LawRelating to Activities of Man in Space," an American BarFoundation Study, The University of Chicago Press,Chicago. Illinois, 1970.

82

75. Time, May 3, 1971, p. 68.76. Philip J. Klass, Secret Sentries in Space, Random House

Publishers, N. Y., August 1971.77. Senator Hubert H. Humphrey, Address to the Hugh O'Brian

Youth Foundation, June 14, 1971.78. Editorial, Fort Worth Star-Telegram, March 15, 1971.79. Jack L. Chalker, "Space Benefits," The Evening Sun,

August 25, 1971, editorial page.80. Robert S. Elegant, Columnist, Los Angeles Times, January

31, 1971.81. Dr. John M. Logsdon, "The Apollo Decision and its

Lessons for Policy Makers," Program of Policy Studies inScience and Technology, George Washington Univ., Wash-ington, D. C. January 1970, p. 15.

82. N. Y. Daily News, Special Issue on the Manned LunarLanding, July 1969.

83. The U. S. Budget in Brief, Executive Office of the Presi-dent, Office of Management and Budget, January !973, -p.-29.

84. Counterbudget: A Blueprint for Changing National Pri-orities 1971-76, Chapter 14, The National Urban Coalition.1st Edition, Feb. 20, 1971, p. 245.

85. "Making U. S. Technology More Competitive," A SpecialReport, Business Week, Jan. 15, 1972, p. 44.

86. Charles A. Anderson, President, Stanford Research Insti-tute, "U. S. Technology is Threatened," New York Times,Aug. 22, 1971.

87. Peter F. Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity, Harper andRow Publishers, N. Y., 1968, pp. 308-310.

88. Alvin Toffler, Future Shock Random House Publishers,N. Y., July 1970.

89. "Foreword," from the 1969 Aerospace Education Work-shop Program by Dr. Wayne Hill, Superintendent ofSchools, Allegheny County, Maryland. These remarks arebased on information in the following:(a) Goodrich, L. C., A Short History of the Chinese

People, Harper & Row, N. Y., 1959, pp. 192-195.(b) Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 5, 1969, p. 582.(c) Latourette, K. S., The Chinese: Their History and

Culture, Vol. 1, Macmillan, N. Y., 1938, pp. 250, 504,306, 312, 313, 324.

(d) Davidson, B., The Lost Cities of Africa, Little andBrown, N. Y., 1959, pp. 188-191.

83

From page 1

APPENDIX A

THE PUBLIC AND THE LAST APOLLO

A wag once remarked. "Nostalgia isn't what it used to be."Advertisers, however, recently laid some groundwork for itsrecovery with the ad shown below.*

.am

Special Moon Shot Cruise.Well anchor just offshoreto see the last moonshot,

then cruise on to&Thomas and San Juan.

SAIL FROM NEW YORK DECEMBER 4 ON THES.S. STATENDAM. 9 DAYS. 5370 TO $875.It's Something to tell your children and grandchildrenabout The last scheduled men on the moon. and youwere there to see them OR this December meth Firstthe suspense Of the countdown. the rocket's red glare.then an eye-filling. sky-filling sight to be seen for milesaround. yours from arzruiseship anchored lust offshore

And alter tbe.v shot .! the moon. well do our best toshoot the works for vOu Well take you to St 1homas.San Juan Well dine you and dance VDU. romance V0.1with stars shows. feasts and people who wait on youhand and foot no gratuities required

There are cruises and cruises. but there's nev.rr beenone guile like this before Ask your travel agent about itor call us up. or send us the coupon

^me, C.,_seSr a0 NO,th ..ry NY 10014

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Pieusv rust me ivvnnirPi avr,rils on n.e Stalerd.ln, MoonSmut 01.1,5 Mains. ,rommoOutons evervo,ng

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CA,Tralrl Agent

SpecialSpace-Related SymposiumsThis special cruise is going to have some specialpassengers giving some very special symposiumsChaired by Captain Edgar Mitchell. Ret.. sixth astronaut to walk On the moon. Names like Arthur C.Claike. Isaac Asfnov. Norman Mailer. Geophysi-cists. aeronautical engineers. astronomers. anthro-pologists. biochemists. They'll hold seminars ontopics ranging from "Apollo and the MoonMan'sFirst Conscious Step in Evolution ", to "TheMythology of Other Star SystemsConstellationsUnseen by Human Eves "You'll even have the rarechance to attend a lecture by Dr, F. Drake on"Interstellar Communication" at Arecibo. the1,000 foot radiotelescope deep in the jungles ofPuerto Rico, These seminars and related socialfunctions are an extraordinary featq:e.and natur-ally, at an added cost. Cabins for the specialmoonshot cruise plus the seminars range from5750 to $1400. Details available on request.

On all Holland America Cruises. no gratuities required.Rates per person. based on double occupancy andsubject to availability The s.s. Statendam is registered .

in the Netherlands,

Society's behavior here has some of the incongruous aspectsof the hunter who admires the creature in his sights.New York Times, Oct. 8, 1972.

84

From page 2

APPENDIX B

PIONEER 10 PLAQUE

The Pioneer 10 spacecraft carried a pictorial plaque de-signed to show scientifically educated inhabitants of some otherstar system who might intercept it millions of years from now

when Pioneer was launched, from where, and by what kind ofbeings.

Pioneer 10 was launched by NASA from Cape Kennedy,Fla., March 2, 1972. on a mission of two years or more to flybeyond the orbit of Mars, pass through the Asteroid Belt, andobserve Jupiter closeup before being flung into a trajectory thatwill carry it continuously from the Sun.

The plaque design was etched into a gold anodized alumi-num plate 152 by 229 millimeters (6 by 9 inches) and 1.27millimeters (0.050 inch) thick, attached to the spacecraft'santenna support struts in a position to help shield it fromerosion by interstellar dust.-

The radiating lines on the left of the plaque represent thepositions of 14 pulsars cosmic sources of radio energyarranged to indlcate our Sun as the home star of the launchingcivilization. The "I-" symbols at the ends of the lines are binarynumbers that represent the frequencies of these pulsars at thetime of launch of Pioneer F relative to that of the hydrogenatom shown at the upper left with a "I" unity symbol. Thehydrogen atom is thus used as a "universal clock" and theregular decrease in the frequencies of the pulsars will enableanother civilization to determine the time that has elapsed sincePioneer F was launched.

The hydrogen atom is also used as a "universal yardstick"for sizing the human figures and outline of the spacecraft on theright of the plaque. The hydrogen wavelength about 8 inches

multiplied by the binary number representing "8" shown nextto the woman gives her height 64 inches.. The figuresrepresent the type of creature that created Pioneer. The man'shand is raised in a gesture of good will.

Across the bottom of the plaque are the planets, rangingoutward from the Sun, with the spacecraft's trajectory arcingaway from Earth, passing Mars, and swinging by Jupiter.

85

0

0s'

From page 4

APPENDIX C

BROTHERS IN THE ETERNAL COLD

By Archibald Mac LeishAuthor of "Land of the Free," "The American Cause," "J. 13.,"et.; winner of two Pulitzer Prizes for poetry, one for drama.

Men's conception of themselves and of each other hasalways depended on their notion of the earth. When the earthwas the World all the world there was and the stars werelights in Dante's heaven, and the ground beneath men's feetroofed Hell, they saw themselves as creatures at the center ofthe universe, the sole, particular concern of God and fromthat high place they ruled and killed and conquered as theypleased.

And when. centuries later, the earth was no longer the_World_ but_a_small_wet_spinning planet in the solar system of aminor star off at the edge of an inconsiderable galaxy in theimmeasurable distances of space when Dante's heaven haddisappeared and there was no Hell (at least no Hell beneath thefeet) men began to see themselves not as God-directed actorsat the center of a noble drama. but as helpless victims of asenseless farce where all the rest were helpless victims also, andmillions could be killed in worldwide wars or in blasted cities orin concentration camps without a thought or reason but thereason if we call it one of force.

Now, in the last few hours, the notion may have changedagain. For the first time in all of time, men have seen the earth:seen it not as continents or oceans from the little distance of ahundred miles or two or three, but seen it from the depths ofspace; seen it whole and round and beautiful and small, as evenDante that "first imagination of Christendom" had neverdreamed of seeing it; as the 20th century philosphers of ab-surdity and despair were incapable of guessing that it might beseen. And seeing it so, one question came to the minds of thosewho looked at it. "Is it inhabited?" they said to each other andlaughed and then they did not laugh. What came to theirminds a hundred thousand miles and more into space"halfway to the moon" they put it what came to their mindswas the life on that little, lonely, floating planet, that tiny raftin the enormous, empty night. "Is it inhabited?"

The medieval notion of the earth put man at the center ofeverything. The nuclear notion of the earth-put him nowhere

87

beyond the range or reason even lost in absurdity and war.This latest notion may have other consequences. Formed as itwas in the minds of heroic voyagers who were also men, it mayremake our image of mankind. No longer that preposterousfigure at the center, no longer that degraded and degradingvictim off at the margins of reality and blind with blood, manmay at last become himself.

To see the earth as it truly is, small and blue and beautifulin that eternal silence where it floats, is to see ourselves as riderson the earth together, brothers on that bright loveliness in theeternal coldbrothers who know now they are truly brothers.

From the N. Y. Times 12/26/68by permission of the author

88

From page 5

APPENDIX D

CENSORSHIP OF SATELLITE BROADCASTS

Forces set in motion by communications satellites are nowcausing anxiety in the world's closed societies. The U. S. S. R.recently pushed a proposal in the U. N. that would allow anycountry to censor transmissions to that country from any othercountry's direct broadcast satellites.

Implications for society are expressed in the followingspeech given by Dr. Frank Stanton, Vice Chairman of theColumbia Broadcasting System, Inc., in Memphis, Tennessee, onOctober 4, 1972.On August 8, the Foreign Minister of the

Soviet Union, Andrei Gromyko, submittedfor the consideration of the United NationsGeneral Assembly the text of a proposed in-terne.1.1 rtl convention governing satellitetelevision broad,:ssts directly into homes.What this proposed convention asserts is thatgovernments have the right to cwtl, *Me-vision broadcasts from abroad via satelliteto their people by controlling internationalbroadcasts at their source. It Is an unfor-tunate fact that the leail'ers of too many na-tions have a deadly fear of information whichcould lead their people to topple the regimesin power. Understandably. these leaders areinterested in stringent preventative meas-sures. Hence the efforts of the Soviet Unionhave been eneowraged by the acquincence ofother nation.: to t. similar proposal fromUNESCO. I want to return Co this interna-tional proposal later.

The government of the Soviet Union canand does jam incoming foreign shortwavereal° cost estimated as $300million annually. It cfio. sAng does punish itspeople for listening to foreign broadcasts. Iam not addressing myself to the power of theSoviet government to do what it wisheswithin its own borders. The Soviet proposalto the United Nations, however, raises twonew points.

It envisages not merely lamming Incomingbroadcasts. but also taking action directlyagainst satellites themselves outside a re-ceiving nation's territorial Jurisdiction. TheSoviet Union :sits UN member states, includ-ing our country, to agree that any nation,on its own initiative. may destroy satellitesto keep broadcasts from going directly intothe homes of their own people. This wouldmake censorship a principle of internationallaw.

Undoubtedly the nightmare haunting theKremlin is the possibility of its people hear-ing something other than their official gov-ernment linethe chance that some futuremove like the invasion of Czechoslovakiamight be reported in broadcasts directly intoRussian homes, giving the lie to the Ideathat the invasion was joyfully received. Whatthe Kremlin wants is assurance that it canseal off the Soviet people from everything butits own propaganda.

89

It is sometimes difficult for the Russiansto make the distinction between their systemof government communicatichis media andours of independent privateentities. The Soviet Union sees no moraldefect in giving governments. under inter-national agreement, the rl^itt orchestrateHIS nub tunas. bill such a right has nostnadinfl in thlz country, where communica-tions media are private and the very firstarticle of our Bill of Rights limits govern-ment authority over speech, press andthought.

What makes the USSR proposal more trou-blesome is that a climate of plausibility hasbeen created for it, unbelievable as it mayappear, by the United National Educational,Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNESCO, the organization conceived in thenoblest of international idealism for the ad-vancement of free and unfettered culturalexchange. UNESCO experts from more than adozen countries put together a documentthat can only be described as a compromisein principle and a frightening danger inpractice.

This astonishing UNESCO contribution.entitled "Draft Declaration of Guiding Prin-ciples on the Use of Satellite Broadcastingfor the Free Flow of Information, the Spreadof Education and Greater Cultural Ex-change." will be submitted to the organi-zation's General Conference this month. Ingeneral terms, the Declaration proclaims thepeople's right to freedom of information. Inspecific terms, however, the Declarationwould have the United States accede as amatter of international law to any govern-ment's cutting off of its people from directsatellite television broadcastsand not onlytelevision broadcasts but also, going theRussians one better, radio broadcasts as well.The rights which form the framework of ourConstitution. the principles asserted in theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, thebasic principle of the free movement of ideas.are thus ignored. And in their place an alienconcept is proposeda concept which givesthe UNESCO Draft Declaration its clearmeaning, the compromising of freedom.

The UNESCO Draft Declaration twists andturns. It commences with an altruistic allu-sion to such international agreements as

may be necessary to promote the free floWof ideas by word anti image." It cites thetnessage of the Universal Declaration of Hu-man Rights that "everyone has the right toseek, receive and impart information andIdeas through any media and regardless offrontiers." It even states that "The objectiveof satellite broadcasting for the free flowOf information Is to ensure the widest pos-sible dissemination, among the peoples ofthe world, of news of all countries, developedand developing alike."

This, however, ttrns mat to be whitlowdressing. Getting down to Its real business,the UNESCO Draft Declaration declaresEach country has the right to decide on

the content of the educational programmesbroadcast by satellite to its people." And theDeclaration does not stop there. "It Is neces-sary," the document continues, that States,taking into account the principle of freedomof information, reach or promote prior agree-ments concerning direct satellite broadcast-ing to the population of countries otherthan the country of origin of the transmis-sion." Thns. In a single sentence, the DraftDeclaration manages to combine lip serviceto freedom of information and a demand forprior censorship of broadcasts through gov-ernment agreement and control.

In practical terms, the UNESCO Draft Dec-laration gives International sanction to gov-ernment control of what people can see andhear in direct satellite transmissions fromoutside their national borders. This meansthat nobody may legitimately broadcast tothe USSR without the agreement of theUSSR. That is what UNESCO proposes, notjust for the USSR but for every nation. Anddespite the inclusion of all the disclaimers,what thts amounts to Is clear and frighten-ing acceptance of the very same principlewhich Iles behind the Soviet Union's pro-posal to the United Nations.

Cooperation, understanding and trade be-tween Russia and the United States cer-tainly are in the interests of peace. In serv-ing the interests of peace. however. it surelyIs not necessary to sacrifice basic humanrights. In the final analysis, there can be notruly enlightened progress and hence noreal peace without these basic human rights.

Regardless of what body exercises thepower of the censor, the effect of both theSoviet Union draft and the UNESCO draftis to make it possible for every stgnatorygovernment to assert control over the con-tent of international broadcasts, Quite seri-ously, r do not see how our government.given our Constitution, can possibly enterinto any agreement in which the rights of

Americans to speak to whomever they pleasewhen they please are bartered away. Andthat is what both draft documents would do.

We recognize that although the UnitedStates by tradition believes in the freeexchange or ideas, =at other nations donot. That fact probably explains why theUNESCO Draft Declaration was adopted bya multi-nation committee. What is astonish-ing Is that the draft was accepted by a bodywhich included a delegate from the UnitedStates of America. Apparently he expressedno reservations, for none was recorded. Thedocument hence went forward ar a unani-mous and unopposed recommendation.

Incredibly, in the ensuing months, wisercounsel has not prevailed, despite the rea-soned protests of the White House Office ofTelecommunications Policy and the UnitedStates Information Agency. both of whichare strongly opposed to the Draft Declara-tion. Rather than face the issue forthrightlyand squarely. the State Department's plan ofaction us of today presumably Is merely toplead for postponement, and to vote againstthe Draft Declaration as a last resortonlyif postponement falls.

The State Department's attitude Is per-haps best described as "embarrassment" overthe prospect of opposing the desires ofdeveloping countries. which support theDraft Declaration. What the Departmentobviously has in mind is an attempt to avoida head-on confrontatton and give everybodya tidy diplomatic out. But I submit that thecentral issue here transcends that kind ofdiplomacy. Delaying tactics, pleas that hasteIs unnecessary or further study is requiredare entirely out of place when the funda-mental principle of free speech Is at stake.There can be no temporizing. You don'tnegotiate free speech. The United Statesmust do all within Its power to block thepath to international censorship.

We must indicate in unmistakable termsthat we reject censorship today. that we willreject it tomorrow. that we will reject Itwhenever its head is raised.

To this end it is imperative that the Secre-tary of State Instruct our delegation to theUNESCO General Conference two weekshence to oppose the Draft Declaration andto oppose it head on. Any other coursewould be unworthy of our national heritage.When liberty is threatened, when freedom ofthought is challenged, the policy of theUnited States must be resolute and uncom-promising. Never can we concede 8 basicfreedom in one circumstance and expect Itto survive unchallenged In another.

And so, the great potential of the communications satellitefor helping to open up the closed societies may be stillborn. TheUrgent need for the free flow of knowledge it could help provide

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was described by Alexander Solzhenitsyn in his smuggled speech*accepting in absentia the 1972 Nobel Prize for Literature:

"... newspaper headlines still display: 'No Right toInter Fere in Our Internal Affairs.' Whereas there are nointernal affairs left on our crowded earth. And man-kind's sole salvation lies in everyone making everythinghis business: in the people of the East being vitallyconcerned with what is thought in the West. the peopleof the West vitally concerned with what goes on in theEast."

'Copyright, The Nobel Foundation 1972.

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From page 6

APPENDIX E

SPACE TRAVEL PROSPECTS

Excerpt from "Humn Consequences of the Exploration ofSpace" by Freeman Dyson, Institute for Advanced Study,Princeton, N. Y., in the Bulletin of the Atomic .Scientists',September 1969, Volume XXV, Number 7, p. 12.

Flow long it will take for space travel to become sociallyimportant is mainly a matter of economies, a field in which I haveno competence. I will only put forward a few tentative remarks tosuggest that the tine should be measured in decades rather than incenturies. There is a prevalent view among the educated publicthat space travel is necessarily and permanently so expensive thatit can never be made available to large masses of people. I believethis view to be incorrect.

An interesting analysis of the economics of our existing spaceoperations was made by Theodore Taylor ("Propulsion of SpaceVehicles'' in Marshak "Perspectives in Modern Physics," Inter-science, 1960). He calculated the cost of running a commercialjet-plane service from New York to Los Angeles under thefollowing ground rules:

(1) There shall be no more than one flight per month.(2) The airplane shall be thrown away after each flight.(3) The entire costs of Kennedy and Los Angeles airports

shall be covered by the freight charges.

Under these rules, which are the rules governing our presentspace program, the cost of freight between New York and LosAngeles is comparable to the cost of putting freight into orbit. Thepoint of this calculation is that the economies of commercialairline operations are economies of scale and of efficient organiza-tion. There is no basic physical or engineering reason why itshould be enormously cheaper to fly to Los Angeles than to flyinto orbit.

I will not go here into a technical discussion 'of the problemsof space propulsion. In order to make space travel cheap we needtwo things. The first is a reliable vehicle, preferably an air-breather, which can 'take off from an airport, fly itself directlyinto orbit, re-enter and land, and be ready to repeat the operationday after clay. The second is a massive volume of traffic and 'acorrespondingly massive sale of tickets. I believe the second of

92

these requirements will be met automatically within a few decadesafter the first is achieved. There are formidable technical problemsinvolved in producing the re-usable orbital vehicle, but I do notbelieve the problems are permanently insoluble. Few people in theexisting space program have worked on these problems, becausethe policy has been to do things fast rather than cheaply. Thepresent cut-back may in fact encourage more long-range work oncheaper vehicles.

I hesitate to make numerical predictions, but it may help tomake my remarks meaningful if I state my actual expectations forthe time-scale of these developments. I expect that sometimebetween 50 and 100 years from now we will have space travel witha volume of traffic and a cost to the passengers comparable withour present intercontinental jet flights. This prediction has thegreat advantage that if the reality exceeds my hopes I may be hereto enjoy it, whereas, if I am proved wrong the other way, I willnever know it.

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From page 8

APPENDIX F

THE IMPOSSIBLE DREAM

Excerpt from "A Commercial Airline Looks at the SpaceShuttle" by Mr. Nafeeb E. flabby, Chairman and Chief ExecutiveOfficer, Pan American World Airways. Delivered to the Society ofExperimental Test Pilots, September 16, 1971.

The "Impossible Dream" we insist on dreaming is that of theSpace Shuttle as an air transport, carrying passengers from NewYork to Tokyo in 45 minutes, or from Los Angeles to Rome in40.

The key to practical application of the space shuttle isbasically the same as the key to developing commercial aircraft;reduction of the cost per pound of payload. Since it takes muchless energy to put an object in earth orbit than to fly the sameobject across the United States, thcre is no reason why the cost ofspace shuttle operations should not become as low as or lowerthan that of jets.

I can visualize a rocket-powered vehicle with 100 passengersnot counting stewardesses launched vertically in suborbital

trajectory at the precise azimuth for its intended destination,reentering the atmosphere without excess g-forces, glidingunpowered to an altitude where its conventional jet engines will bestarted, then landing on a runway like a conventional airliner.Obviously this dream is a long way down the line, and manyinventions remain to be invented before it occurs.

And we have learned or we had better have learned thatfrom here on out, our future will depend not on a few leaders, buton a concerned and aroused public at large. So our design criteriafor a space shuttle are not related simply to its efficiency, itsspeed, its fuel consumption, its payload, and all those othertraditional concerns. Superimposed on these already-difficultspecifications is the requirement that the Space Shuttle fulfill areal need of people; that it operate at a cost the public can afford;and that it operate within parameters of social acceptability.

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From page 9

APPENDIX G

THE VALUE OF SPACE ACTIVITY FORDEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Excerpts from a speech by Vikram Sarabhai, Chairman,Indian National Committee for Space Research, presented at theAmerican Astronautical Society National Meeting, San Francisco,California, August 18-20, 1965.

At first sight it may appear odd that a developing nation suchas India, where the annual per capita income is about 80 dollars atcurrent prices, where the average expectancy of life is 45 years andthe population grows by about 13 million each year, should thinkof things other than the immediate problems of populationcontrol and of providing food, clothing, housing, education andthe social services. What is the value of space research to such acountry?

Clearly the development of a nation is intimately linked withthe understanding and application of science and technology by itspeople. It has sometimes been argued that the application oftechnology by itself can contribute to growth. This is certainlytrue as an abstract proposition, but fails in practice. Witness thestate of development and social structure of countries of theMiddle East, where for decades resources of oil have beenexploited with the most sophisticated technology. History, hasdemonstrated that the real social and economic fruits of tech-nology go to those who apply them through understanding.Therefore a significant number of citizens of every developingcountry must understand the ways of modern science and of thetechnology that flows from it.

An ability to question basic assumptions in any situation isfostered by probing the frontiers of science, whatever field onemay be engaged in, whether it is Biology, Genetics, AtomicScience or Space Research. It is this ability rather than anempirical hit and miss approach which proves most effective intackling the day to day problems of the world. It follows from thisthat countries have to provide facilities for their nationals to dofront rank research within the resources which are available. It isequally necessary, having produced the men who can do researchto organize task oriented projects for the nation's practicalproblems.

The role of space activities in stimulating the growth oftechnology and industry in advanced fields such as electronics,

95

communications, cybernetics and in materials engineering is wellrecognized in the advanced nations. This applies equally todeveloping nations such as India.

International cooperation in science contributes to thecreation of a climate for development which is essential in an agewhere colonialism has largely ended. When a nation succeeds insetting up a scientific programme with sounding rockets, itdevelops the nucleus of a new culture where a large group ofpersons in diverse activities learns to work together for theaccomplishment of a single objective.'

Agriculture is the most important activity on the sub-continent of India. A large majority of the population of 480millions earn their livelihood from this occupation which is largelydependent on rain that occurs during the monsoons. It is hardlynecessary in this audience to stress therefore the importance toIndia's economy of a better understanding of the processes bywhich the monsoon rains occur, processes which commence overthe vast Indian Ocean, where there are relatively few observingstations undertaking even the normal observations at surface orwith balloons. What applies to the economy of India applies to theeconomy of most of the countries in the Indian Ocean region.Space meteorology which permits the acquisition of valuable datafrom satellites as well as with the use of sounding rockets hastherefore a special significance for us.

. Another area of practical importance is the field of satellitecommunications. Geographically situated as it is at 75° to 90° Emeridian, with a volume of international telecommunicationssecond only to Japan in Asia, a satellite communications earthstation is of great importance not only for national needs, but forinternational hook-ups. Assisted by the U. N. Special Fund, anExperimental Satellite Communications Earth Station is nowbeing set up. Independent of this, it is proposed to have acommercial station in the future. The experimental station wouldprovide unique facilities for training scientists and technologists,particularly from the developing nations, in the new field of spacecommu nicatio us.

With continued cooperation from the advanced nations, wehope through this activity not only to stimulate the progress ofour nation, but also to contribute to science.

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From page 13

APPENDIX H

-.1110)Vlechilican y ;I/trip/lug item,

on/ 71l11 . ph/ill/1(.171 In add lusty) lo yourcintrer.,atimi. awl ./1/1,1:e Vo///' fr;CM/N.

The ledr1 )"' """Itt i ih 111% it 3 a bit. it Wm, out.()Mt.( .pat .nil the human body Art Alike tit that tiltit ts

whit it man Hatt. in euht t aunt opt rale tituttt 'tilt .1 ill adc inanding env initiment for hing pt nods of [tint.

Clitiodurdor example. Tit \\ 's PioneerJuPit t satelliteLsen though It It.tt is t.ttt diinigh to get tip the moonelettm hours, it takt. l'iositet around two year. to gar toittritt r, the fitst tif the twit, Omni. Ihrrntgit.LongIhghtaway from the sun. the sattIlitt t !mai ewer is mil,tilted by a dt, arc cclm It us, the him front .1 not Iron itstope to pttiet.ttt eh, frit cry to Nth...tool, the tunic let tt

ner.00r I It, AtItIttion. some of Pionit i's delitaltmerits ate ptorttied t ',fru loin 11711111raltile damage bynutlearfueled heater,

aiZ.L PPty FUL +1642T-45110 'Feel.,

The !ethnology associated h ith.such longlived. reliableheat wort, is nos% being applied to the human heartTRw %dentist, working oil {IitAbit nuclear energy

sources fot heartassist trips, devidopmg rathoitntopeheat capsules and studying thermal cones tiers

Placed within the bidy, the tapside releases heat energy

through low tathation level radioactive decay. and theconverter turns the entgy into rot%er hit the heart Lund;(The motor for the pump, its 1.1entall). t. Laced on thoseused in the Minutenun gintl.inte and toncrolgytikomiiss.which have been operating ar 11000 win for mote thanfour years.

The severe teliability !est.]. called for by flight to an

outer planet make you refine and sharpen your technology

to extremes. whereupon it StIddC114 1111111CS tisei .1 here

at home within the body of a living man.

C Volfr .1/theede & Polliition1,-. Ket ping .1 s.ittIlite ',turned in the tight dirt.t. uiun cantall for .1 rt 11.11,k highly t lilt Itill sy.itiii. At

IC Vit." tituclugn.l one (..ditti the Oln lid thruster, itss aka hl tletttit.111 ) t itatging mist Ill tollintited drop

mtin g Otto, ihrtitigh .1 high potential, antl ejectiiig Chun out into

Ltet061CP, Aspsr It'M A c..,L,,, row

vIgrArLririai. ' s

Recently. o e Nit alls punt ple into an industrial smokecut k It rem col 9i)': of the patticulatt matter 1 such asfly adi balms ing forth into the .ttintisphere. A series of

emitting po.1111ely t !mtgs.,' .droplets were aicelcrated tott.tril the ntiott%ely charged walls of the crack.

the e,n, they entrained almoo all of the partitles.Resit. a .mikado., sack

Moo' are are at work seta, an asphalt association inrtinocittg ks (flint Ow stool:en( asphalt plants. Theysa) minh litter than the espensoe wdution. they !Lientrod in Ow past.

wcn. eery hsppy about that. \x'hrn twmple at cocktail;mules tomplain to us about No tethnology, we havestill another re/tinnier,

For Luther information, write nn you/ company letterhead tn.

TRWSYSTEMS GROUP

Attention: Marketing Cauniminieations,112 90.13

lint (pie Park Itecloodn !kat IL California 9027ti

97

From page 18

APPENDIX I

SPENDING MONEY DIRECTLY OR ...

Excerpt from . . for the benefit of all mankind," GeneralElectric Co., November 1971, pages 10 & 11.

Some critics say "Why not spend money directly on themedical, environmental, educational and communications projects,rather than to wait for benefits from large efforts like the spaceprogram?"

Well, it just doesn't work that way.On specific pin-pointed research efforts no matter how

important, such as a cure for a devastating disease you don't reallyknow what you're looking for; when you do, you don't alwayshave the parallel technologies as "tools" with which to look. But ifyou have a broad-front major goal such as space exploration youmust move technologies forward on such a wide front that themany results of advancing many technologies can be integrated toreach the solution of many problems otherwise not solvable.

For example, the discovery of a polio vaccine brought peaceof mind to millions. It was a remarkable medical achievement bydedicated I;eople. What's overlooked is that it would not havebeen possible without the development of electron microscopetechnology that had an origin entirely apart from a polio vaccinesearch.

You heed a large program funded and motivated around anational goal, with wide, demanding and unprecedented technicalrequirements which generate breakthroughs across a broad spec-trum of technologies. These breakthroughs then become "tools"that make possible the generation of unrelated breakthroughs evenin fields not directly connected to the original program.

Thus, technical or scientific breakthroughs of major socialimportance, such as a cancer cure, may be generated in a relativelyabrupt manner because some other breakthrough yielded a key"tool," or a fundamental piece of knowledge, hitherto unknownbut indigenous to the solution. This sort of thing does not comeabout across the general technological front by attempting todecide beforehand precisely what breakthroughs should be fundedin order to precisely generate other breakthroughs. Man, unfor-tunately, does not have the clairvoyance to write a scenario inaccordance with which his technical and scientific breakthroughsand discoveries can be set up ahead of time, to occur in a preciseschedule so as to reinforce each other.

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If man had this precognition, our current important medical,social, scientific and technical achievements would have alreadybeen realities a long time ago and with much less blood, sweat andtears.

Typical of such a large program funded and motivatedaround a major national objective is a war. And, as mentionedbefore, rapid technical and scientific advance results therefrom.The space program, on the other hand, represents the sameapproach, but is not a war. The space program has had atremendous forcing effect on rapidly advancing our science andtechnology in general. As mentioned, it has compressed severaldecades of "normal" technological advance into less than one, andit has resulted .in such progress in virtually every scientific andtechnological discipline, to the great benefit of mankind.

It is most important again to point out that the objective isnot to replace desired social action programs with technologyprograms, but rather not to abandon technology because of ourpressing need for social action programs. To repeat what wasmentioned before, the need is a balanced combination, so thatsolutions to our social problems can be accelerated by technologyadvanCe which is the real viable route to successful emergencefrom our dilemma.

For it is this multi-faceted impact of the technology dollarthat is producing the technical breakthroughs that will make itpossible to control environmental pollution, advance medicalscience, extend education to the backWard areas of the world,build cheaper and better housing and, above all, generate thedynamic new industrial technologies that create new products,new markets and new jobs.

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From page 30

APPENDIX J

EXPLANATION TO THE ARTIST

An orientation prorided by Dr. Ilereward Lester Cooke,Curator of Painting, National Gallery of Art, to the artists whovolunteered to participate in the space art project.

It seems certain that the age we are living in will go down as ared-letter epoch because the first steps in space exploration aregoing to make a hinge in the fate of mankind. Not since thelung-fish slithered out of the Paleozoic slime have living creaturessought to change their environment, and not since Columbus havemen dared to enter more dangerous and mysterious regions.

-Perhaps in space tut will find grerier pastures; pahaps"W-e will findnothing but infinite hositility and will return to realize that life onthis planet is more precious than we ever imagined. Whatever theresults, space exploration is changing history.

The effort. we are making in this country represents thefrontiers not only of technical achievements, but also of theimagination. The space effort in every way is a worthy theme forthe artist. Space travel started in the imagination of the artist, andit is reasonable that artists should continue to be the witnesses andrecorders of our efforts in this field.

NASA decided to ask artists to supplement the record afterreviewing the documentation of the first few years of the spaceage. It was realized that important aspects of the story weremissing. When a major launch takes place at Cape Kennedy, morethan two hundred cameras record every split second of theactivity. Every nut, bolt, and miniaturized electronic device isphotographed from every angle. The artist can add very little to allthis in the way of factual record. But, as Daumier pointed outabout a century ago, the camera sees everything and understandsnothing. It is the emotional impact, interpretation, and hiddensignificance of these events which lie within the scope of theartist's vision. An artist may. depict exactly what he thinks he sees,but the image has still gone through the catalyst of his imaginationand has been transformed in the process.

So style in this assignment is unimportant. If yoU see eventsin non-objective terms, represent them this way. NASA iscommissioning your imagination, and we want records of fleetingimpressions and poetic by-products of thought as much as precisedocuments of optical experience. What is important is that theartist gives us his personal and sincere interpretation. His work will

100

not be juried, judged, or evaluated when it arrives at NASA, atleast not by this generation, but it will become a permanent recordof an individual's talent and perception, and in this way is a sliverof immortality.

There are no restrictions regarding medium, style, size,subject, shape, except that the materials used must be of provenpermanence. I do not want faded and flaking pictures in agovernment archive.

The zIrtist like the scientist must reorient some of his thinkingin the space environment. Have you ever thought what the humanbody really looks like in a state of weightlessness? Or what itmeans to have no up or down? That a glass of water isjust as rightupside down as in any other position? Or that Leonardo's opticalperspective does not apply to the moon landscape and a distantmountain is just as sharp and colorful as a pebble six inches away?Or that space is a whirlpool of unseen waves through which theearth swims, leaving a wake like a ship? Or that the electricalimpulses which send pictures from the moon are about as strong asthe static generated by a butterfly's wings? Or that the earth inrelation to a solar flare-up is about the same as a pinhead in theflame of a match? All of our concepts of size, speed, number,mass, and even life are quaint and obsolete in this age. And haveyou thought of the role of man, who not only controls but is alsocaught in the web of the monstrous machines he has made? Themetaphysical aspects of space are as fascinating as the physical andare equally within the scope of the artist.

There are several more direct reasons for commissioningdrawings and paintings. First, NASA is anxious to document thespace effort in every way possible. From my own point of view, Iam convinced that artists should be key witnesses to history in themaking, and that in the long run the truth seen by an artist is moremeaningful than any other type of record. Second, I want to bUildup a collection of drawings and paintings which will convey tofuture generations some of the excitement and wonder that wefeel as we cross the space threshold. I also want these paintings tostand on their own merit as works of art, quite apart from thesubject matter. I hope future generations, will realize that we havenot only the scientists and engineers capable of shaping thedensity of our age but artists worthy to keep them company.

For best results, I am sure that it is good policyto leave theartists alone. Therefore, I may indicate subjects which seemadaptable, but in general you will be completely free to draw,paint, and record whatever strikes you as significant and unique.We are commissioning not only the artist's skill, but also his

perception and his imagination; and for best results neither shouldbe dictated or forced; therefore you are free to use whatever styleyou wish.

One thing I insist on. Every drawing made on site, regardlessof how slight, must be saved and eventually added to thepermanent archive. The reason for this is that on-the-spot sketchesoften have an impact and immediacy which finished works of artlack. I became aware of this when working on an exhibit ofartwork which had been commissioned during the Civil War. Oftenit was the crumpied scrap of paper with the sketch of. a figure orincidental group which, after a hundred years, had the mostmeaning in conveying the real character of that war. Therefore,please save every drawing, and; after you have finished, send italong. It will be carefully preserved and eventually may fin a gapin the future's estimate of us and our endeavors.

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From page 32

APPENDIX K

THE POETRY OF SPACE

Apparently the first poem physically sent into orbit waslaunched on the TRAAC Satellite 1961 cc n2 on Nov. 15, 1961,inscribed on an instrument panel. It was composed by ProfessorThomas G. Bergin, Professor of Romance Languages, YaleUniversity at the request of Dr. G. F. Pieper, then of the JohnsHopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, to dedicate apoem to the new field of space research.

SPACE PROBER

From Time's obscure beginning, the Olympians/lave, moved by pity, anger, sometimes mirth,

Poured an abundant store of missiles downOn the resigned, defenceless sons of Earth.

Hailstones and chiding thunderclaps of Jove,Remote directives from the constellations:

Aye. the celestials have swooped down themselves,Grim bent on miracles or incarnations.

Earth and her offspring patiently endured,(Having no choice) and as the years rolled by

In trial and toil prepared their counterstrokeAnd now 'tis man who dares assault' the sky.

Fear not, Immortals, we forgive your faults,And as we come to claim our promised place

Aim only to repay the good you gaveAnd warm with human love the chill of space.

103

In 19 0.2 when the Mariner II spacecraft was on its way toVenus. the following poem. written by an employee. appeared inthe house organ of the .let Propulsion Laboratory. Pasadena,Cali lornia.

1. T.N.1.01

(Tiff SE.NPLN (;)

Mariner. I think about you oftenChild of my making you are not,

But a strange new issue - secret, still

There you stood - resplendent, goldenGangling phoenix with nonarian bones

1lone. aloof, behind the big blue doors

No nest, no trials for you, oh birdall experience in the breeding

Just once the burn, the thrust, the leap

Sailing you are, on the sea of the airOut and quiet. glistening still

Slowly lifting your arms to the Sun

:Ind no return, oh beautiful bird.Soaring, silent, child of the void

The mind strains, it longs to follow

Virginia S. Anderson

On the following pages are rare items space poetry byinternationally recognized authors.

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The Moon Groundby DAMES DICKEY

You look as thooghYou know me, though the world we came Onto e; striking

You in the forehead like Apollo &lack.We hare bl(iUght the gods We kmiw whin rt e. ot shine

Far off, with earth. We alone01 all men, could take off

Our shoes and fly. One-sixth 01 our weight. we have gathered,Both of us, under another one

Of us overhead. He is reading the dials he Is (Meier Slat/C;(14gTillie, to save our lives. You and I ,ire in earth

light and deep moonshadow on magic ground

0/ the dead new world, and we do exit but we couldLeap over each other like children in Ihe universal playground

Of stonesbut we must not play

At being here: We must lookWe most hook for it th2 stones are going to tell tic

Not the why but the how ol all things. Brother, your gold face flashesOn me. It is the earth, 1 hear your deep voice rumbling from the body

Oh its huge clothes Why did we come hereIt does not say. but the ground looms, and th secret

01 time is lyingWithin amaiing reach. Ii is everywhere

We walk, our glass heads shimmering with absolute heatAnd cold. We leap slowly

Along it. We will take back the very stones01 Time, and build it where we live. Or in the cloud

striped blue of home, will the secret crumbleIn our hands with air? Will the moon-plague kill our children

In their beds? The Human Planet trembles in its blackSky with what we do 1 can see it hanging in the god-gold only

rrother of your lace. We are this world: we areThe only men. What hope is there at home

In the azure of breath, or here with the stoneDead secret? My massive clothes bubble around me

Crackling with static and Gray'sElegy helplessly coming

From my heart, and I say 1 think somethingFrom hipt, school i rememher Now

Fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, and all the airA solemn stillness holds. Earth ghmmers

And in its air-color a .sohmin stillness holdsIt. 0 brother! Earth-laced god! APOLLO! My eyes Hind

With unreachable tears my breath goes all overMe and cannot escape. We, me here to do one

Thing only, and that is rock by rock to carry the moon to take itBack. Our clothes embrace we cannot touch we cannot

Kneel. We stare into the moondust, the earth-blazing ground. We laugh, with the beautiful craze

Of tactic. We bend, we pick up stones.

From The Eyebeaters, Blood, Victory, Merino's, Buckhaed and Mercy by James Dickey. Copyright 1968,1969,19/0, by homes Dickey. &sprinted by permiesion of Doubleday & Company, Inc.

105

VOYAGE TO THE MOON

By Archibald MacLeish

Presence among us,

wanderer in our skies,

dazzle of silver in our leaves and on ourwaters silver

0silver evasion in our farthest thought"the visiting moon". .. "the glimpses of the moon".

and we have touched you!

From the rust of time,before the first of time, before thefirst men tasted time, we thought of you.You were a wonder to us, unattainable,a longing past the reach of longing,a light beyond our light, our livesperhapsa meaning to us . . .

Nowour hands have touched you in your depth of night.

Three days and three nights we journeyed,steered by farthest stars, climbed outward,crossed the invisible tiderip where the floating dustfalls one way or the other in the void between,followed that other down, encounteredcold, faced deathunfathomable emptiness ...

Then, the fourth day evening, we descended,nude fast, set foot at dawn upon your beaches,sifted between our fingers your cold sand.

We stand here in the dusk, the cold, the silence. ..

and here, as at the first of time, we lift our heads.Over us, more beautiful than the moon, amoon, a wonder to us, unattainable,a longing past the reach of longing,a light beyond our light, our livesperhapsa meaning to us. ..

0, a meaning/

over us on these silent beaches the brightearth,

presence among us

From the N.Y. Times, 7121/69Reprinted with permission of the author

106

From page 37

APPENDIX L

1972 LAUNCH SCHEDULE

1,111e otch

NCI sue dale tl h Rang Mixvio)t/ItonarkmIntelsat IV-F-4 Jan. 2'1 Atlas/ KSC Global Communication Satellite to form part of

Centaur a global communication, commercial satellitesystem. Launched for COMSAT.

11E( IS-A 2 Jan. :II I ielta Wilt Investigation of interplanetary space and of thehigh latitude atmosphere and its boundary inthe region around the northern central point.Launched fur ES110,

Pioneer 10 Mar. 2 Atlas/ KSC Flight to Jupiter; flight time: two yearsCentaur

TO-1 Slur. 12 Delta WTR. Study of solar and terrestrial relationship.launched for ESRO.

Apollo Ifi Apr. 10 Saturn V KSC Manned lunar landing mission: To furnish ad-ditional knowledge of the Moon and its history.Astronauts: J. W. Young. T. K. Mattingly andCharles Duke.

Intelsat IV-F 5 June 1:1 .Atlas/ KSC Launch for COMSATCentaur

1:11TS-1 July 2:1 Delta WTR First Earth Resources Technology SatelliteNITS Aug. 14 Scout Wallops Meteoroid Technology Satellite for measurement

of meteoroid penetration rates.OAO-C Aug. 21 Atlas/ KSC Orbiting Astronomical Ohservatory to study stars.

CentaurIMP H Sept. 1:1 Delta KSC Study cislunar radiation environment over sig-

nificant portion of solar cycle: interplanetarymagnetic field and Earth's magnetosphere. De-velop solar-flare prediction capahility and de-termine radiation hazard for manned missions.

ITOS-1) Oct. 15 Delta WTR Operational Meteorological Satellite funded byNOAH.

SAS R Nov. 15 Scout SM/ETR Gamma Ray Astronomy: Performs a sky surveyof high energy gamma radiation from the ce-lestial spheres, to determine the extent of primary galactic gamma radiation and to ascer-tain presence of gamma ray sources.

A EROS Dec. 8 Scout WTR To measure the main aeronomic parameters de-termining the state of the upper atmosphereand the solar ultraviolet radiation in the wave-length band of main ahsorption. German co-operative satellite.

Nimbus E Dec. 12 Delta WTR Research and development meteorological satel-lite leading to advanced operational weathersatellites for global sounding of atmosphere.

Telsat A Nov. 10 Delta ETR Domestic Communication Satellite, CanadaESRO-IV Nov. 22 Scout WTR To measure neutral and ionized particles in the

ionosphere. Launch for ESRO.Apollo 17 Dec. 6 Saturn V KSC Last of the Apollo missions. Manned lunar land-

ing to furnish additional knowledge of theMoon and its history. Astronauts: EugeneCernan, Ron Evans. Harrison Schmitt.

Intelsat IV F-6 Dec. Atlas/ KSC Global communication satellite to form part of aCentaur global communication commercial satellite sys-

tem. Launched for COMSAT.December 12, 1972

107

From page 37

APPENDIX M

SPACE DELIVERY SERVICE

A significant spur to the space research plans of many nationsis President Nixon's recent offer of non-profit U. S. launch servicesto the world. One news article described the announcement asfollows: *

NIXON EXTENDS SPACE LAUNCH SERVICES TO WORLD

President Nixon announced on Monday a policy to extendthe present space launch assistance now available to the EuropeanSpace Conference to the rest of the world for satellite projects forpeaceful purposes "on a non-discriminatory, reimbursable basis."

The President, in announcing the "global launch assurancepolicy," affirmed "the need for a dependable capability whichwould make it possible for nations to have access under equalconditions to the advantages which accrue through space applica-tions."

The most dramatic effect of this new policy could be thedevelopment of a joint U.S.China space launch program. TheWhite House said it expects Japan to be one of the first to seek theadvantages, however. On the other hand, the Soviet Union, withspace launch rate almost three times that of the U. S. at thepresent time, is not expected to be an early user of U. S. launchvehicles.

United States Policy Governing The ProvisionOf Launch Assistance

I. United States launch assistance will be available to interestedcountries and international organizations for those satellite proj-ects which are for peaceful purposes and are consistent withobligations under relevant international agreements and arrange-ments, subject only to the following:

A. With respect to satellites intended to provide inter-national public telecommunications services:1. The United States will provide appropriate launch

assistance for those satellite systems on whichIntelsat makes a favorable recommendation inaccordance with Article XIV of its definitivearrangements.

'Space Business Daily, Wed., Oct. 11, 1972, Vol. 64, No. 25, p. 179-180.

108

2. If launch assistance is requested in the absence of afavorable recommendation by Intelsat, the UnitedStates will provide launch assistance for thosesystems which the United States had supportedwithin Intelsat so long as the country or inter-national entity requesting the assistance considersin good faith that it has met its relevant obligationsunder Article XIV of the definitive arrangements.

3. In those cases where requests for launch assistanceare maintained in the absence of a favorableIntelsat recommendation and the United Stateshad not supported the proposed system, theUnited States will reach a decision on such arequest after taking into account the degree towhich the proposed system would be modified inthe light of the factors which were the basis for thelack of support within Intelsat.

B. With respect to future operational satellite applicationswhich do not have broad international acceptance, theUnited States will favorably consider requests for launchassistance when broad international acceptance has beenobtained.

II. Such launch assistance will be available, consistent with U. S.laws, either from U.S. launch sites (through the acquisition of U.S.launch services on a cooperative or reimbursable basis) or fromforeign launch sites (by purchase of an appropriate U. S. launchvehicle). In the case of launchings from foreign sites the UnitedStates will require assurance without prior agreement of theUnited States.III. With respect to the financial conditions for reimbursablelaunch services from U. S. launch sites, foreign users will becharged on the same basis as comparable non-U. S. Governmentdomestic users.IV. With respect to the priority and scheduling for launchingforeign payloads at U. S. launch sites, such launchings will be dealtwith on the same basis as U. S. launchings. Each launching will betreated in terms of its own requirements and as an individual case.When it becomes known when a payload will become available andwhat its launch window requirements will be, the launching will bescheduled for that time. Should a conflict arise, the United Stateswill consult with all interested parties in order to arrive at anequitable solution.

109

From page 42

APPENDIX N

SATELLITE-PECULIAR ADVANTAGES

From "The Impact of Space Technology on the GeophysicalSciences" by S. Fred Singer, Dean, School of Environmental andPlanetary Sciences, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida;Proceedings of the American Astronautical Society, San Francisco,Aug. 18, 1965.

I . I Advantages Peculiar to SatellitesThe chief distinguishing features of a satellite are:(I) Primarily its location which leads to the possibility of

continuous observations above the absorbing effects ofthe atmosphere. In order to maintain itself the satellitemust be located above the appreciable atmospherewhich in practice means the exosphere, about 500km,well above the ionospheric regions.

(2) The uniform coverage of the earth which a satellite canfurnish if it is in a suitable orbit.

From these major points follow many minor points in whicha satellite may be superior to earth-bound instrumentations.

(i) It is capable of nearly simultaneous measurementsof the whole earth and therefore can give aninstantaneous picture of the phenomenon understudy.

(ii) It can make a large number of these simultaneousmeasurements one after the other, and so averageout transient effects.

(iii) By being at high altitudes it can often de-emphasize disturbances which exist near sea leveland are caused by local anomalies.

(iv) In some cases a satellite measurement can be madeto a better precision than a sea-level measurementsince temperature conditions remain constant andother environmental factors can be more easilycontrolled.

(v) Finally a satellite measurement may often be lessexpensive from the point of view of effort and costthan equivalent measurements with other toolssuch as sea-level expeditions, airplanes, balloonsand rockets.

Most important, the satellite can perform some measure-ments which cannot be conducted by any other means.

110

APPENDIX 0

SATELLITESWatch Over Your Farm

Do you remember how shockedyou were in October 1457? That waswhen you heard the news that theSoviet Union had sent into orbit theworld's first satellite. Sputnik I. Andremember how when you were plow-ing you probably looked skyward andwondered if there really was some-thing out there?

If you were like all other Ameri-cans. you also felt a little humiliatedby the Soviets' achievement. But anenergetic U.S. Senator and the thenSenate majority leaderLyndon B.Johnsonwas not interested in theUnited States being second in any-ihing. much less space. He ted a drivein the Congress that culminated in theestablishment of the National Aero-nautics and Space Administration(NASA). The space race was on.

Unless you were more foreseeingthan most, you would have never be-lieved it possible that in the 1970'sa highly sophisticated satellite thatcan't be seen would be circling theearth and perhaps helping you farmbetter.

Yet it's true. On July 23. 1972.after ten years of research, ERTS-1(Earth Resources Technology Satel-lite No. I) was launched into orbit.Circling the earth every 103 minutes.it photographs your farm every 1$days from 570 miles up. Each passcovers the same hour of day. provid-ing a continuing history of your farm'sstate of health.

To keep ERTS charged for life ofa year or longer, its butterfly wingsof "sotarcells" are angled for receiv-ing tight energy front the sun. Data is

stored "up there" on tape. Upon com-mand. the data is released to a receiv-ing station. Well over 100 commandscan he sent to the satellite: turn cam-eras on and off . . change orbit tohigher or lower . . . turn experimenton and off.

Potential benefits to agriculture arebeyond estimate. USDA ventures thateach dollar spent on this remote sens-ing research will return at least five.Scientists repeatedly stale that farmpeople will be the chief benefactors.Farm benefits are legion: here are afew:

Turn guesswork into scientificfarming.

Determine exactly how many acresof crops were destroyed by hail or byhigh water.

Sight boll weevil hibernation areason Texas High Plains and South Mis-sissippi; pink bollworm in ImperialValley.

Measure soil moisture and soiltemperature. Should I irrigate, shallI plant?

Rangelands overgrazed or couldthey carry more cattle? (Range plantleaves will show red in infrared pho-tography.?

Amounts or favorable vegetationfor screwworm survival. A proposedprogram in Texas and Republic ofMexico.

Tell farmers the time to plant.spray. harvest.

Show progress of the "green wave"in spring as green moves north, or-brown wave" in fall as it movessouth. Valuable to cattle grazing.custom harvesting, crop reponing.

From page 56

Foreign markets. One USDA of-tidal foretells: United States will knowthree months before it happens howmuch wheat will be harvested in Rus-sia and China.

Monitor air, water pollution. Is itmy farm muddying the stream, or isit highway construction upstream?

Like cancer tests, early detectionwill pay olf. Plant diseasesin earlystages undetected by human eyescan be spotted by infrared.

Monitor steers and calves boughtin South Texas or Florida and movednorth. What is condition of wheatpasture? Will steers have to be movedoff of pasture to feedlot early becauseof drouth or grecnbugs? Remote sens-ing will be able to tell you well aheadof time.

Just what is the secret of ERTS'sability to see so much so quickly?This special ability is calledin tech-nical termsremote sensing.

Just what is remote sensing? YourInstant:tile camera is a remote sensor.So is your eye studying a pretty knee.Your fingers are not. What is all thiswe hear about ERTS's keen ability todistinguish crops (wheat from barley,hopefully?? Quite simple. Look atyourselfyou are unique. When yousign your name your signature is dif-ferent from that of any other person'son earth. Just so. each object on eanhanimate or inanimaterefleets adifferent amount or heat. Each has itsunique "spectral signature." Your eyescannot see this difference. But sensorson a satellite can read amount of heatand report in infrared photographs,

(Continued on page 42)

By JOHN McKINNEY, Photographic Editor

111

Progrentot Fovoi Fboacor 1973

Satellites Watch Over Your Farm (Continued infra page 3,1)

enabling you to sec many hidden phe-nomena.

Over ten years have gone into rec.ognition study of these various "signa-tures." And outerspace people. work-ing feverishly since ERTS orbited lastsummer, say much time will be neededto reline this exacting science. Esti-mates run 5 to 20 years. However, ithas already been found that whcn anykind of stress (such as drouth. disease,insects) strikes a plant it suffers abreakdown of green chlorophyl in theleaves. By infrared, stressed leavesappear pink, white, brownish . . . incontrast to a red image for the foliageof a healthy plant. (Progressive Farm-erin a national firsttold you ex-clusively about infrared space photopossibilities: "Infrared Unlocks Na-ture's Secrets," March 1967.)

The present ERTS pictures, from570 miles up. define crop fields insome degree. while the color is es-pecially good. And though the photog-raphy is a promising forcrunncr of avaluable farm tool to come, picturedetail is not yet sufficiently sharp todetect minute crop stresses. In per-fecting the sensing technique, aircraft

"I recall the first orbit the satellite .

made over my farm. It was a brightsunny day for pictures. There's noend to what satellites can do for farmers.My groundtruth observations and thesatellite pictures together are runthrough a computer to establish shadesof infrared color for crop troubles."

Albert Scheele, Floyd County farmer.

42

FebComb--4A(4-Color) .

are being employed to follow up forcloser detailflying in high altitudesalong the fringes of space it 65,000feet, and on down to a mere 1,000feet.

Finally, after planes, comes ground.truthing research, plain footwork.Plants arc checked closcup to establishthe precise shade of color signaturefor a given crop situation by a corpsof "ground truthers." (Sec photos.)At of the crop is important sincethe color changes delicately from seed-ling to maturity. Our cover this monthshows ground- truthcr Harold Greeneof USDA -ASCS, Imperial County.Calif., in action. Says Greene: "Ycs,this Imperial Valley might bc calledthe cradle of outerspace sensing foragriculture. We have an untisuallyclear atmosphere out here. In 1969the manned Apollo 9 in orbit got asharp infrared picture of our SaltonSea and farms. The picture becamea classic, and millions were inspiredto lend impetus to developing thepresent ERTS."

ERTS-I is to have a helper. Themanned Skylab. a first, is scheduledfor launch in May 1973. A day ortwo aftcr launch, if all goes well,three astronauts will go up and dockwith the orbiting craft and remainaboard for 28 days. Skylab astronautswill operate cameras and bring hack

LOUISIANA

"Here in Louisiana, ASCS sometimessends reporters out in boats to checkfields. We have a lot of water. ERTSmay point out water pollution caused byland breaking and leaving and barein winter. This would increase notillagefarming that is beginning to catch onin this area."

James Stewart. Madison Parish ASCS.

112

exposed film. They will report on farmcrops, land, water same as ERTSthat carries no film.

When this initial team returns, therewill bc a study of findings over aperiod of about 60 days. Then asecond team of three will go up andstay 56 days this time. After anotherbreak of about 30 days for delibera-tion on earth, a third and final teamwill go up for 56 days. (The first 56-day trip will establish a new recordfor length of time in spec. Russianshave held the record. with 24 days.First joint venture of the United Statesand RussM working together will bcthe Apollo Sayuzs spacecraft sched-uled for launch in mid - 1975.)

The second ERTS satellite is sched-uled for launch in late 1973. Likc allnew inventions, the prcscnt ERTS hassonic defects to iron out. Earth's cloudcover has bccn the greatest obstacle.As time goes on. cloud-piercing shouldbe perfected. An ultimate challengeto scientists will bc compensating forcolor differences in.farm crops causedby overcast days.

Satellites of the late 1970's. in ad-dition to infrared sensing. will prob-ably plunge further into the invisiblegetting into ultraviolet and micro-wave regions bf the spectrum. reveal-ing farm secrets we have not yetdreamed of.

ARIZONA

"I believe outerspace infrared is thecoming thing. When will this ERTS be aworking reality? It depends on howfast the Government wants to push itand how much money the public wantsto spend on the project. It has gotto be a reality. I would say, Inside 5 to10 years."

Floyd Rose, Maricopa County ASCS.

Progressive Farmer/ February 1973

From page 59

APPENDIX P

lIi' WASHINGTON POST Wednesday, rebniers 21, 1973

Nations at U.N. OpposeU.S. Earth Data Offer

UNITED NATIONSThe United States has of-fered to disseminate data onnatural resources obtainedby its space satellites, butthe offer made at a meet-ing of a United Nations'space committee has metopposition from severalcountries which don't wantothers to know what re-sources they have available.

Recently, the Americandelegate to the U.N. WorkingGroup on Remote Sensingof the Earth by Satellitespledged that if an interna-tional data distribution cen-ter were established, theUnited States would provideit, with "a master copy" ofall information obtained inthe NASA Earth Resourcesprogram, which has been inexperimental operation sinceJuly 1972.

The United States has al-ready made detailed pic-tures from its first satellite,ERTS-1, available to all bid.ders at prices up to $10.

It is precisely this availa-bility of data which has pro-voked the nervous reactionof several U.N. committeemembers.

By making use of thetechnology of military spysatellites, ERTS-1 is capableof sending back to earthdata for almost all of theglobe which is translatableinto pictures. The informa-tion from thin, and frommore sophisticated satellitesyet to come, will be usefulfor spotting wheat rust in a

field; following fish and ani-mal migrations; locating oiland metal deposits; monitor-ing air, ground and waterpollution, and mapping ero-sion and water runoff.

The practical applications.according to experts fromseveral nations who testifiedbefore the U.N. committee,are almost limitless.

NASA officials told theU.N. body that ERTS-1 wasproviding data to more than100 foreign users, as well asAmerican researchers. ithas detected forest fires inAlaska, helped to plan thedredging of Tampa Bay,aided erosion control in Italyand corrected the maps ofthe Amazon Basin in Brazil.

In theory, if the spacedata is available to all, theneveryone could benefitequally.

In practice, however, it isthe nations with the technol-ogy to launch the satellitesthat command the technol-ogy to make effective use ofthe information obtained.As a result of the generalavailability of the spacedata, a middle-sized Ameri-can mining corporationcould know more about themineral potential of an Afri-can or Latin American na-tion than that nation's scien-tists may know, unless it hascontracted with the UnitedStates for data and interpre-tation from ERTS-1.

The poorer nations, whohave no space experts, arelargely unaware of any po-tential threat. It is the mid-

113

dle-sized nationsMexico,Sweden, Austria, Franceand Canadawhich havespoken out at the U.S. meet.ings.

A Canadian representa-tive said the U.S. space com-mittee (of which the satel-lite working group is anaffiliate) should decidewhether freedom of actionin space is equated with"license to dispense inform-ation about your neighbor'saffairs."

France called for restric-tions on data relating to na-tional resources.

Mexico maintained thatthe dissemination of data ona nation's resources, if donelegally, would require priorauthor!?.ation by each gov-ernment, a principle theUnited States may have vio-lated already.

One American representa-tive. NASA executive Leo-nard Jaffe, responded tothese grumblings by sayingthat spare data on resourcesisn't much good without"correlative" informationgained from ground and air-plane observation, whichgovernments are better ableto control.

Arch Park, the chief ofNASA's Earth ResourcesSurvey Program, told thecommittee that the UnitedStates and the Soviet Unionare pursuing "the same re-search pattern" in this field,and that the two power::"are now defining a seriesof joint experiments."

From page 60

APPENDIX Q

.VOLCANOES AND BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Excerpt from: Presentation by Dr. Kenneth Watt, Universityof California, at the Conference on the Environment and theDeveloping Professional, Institute for the Study of Health andSociety, at Air lie House, Warrenton, Virginia, Oct. 23-26, 1969,Proceedings, pp. 33-56.

There is a very simple way of finding out the exact effectthat volcanic eruptions have had on weather and on all biologicalsystems. That is to try and relate the sun-spot cycle and theconcentration of fine particles in the upper atmosphere as emittedfrom volcanic eruptions each to changes from year to year in theglobal mean temperature and see which one seems to be thecausative agent. It turns out that the effect of the concentration offine particles in the upper atmosphere over-rides changes in thesun-spot number. In other words, the major factor operating onglobal weather is not changes in the rate of emission of energyfrom the sun, but rather changes in the extent to which thatemission can penetrate the albedo around the planet thereflective shell of fine particles in the upper atmosphere. As thatreflective shell becomes more dense, the penetration by theincident solar radiation can go down to 80% of what it mightotherwise have been. The consequence is that there have beenreally cool periods in the last few centuries because of volcaniceruptions. It is of interest to consider just how large scale theseeffects have been.

This can be illustrated on a graph of three of the longest runsof data for any biological time series in the world. The top one isthe catch of lynx that is the number of lynx hides taken by theMcKenzie District of the Hudson Bay Fur Company, and thatvariable goes back to 1735. It is only plotted from 1860 on to1940. The second one is the incidence of influenza deaths perhundred-thousand people in England and Wales from 1860 to1950. The third is a very long run of measurements of Germanforest insect pests, from 1880 to 1940 (Fig. J-1).

Looking at, these variables carefully, this will give you an ideaof the possible pervasive effects of air pollution in the future. Younotice at first glance that these three graphs look very different.The top one looks very regular with respect to the zenith, theamplitude and the wave length, and it looks as if it is uninfluencedby any outside factor. That is the lynx graph.

114

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The influenza graph, like the graphs for most epidemics onsemi-log graph paper, shows a long period of quiesence followedby explosive outbreak and fluctuations that appear random abouta slowly dropping mean. Plague, or any of the other greathistorical infectious diseases, has this character.

The temporal trend in German forest insect pest abundance istypical of biological time series which have a very irregularcharacter. You notice an apparently very erratic nature in thewave lengths the amplitude, zenith, nadir and everything else.

Let us go back and take another look. You notice on closeinspection there are two very low nadirs in the lynx curve.Interestingly enough, these correspond to the two very sharpincreases in incidence of influenza. These suggest that some sort

115

of global mechanism causes depressions in the lynx cycle andelevations in the influenza cycle. This is interesting because itturns out that this first great drop and this great rise came sixyears after Krakatoa, and this second great drop and this great risecame six years after Katmai. Those were the two great volcaniceruptions in this period.

Furthermore, it turns out that you can postulate specific .biological mechanisms which will account for the six year lag.That is, for instance, if an adult female rabbit is starved in thewinter time, this does not reflect itself in the number of young shehas as much as' the probability of survival of her young throughthe twelve-month period following the time when they were born.That will have an effect on the adult female lynx that cats them,and the same kind of effect on her young. Similarly, antibody-antigen type mechanisms with mechanisms of seeding anddissemination can account for the influenza lag followingvolcanic eruptions. So it would appear, first of all, that these twomechanisms are under some sort of common global mechanism.They also seem to have something to do with volcanic eruptions.

We know that insect population responds much more rapidlyto changes, and if you study those cycles carefully, it turns outthat they were fairly regular with respect to the wave length untilyou get here (diagram); the wave is simply missing. That came atthe time of Katmai, the eruption of the volcano in Alaska. Younotice we got a low nadir here just after the eruption of Krakatoa.

I should point out immediately that all of this I am trying topoint out to you on an intuitive basis can be backed up bystatistical analysis some of it very sophisticated. For example, ifyou run this series back the whole length of the series, treat it asan auto-correlated time series, and then analyze the statisticalbehavior of residuals, it turns out that the big negative residuals allcluster six years after the major volcanic eruptions. In otherwords, the concentration of fine particles in the upper atmosphereis one of the pacemaker variables for all systems on the planet.The meteorologists in the last few years have been showing us thatthere is a tremendous increase globally occurring in concentration .

of fine particles in the upper atmosphere, coupled with the chillingof the planet; this shows what that will do.

116

From page 65

APPENDIX R

PROSPECTING IN ALABAMA

Excerpt from article in Ariation Week and Space Technologyof September 18, 1972 entitled, "Apollo 9 Photo Finds NewFeatures in Alabama," p. 40.

An end-of-the day discussion of an Apollo 9 multispectralphotograph of Alabama led to the discovery of a previouslyunknown set of lineaments crossing the Appalachian Mountainsthat may have economic as well as geological importance.According to James A. Drahovzal and Thornton L. Neathery ofthe Geological Survey of Alabama:

Major lineaments appear to have a direct relationshipwith high yield springs and wells in Alabama and henceof hydrologic significance.Striking correlations are found between lineaments andhydrothermal mineral deposits in Alabama.

The Apollo 9 photograph had been sent to the U. S.Geological Survey regional office in Alabama by the NationalAeronautics and Space Administration. It was being shown to thestate geologists at a casual gathering, without any real study effortin mind. In trying to identify known geological features, thegeologists bumped into the lineament pattern.

"Lineament" as a term has a general, non-commital meaning.It is any topographical line on the Earth's surface, and its cause isa matter of interpretation. In this case, Drahovzal and Neatherybelieve they are large fractures that are acting as avenues fordistribution of ground water.

These fractures would also act as channels for mineralizedfluids depositing gold, sulfide ores, barite or fluorite. "Some of therichest arid most numerous barite deposits of the state occur atlineament junctions," Drahovzal said.

Lineaments also have seismic implications. Six of the 15earthquakes recorded in Alabama since 1886 have occurreddirectly on two of the most geologically significant lineaments.This means _that_ the lineament-causing features are still-activev-the-Alabama geologists said, and are related to deep-seated structure.

These lineaments generally trend perpendicular to the axis ofthe Appalachians. Apollo 9 photography was limited to theSouthern states because of orbital parameters, but Drahovzal andNeathery predict that more of these will be found in EarthResources Technology Satellite imagery. Its polar orbit (AW&STJuly 31, p. 46) permits global coverage.

117

From page 66

APPENDIX S

MEDICATION MANUFACTURING IN SPACE

Manufacturing in space is seen as a distinct possibility bycost-conscious teams from industry and the medical field. Thefollowing article is one example.

THE WASHINGTON POST Smr47.161a LIES A3

Scientists Eye Space ProductionOf Costly Anti-Clotting Enzyme

By Thomas O'TooleWhwenree Pee Mot/ etre.

A team of industry.univer.:Ity scientists believes it Is

Possible to make a rare andcostly enzyme that dissolvesblood clots by producing 11 Inthe weightless conditions ofouter space.

So convinced Is the researchteam of lb* worth of makingthis enzyme In apace that theteam is about to submit a pro-Posta to the space agency thatthe enzyme be produced*howl the Apollo spacecraftthat will be flown in earthorbit in 1975 for the mintAmerican.Russian d o c k i nmission.

The enzyme is named uroki.nase and has been successfullyused In the that four Yests bythe National Heart and LungInstitute to treat 236 victimsof pulmonary embolisms. clotsIt.tX block the how of blood tothe lungs. The body producesurokinase, but not enough todissolve clots that cause em

boltsms.The Heart and Lung Hull.

lute paid $500,000 for the urokinase It has used. in treatingembolisms, a price of morethan $1,000 per patient. Theurokinase was extracted fromhuman mate urine by an untceildY process that producesonly one dos* of the enzymefrom 1,500 quarts of urine.

A new method of makingurokinase is what promptedthe industry.university teamto propose production of theenzyme In spare. The teamconsist of scientists from Chi.cago's A Watt Laborttories.San Diego's Convair divisionof General Dynamics Corp.and the UCLA school of midi.sine

The new method Involvesmaking the enzyme from thekidney cella of miscarried fetuses, which produce 50 timesmore urokinase than urinedoes Kidney cells also turnout to be more manageable. Aquart bottle of tiny but *bun.dant kidney cells would be the

equivalent of 50.000 quart hot.Iles or urine.

A problem with kidney cellsIs that only one in 20 can bemode to produce urokinase,'Mich is where the Abbott.ConystrsUCLA teamcame toOther to suggest that the en.zyme be made in spare. At theneon of their suggestion is thedevelopment by UCLA blophy.Most Alexander Kan ofmachine that separates the,one "active kidney cell fromthe HI Inactive cells that don'tmake urokinase.

Kolin'a device separates thecells by electrophoresis. using

moving electrical field tocarry rolls of different desist,ties along at different rates ofspcleL Kohn has alreadyshown that he can isolate theactive kidney cells on earth, aprocedure he and nis colleagues believe can better bedone In space where there lano gravity working againstseparation.

"Urokinase is a lifesavingdrug that's unavailable to man

118

became of its price," says Ab.bott Laboratories' Grant Bar-low, "What we have here Is amethod of producing thia drugat a price that man can af-ford."

Barlow points out that thekidney cells would be sepa-rated aboard a spacecraft.then amputee!. frozen andbrought back to earth whereurokinase would be producedfrom the active cells in a pharmaceutleal plant.

Even allowing for this weeguld reduce the price by afactor of 20." Barlow sold."Our calculations show a priceof 350 per dose for urokinaveif we could use this method inspace."

The A hholl.ConssinUCLAteam has yet. to propose theirscheme to the space agency,but NASA °Moms say theyhave heard of it.

'It rounds like a bright andhopeful development." saidthe space agency's Dr. JamesBredt, "nut that's all we esnsay about it at this time."

From page 72

APPENDIX T

VOICES FROM 370 B. C.

Socrates: Shall we make astronomy The next study? What do you say?

Glaucon: Certainly. A working knowledge of the seasons, months andyears is beneficial to everyone, to commanders as well as tofarmers and sailors.

Socrates: You make me smile. Glaucon. You are so afraid that thepeople will think you to be recommending unprofitablestudies.

I admit it is difficult to convince the multitude, but in everyman's soul there is an organ which is purified and kindledafresh by such studies. This faculty is destroyed and blindedby ordinary pursuits. This eye of the soul outweighs tenthousand bodily eyes, for by it alone is truth seen.

Plato, Republic VIICirca 370 B.C.

119

From Page 73

APPENDIX U

THE NUN AND THE SCIENTIST

Sonic of the reasons for exploring space, when there arenumerous social problems on earth, were described recently by Dr.Ernst Stuldinger, Associate Director of Science at the MarshallSpace Right Center, Huntsville.

His beliefs were expressed in his reply to a letter from SisterMary Jucunda, 0.P., a nun who works among starving natives ofZambia, Africa.

Your letter was one of many which are reaching me everyday, but it has touched me more deeply than all the othersbecause it came so much from the depth of a searching mind and acompassionate heart.

I will try to answer your question as best as I possibly can.First, however, I would like to say what great admiration I

have for you, and for all your many brave sisters, because you arededicating your lives to the noblest cause of man: help for hisfellow men who are in need.

You asked in your letter how I can suggest the expendituresof billions of dollars for a voyage to Mars, at a time when manychildren on this earth are starving to death.

I know that you do not expect an answer such as "Oh, I didnot know that there are children dying from hunger, but fromnow on I will desist from any kind of space research until mankindhas solved that problem!"

In fact, I have known of famined children long before I knewthat a voyage to the planet Mars is technically feasible.

However, I believe, like many of my friends, that traveling tothe moon and eventually to Mars and to other planets is a venturewhich we should undertake now. I even believe that this project,in the king run, will contribute more to the solution of these graveproblems we are facing here on earth than many other potentialprojects of help which are debated and discussed year after year,and which are so extremely slow in yielding tangible results.

Before trying to describe in more detail how our spaceprogram is contributing to the solution of our earthly problems, Iwould like to relate briefly a true story which may help supportthe argument.

About 400 years ago, there lived a count in a small town inGermany. He was one of the benign counts and he gave a largepart of his income to the poor in his town. This was much

120

appreciated because poverty was abundant during medieval timesand there were epidemics of the plague which ravaged the countryfrequently.

One day, the count met a strange man. He had a workbenchand little laboratory in his house, and he labored hard during thedaytime so that he could afford a few hours every evening to workin his laboratory.

He ground small lenses from pieces of glass; he mounted thelenses in tubes and he used these gadgets to look at very smallobjects. The count was particularly fascinated by the tinycreatures that could be observed with the strong magnification andwhich nobody had ever seen before.

He invited the man to move with his laboratory to the castle,to become a member of the count's household and to devotehenceforth all his time to the development and perfection of hisoptical gadgets as a special employee of the count.

The townspeople, however, be'ame angry when they realizedthat the count was wasting his money, as they thought, on a stuntwithout purpose. "We are suffering from tfUs plague," they said,"while he is paying that man for a useless hobby!"

But the count remained firm. "I give you as much as I canafford," he said, but I will also support this man and his work,because I know that someday something will come out of it."

Indeed, something very good came out of this work, and alsoout of similar work done by others at other places: themicroscope. It is well known that the microscope has contributedmore than any other invention to the progress of medicine andthat the elimination of the plague and many other contagiousdiseases from most parts of the world is largely a result of studieswhich the microscope made possible.

The count, by retaining some of his spending money forresearch and discovery, contributed far more to the relief ofhuman suffering than he could have contributed by giving all hecould possibly spare to his plague-ridden community. ,

The situation which we are facing today is similar in manyrespects. The President of the United States is spending about$200 billion in his yearly budget. This money goes to health,education, welfare, urban renewal, highways, transportation,foreign aid, defense, conservation, science, agriculture and manyinstallations inside and outside the country.

About 1.6 per cent of this national budget was allocated tospace exploration this year. The space program includes ProjectApollo, and many other smaller projects in space physics, spaceastronomy, space biology, planetary projects, earth resourcesprojects and space engineering.

121

To make this expenditure for the space program possible, theaverage American taxpaper with $10,000 income per year ispaying about $30 for space.

The rest of his income, $9,970, remains for his subsistence,his recreation, his savings, his taxes and all his other expenditures.

You will probably ask now: "Why don't you take 5 or 3 or 1dollar out of the 30 space dollars which the average Americantaxpaper is paying and send these dollars to the hungry children?"

To answer this question, I have to explain briefly how theeconomy of this country works. The situation is very similar inother countries.

The government consists of a number of departments(Interior; Justice; Health; Education; Welfare; Transportation;Defense; and others), and of bureaus (National Science Founda-tion; National Aeronautics and Space Administration and others).

All of them prepare their yearly budgets according to theirassigned missions and each of them must defend its budget againstextremely severe screening by congressional committees andagainst heavy pressure for economy from the Bureau of theBudget and the President. When the funds are finally appropriatedby Congress, they can be spent only for the line items specifiedand approved in the budget.

The budget of the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-tration, naturally, can contain only items directly related toaeronautics and space. If this budget were not approved byCongress, the funds proposed for it would not be available forsomething else. They would simply not be levied from thetaxpaper, unless one of the other budgets had obtained approvalfor a specific increase which would then absorb the funds notspent for space.

You may realize from this brief discourse that support forhungry children, or rather a support in addition to what theUnited States is already contributing to this very worthy cause inthe form of foleign aid, can be obtained only if the appropriatedepartment submits a budget line item for this purpose and if thisline item is then approved by Congress.

You may ask now whether I personally would be in favor ofsuch a move by our government. My answer is an emphatic yes.Indeed, I would not mind it at all if my annual taxes wereincreased by a number of dollars for the purpose of feedinghungry children wherever they may live. I know that all of myfriends feel the same way.

However, we could not bring such a program to life merelyby desisting from making plans for voyages to Mars. On thecontrary, I even believe that by working for the space program I

122

can make some contribution to the relief and eventual solution ofsuch grave problems as poverty and hunger on earth.

Basic to the hunger problem are two functions: the produc-tion of food and the distribution of food. Food production byagriculture, cattle ranching, ocean fishing and other large scaleoperations is efficient in some parts of the world, but drasticallydeficient in many others.

For example, large areas of land could be utilized far better ifefficient methods of watershed control, fertilizer w.f.., weatherforecasting, fertility assessment, plantation programming, fieldselection, planting habits, timing of cultivation, crop survey andharvest planning were applied.

The best tool for the improvement of all these functions,undoubtedly, is the artificial earth satellite.. Circling the globe at ahigh altitude, it can screen wide areas of land within a short time,it can observe and measure a large variety of factors indicating thestatus and conditions of crops, soil, droughts, rainfall, snow cover,etc., and it can radio this information to ground stations forappropriate use.

It has been estimated that even a modest system of earthsatellites equipped with earth resources sensors, working.within aprogram for worldwide agricultural improvement, will increase theyearly crops by an equivalent of many billions of dollars.

The distribution of the food to the needy is a completelydifferent problem. The question is not so much one of shippingvolume, it is one of international cooperation.

The ruler of a small nation may feel very uneasy about theprospects of having large quantities of food shipped into hiscountry by a large nation, simply because he fears that along withthe food there may also be an import of influence and foreignpower.

Efficient relief from hunger, I am. afraid, will not comebefore the boundaries between nations have become less dividingthan they are today.

I do not believe that space flight will accomplish this miracleovernight. However, the space program is certainly among themost promising and powerful agents working in this direction.

Let me only remind you of the recent near-tragedy of Apollo13. When the time of the crucial reentry of the astronautsapproached, the Soviet Union discontinued all Russian radiotransmissions in the frequency bands used by the Apollo Project inorder to avoid any possible interference, and the Russian shipsstationed themselves in the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans in casean emergency rescue would become necessary.

123

Had the astronauts' capsule touched down near a Russianship, the Russians would undoubtedly have expended as muchcare and effort in their rescue as if Russian cosmonauts hadreturned from a space trip.

If Russian space travelers should ever be in a similaremergency situation, Americans would do the same without anydoubt.

Higher food production through survey and assessment fromorbit, and better food distribution through improved internationalrelations, are only two examples of how profoundly the spaceprogram will impact life on earth.

I would like to quote two other examples: stimulation oftechnological development and generation of scientific knowledge.

The requirements for high precision and for extreme reli-ability which must be imposed upon the components of amoon-traveling spacecraft are entirely unprecedented in thehistory engineering.

The development of systems which meet these severerequirements has provided us a unique opportunity to find newmaterials and methods, to invent better technical systems, toimprove manufacturing procedures, to lengthen the lifetimes ofinstruments and even to discover new laws of nature.

All this newly acquired technical knowledge is also availablefor applications to earthbound technologies. Every year, about athousand technical innovations generated in the space programfind their ways into our earthly technology where they lead tobetter kitchen appliances and farm equipment, better sewingmachines and radios, better ships and airplanes, better weatherforecasting and storm warning, better communications, bettermedical instruments, better utensils and tools for everyday life.

Presumably, you will ask now why we must develop first alife support system for our moon-traveling astronauts, before wecan build a remote-reading sensor system for heart patients.

The answer is simply: significant progress in the solution oftechnical problems is frequently made not by a direct approach,but by first setting a goal of high challenge which offers a strongmotivation for innovative work, which fires the imagination andspurs men to expend their best efforts, and which acts as a catalystby including chains of other reactions.

Space flight, without any doubt, is playing exactly this role.The voyage to Mars will certainly not be a direct source of foodfor the hungry. However, it will lead to so many new technologiesand capabilities that the spinoffs from this project alone will beworth many times the cost of its implementation.

124

Besides the need for new technologies, there is a continuinggreat need for new basic knowledge in the sciences if we wish toimprove the conditions of human life on earth.

We need more knowledge in physics and chemistry, inbiology and physiology, and very particularly in medicine to copewith all these problems which threaten man's life: hunger, disease,contamination of food and water, pollution of the environment.

We need more young men and women who choose science asa career, and we need better support for those scientists who havethe talent and the determination to engage in fruitful researchwork.

Challenging research objectives must be available, and suf-ficient support for research projects must be provided. Again, thespace program with its wonderful opportunities to engage in trulymagnificent research studies of moon and planets, of physics andastronomy, of biology and medicine is almost the ideal catalystwhich induces the reaction between the motivation for scientificwork, opportunities to observe exciting phenomena of nature, andmaterial support needed to carry out the research effort.

"Along all the activities which are directed, controlled andfunded by the American government, the space program iscertainly the most visible, and probably the most debated activity,although it consumes only 1.6 per cent of the total nationalbudget.

As a stimulant and catalyst for the development of newtechnologies, and for research in the basic sciences, it is unparal-leled by any other activity. In this respect, we may even say thatthe space program is taking over a function which for three or fourthousand years has been the sad prerogative of wars.

How much human suffering can be avoided if nations, insteadof competing with their bomb-dropping fleets of airplanes androckets, compete with their moon-traveling space ships! Thiscompetition is full of promise for brilliant victories, but it leavesno room for the bitter fate of the vanquished which breedsnothing but revenge and new wars.

Although our space program seems to lead us away from ourearth and out toward the moon, the sun, the planets and the stars,I believe that none of these celestial objects will find as muchattention and study by space scientists as our earth.

It will become a better earth, not only because of all the newtechnological and scientific knowledge which we will apply to thebetterment of life, but also because we are developing a far deeperappreciation of our earth, of life, and of man.

125

The photograph which I enclose with this letter shows a viewof our earth as seen from Apollo 8 when it orbited the moon atChristmas, 1968.

Of all the many wonderful results of the space program sofar, this picture may be the most important one.

It opened our eyes to the fact that our earth is a beautifuland most precious island in an unlimited void, and that there is noother place for us to live but the thin surface layer of our planet,bordered by the bleak nothingness of space.

Never before did so many people recognize how limited ourearth really is, and how perilous it would be to tamper with itsecological balance.

Ever since this picture was first published, voices havebecome louder and louder warning of the grave problems thatconfront man in our times: pollution, hunger, poverty, urbanliving, food production, water control, overpopulation.

It is certainly not by coincidence that we begin to see thetremendous tasks waiting for us at a time when the young spaceage has provided us the first good look at our own planet.

Very fortunately, though, the space age not only holds out amirror in which we can see ourselves, it also provides us with thetechnologies the knowledge, the challenge, the motivation, andeven with the optimism to attack these tasks with confidence.

What we learn in our space program, I believe, is fullysupporting what Albert Schweitzer had in mind when he said:

"I am looking at the future with concern, but with goodhope."

My very best wishes will always be with you ErnstS tuhlinger.

126

A

Abernathy, Rev. Ralph, 73Aboriginal societies, 60Activities of man, superfluous. 3Adaptability of technological base, IIAdditives for food, 62Advertising

using manned flight, Iby industry, 13LTV, Inc., 11Volkswagen, 13North American Rockwell, 40TRW, Inc., 97

Aeronautics, American Institute of, 74AEROS Spacecraft System, 107Africa, 65Agreements for space cooperation, 6Agriculture

ram crop, 35influence of weather forecasting, 36health of crops, 55experiment stations. 56crop distinguishing, 56

Airborne traffic, 24Aircraft

communications over oceans, 25fires, 27

Aklk House, 114Air/Sea rescue, 26Air traffic cc -.trot

ocean routes, 25radio Inadequacy over oceans, 25

Alabamaspace photo of, 57, 58discovery of lineaments. 117

Alasl:a, 26, 42, 50Univ. of, 59

Albedo, 114Alfven, Hennes (Nobel prizewinner), 44Algeria

inventory of resources. 33Allen, Prof. James, 68America

foreign view of, 72admiration for, 72materialistic charge, 72National style, 72survival of, 74route to kerning, 77

American Astronautical Society, 95, 110American Society for Performance

Improvement, 47Anderson, Virginia, 104Animals on centrifuge, 53Anthropology

early societies, 59Anti-Locust Research Center, 59Anti-technology, 76Applied Physics Laboraiory, 50Apollo

Management concept, 4perfection required, 47Apollo 9, 54, 117Apollo 11, 73Apollo 13 crisis. 122Apollo 14, 66Apollo 15, 71, 76Apollo 16, 107Apollo 17, 107

Appendicitis, 50Application Teams

Blo-Medical, 48Arabia, 59Archeology

lost cities, 59Arctic

development of, 24Argentina, 21Armstrong, Neil, 73, 77Art .

destructiOn In Florence, 19National Gallery of Art, 29documenting space activities, 29obligation of, 29emotional impact. 100

INDEX

Arthritis, 50Artists

response to space, 29curator of painting, 30, 100Interpretations, 100value of, 100Cooke, Hereward Lester, 30Brown, J. Carter, 30Rauschenberg, Robert, 30Wyeth, Jamie, 30Rockwell, Norman, 30Kingman, Dons, 30Benton, Thomas Hart, 29

Asiaspace efforts, 9Japan, 8India, 22Calcutta, 24

ASP1, 47Asteroid Belt, 85Astronautics

American AstronauticalSociety, 92,95American Instituteof Aeronautics and Astronautics, 74

Astronautsflight with USSR, 6emergencies, 6traduced, 76rescue and return, 70Borman, Frank, 2, 4Armstrong, Neil, 32, 73, 77Aldrin, Edwin, 32couches for, 12

AstronomerThe Learned, ill

Astronomyradio, 42, 44infrared, 42,44ultra violet, 42, 44gamma ray, 42, 44X-ray, 42, 44and Socrates, 119GAO, 44Uhuru, 44plasmas, 44

Atheism, 2Atlantic Ocean

routes across, 24airtraflic volume, 24costs to fly, 24

Atmosphereof planets, 43of earth, 43CO2 content, 43changes in, 43contamination of upper, 60, 114

Atomic Energy Commission, 61Atomic

power, 75waste disposal to space, 61

ATS-1, 42,52, 62ATS-F

use by Indian government, 22use by Brazil, 41

Automatic Picture Transmissionvisible, 34infrared, 34building of sets, 34use in high school, 34

Arco Corporationflre tesu for NASA, 28

Aviationair traffic control satellite, 24photo mapping, 35

Aviation Weekand Space Technology, 80, 81, 117

B

Bacteriakilled by lunar dust, 43food contamination, 62

Baker, Dr. Carl G., 48Baja California, 34

127

Balloon experiments, 96, 110Baltimore Evening Sun, 83Bangladesh, 71Bannister, Roger, 47Batteries, 50Brandeis Univ., 77Baylor University, 50Benton, Thomas Hart, 29Biology, 6, 55

processes, 60systems, 114

Biologicals, 67Binary representation, 85DimUngham, Alabama area, 57, 58Bio-Medical

Application Teams, 48Blacks

activist, 73and technology, 76Gregory, Dick, 73Abernathy, Rev. Ralph, 73opportunities for, 76

Bleeding in Alaska, 50Blood cells, 66

anti-clotting, 118Blight

of crops, 56Books

book gap, 41text books, 41

Borman, Frank, 2, 4Born, Max, 37Boosters

falling, 70Brazil, 41, 59, 65Break throughs

of social importance, 98, 122technical and scientific, 98, 122

Britain, 74British Royal Navy, 26Brotherhood, 87Brown, J. Carter, 30Brownouts. 16Bruckner, D. J. R., 29Budgets

federal, 74NASA, 74, 120Defense, 75social, 75for interest, 75for science, attitude toward, 29

Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 81Business efficiency, 20Business Week, 62, 75, 83

C

Cable TV, 21Calcutta, India, 24California

Univ. of. 53, 115law experiment, 62

Cameraview of, 29, 100use at launch, 100

Canadadomestic comsat, 8, 21, 69Chapman Report, 69claim to synchronous orbit area, 69prospecting in. 64Remote Sensing Centre, 54

CancerNCI, 48NASA support, 48

Cape Kennedy, 73Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, 43Cargo for Shuttle, 67Cartography

aerial mapping, 35Celestial Bodies

law regarding, 69Celestial Empire, 77Censonhip, 5, 89Centre for Remote Sensing (Canada), 54

Centrifugeanimals on, 53versus electrophorcsis, 66

Chad, 21Change

social, 76technological, 76influence of technology, 76

Chapman Report, 69Charyk, Joseph V.

president of Comsat, 19Chickens on centrifuge, 54Children

heart pacemaker for, 51China, 8, 108

maritime stature, 77decline of, 77turning inward, 77

Christian Science Monitor, 9, 79Cities, 24, 38, 59Civilian products

R&D devoted to 37Civil War, 102Civilization

amenities, 24lost, 59others, elsewhere, 85

Clarke, Dr. Arthur C., 20, 41Clean rooms

arthritis, 50Closed Society, 5Closed system, 4Clothing industry. IICollection

from data platforms, 60Colloid Engine, 97Colonies

see MoonColorado, Univ. of, 68Columbia University, 39Columbus, Christopher

subsidized, 32Commerce

export items, 8foreign trade, 9

Communicationsmulti-destination, 21demand assignment system, 21rates, 20cables, 21satellites, 21domestic satellite system, 21maritime, 26Intelsat system, 20law enforcement, 62static free, 50telephone, 20phone bills, 20data, 20TV, 21for medical emergencies, 51

Communications Satellite Corp., 18Communism, 6Competition

and war, 6in space, 6fear of monopoly, 9foreign trade, 75foreign technology, 75

Computerssavings from, 9driving laser cutter, 11via satellite, 21development of, 75programs available; 39

on N.Y. stock exchange, 18launching requirement, 36ship communication experiment, 26

Conceptsage-old, 1of management, 3Spaceship Earth, 3transfer, II

Conductors, semi, 67Congress

debates on space, 73Congressional Record, 79, 80, 81, 82Connecticut Natural Gas Corp., 17

Conservationof copper, 21

Consortiums for space investigation, 37Construction Industry, 36Containment, 72Contaminutiun, 5Continental drift, 43Continental Shelf, 56Controllers, ground, 24Controls

Wage-Price, 56Cook, Dr. John P., 59Cooke, Hcreward Lester, 30, 100Cooperation

in space, 6, 121international, 59front advanced nations, 96, 121

Copperworld wide savings of 21

Corn blight, 56COSMIC, 39Cosmonaut

Nikolayev, Andrian, 9Costs

of U.S. phone calls, 20of cable vs satellite, 21NASA budget, 74savings on copper and labor, 21to fly Atlantic Ocean, 24of lunar landing, 74of meat, 56reduction of launch costs,6

Courtsprocedures, 40speed of justice, 61

Counterbudget, 75Crash barriers, II, 13Creator

search for, 2Crime

Research Foundation, 62problem, 73

Criminologyfingerprints, 62communication, 62suspect's rights, 62

Cripplessurgery for, 50

Cropshealth of, 55identification, 55

Crosby, Philip B., 47Cruise for moon shot, 84Crust

of earth, 64Cryogenics, 14Crystals, 65, 67Culture

emergencies, 19Florentine art threat, 19native, 42paleolithic, 60science nucleus in India, 96

Cultural deprivation, 23Cunard Line, 26Curriculum publications, 41

D

Damsweakening, 58

Dante, 87Dartmouth College, 60Data Collection Platforms, 60Daumler, Honore, 29, 100DaVinci, Leonardo, 100Debates on space, 73Defects, zero concept, 47Democracy

on trial, 44survival of, 72

Department of Agriculture, 57Department of Interior, 55Depts. of State, Defense, Justice, 69Detection

of plant disease, 56insect infestation, 57of minerals, 63, 64

128

of pollution, 60, 61of opium sources, 59of locusts, 59of heat, 17

Developing countries, 9, 73, 95Diabetes, 49, 53Dialectical Materialism, 6Dickey. lames, 105Disaster Control, 62Disasters; cultural, 19Disease

kidney, 49bladder, 49of plants, 56

Ditching at sea, 25, 26Domestic Satellite System, 20

customers waiting, 20and computers, 21"private line" messages, 21

Domination of Spacemilitary, 71commercial value, 67

Drai:mai, James A., 117Drama of Spaceflight, 71Drought

prediction of, 57Drucker, Peter, 76Drugs, 59, 66, 118Duke University Medical Cir., 52Dust

Lunar, 43Interstellar, 85

Dyson, Freeman, 92

E

Earthone entity, 3,4uniqueness, 5United States of, 20surface structure concept, 38, 39, 42,43chilling of, 116

Earthquakescause of, 38, 42, 43predictability, 38-39, 43along Alabama lineaments, 117

Ecologyconcept of Earth, 4smokeless stack, 97

Economicsof flying oceans, 24of jets vs rockets, 92. 93, 94of ship operations, 26of improved weather prediction, 36competition of nations, 75staving off disaster, 75

Economizing on research, 29Economy

rhis to U.S., 8, 9, 36of India, 95effects of space talent on, 37, 38

EDSAT, 42Education

U.S. Office of, 42electronic libraries, 19via satellite. 23illiteracy, 23, 41global instruction, 42Alaska experiment, 42in-service training, 42response to Sputnik, 41text book gap, 41graduate research centers. 4 L_ _

Effects of Space Investigationnature of, 1, 2futuristic,behavioral, 1

Efficiencyof fuel cells, 17of business, 20

Electricitypower sources, 15, 16, 17, 18pollution free, IS, 16. 17from orbit, 16Faraday's motor, 10

EkctroKnit, 40Electron Microscope, 98

Electronicsminiature, 50

Electrophoresisvaccines-purity. 66lymphocytes, 66biologicals, 66transplant rejection, 66

Emergenciesmedical, 50

Emerging Countries, 41Empire, Celestial, 77Enemy identified, 61Energy

from solar cells, 16from orbit, 16from fuel cells, 17geothermal, 17.18earthquake, 38, 39nuclear, 44rates of production, 44to orbit, 94transcontinental, 94

Enforcementlaw, 40, 61, 62 ,

anti-pollution, 61Engineering Systems, 40Entertainment, IEntity of earth, 3Environment, Conference on, 114Environmental

controls. 50enzymes from space, 118

Equatorial bands. 69EROS, 55, 59Error

acceptable levels, 47,48E. R. Squibb Co., 48ERTS

and farming, 1 1 1foreign participation, 54in archeology, 59"ground truth," 56data collection, 60volcano tiltmeters, 60launch schedule, 107impact on geology, 117U.N. opposition, 113

ESROconsortium, 37launch schedule, 107

ESSA, 34Establishment, the, 32Ethiopia, 35Europe

push for .,eace capability, 9technical manpowercomparisons with U.S., 38

Europeans and China, 77European Space Research .011anization,

9Evolution, 2Example, need for, 44Excellence, 44Exploration

17th to 19th centuries, 30public participation in Apollo. 71

Exportsgrowth of space products, 8of technology, 9hi3h technology items, 9losing ground, 75

Exxon, 26Eyewitneu to Space

space art, beak of, 30

F

Factories Aloft, 65.66, 67Fads, 19Fairchild Industries, 20False alarms in meteorology, cost of, 35Famine, 120Faraday, Michael, 10Fat

mobilizing properties, 53human and animal, 53

Fashion taste stry, 40F81, 61

Fearof monopoly, 9

Federal Aviation Administration, 24Federal

Communications Commission, 20, 69Federal Spending, 74, 75Fertilircrs, 43Fingerprints via satellite, 61Fink, Daniel J., 67Fire

death rate, 27materials research, 27passenger aircraft, 27forests, 55

Fireflies, 49Fire resistant materials, 27Fiscal Year Expenditures, 74Fischer, William A., 55Fish

location of, 54Flat Earth Society, 1Fleet Weather Facility, 35Fletcher, Dr. James, 4, 56Floods

anticipatory, 33control, 33

Fluoroscopy, 52Food

for astronauts, 62standards, 62developments, 62technology, 63

Forbes Magazine, 17, 78Forcing Function, the, 11, 56Ford, 39Foreign Affairs Magazine, 81,:82Foreign policy, 72Forestry

crop health, 55fires, 55

Fortune Magazine, 24, 80Fort Worth Star Telegram, 83Fractures

in earth, 117Frequencies of pulsars, 85Frey, Louis, 59Frontiers, 22Fuel cells

efficiency of, 17Future Shock, 76, 83

G

Galileo, 2Galleons, 77Gamma radiation, 44Garbage

radioactive, 61Gardner, John, 44Gas deposits, 55Gases, of planets, 43General Assembly, 59General Electric Co., 57, 65, 67, 98Geodesy, 18Geology

by satellite, 18faults, 64subsurface, 55lineaments, 117

Georgia, univ. of, 39George Washington Univ., 79Geothermal steam, 17Glass

from orbit, 66Global education, 41Goddard Space Flight Center, 33Golcs, Dr. Gordon, 4Gottschalk, Robert, 10Government Executive Magazine, 79Gravel, Senator Mike, 26Gravity

increased, 53, 54zero, 66reduced, 66of Jupiter, 61effects of, 53, 66

Griffin, Dr. R. N., 67Great Salt Lake, 15Gregory, Dick, 73

129

Gross National Product, 37Ground Truth, 56Grumman Aerospace Corp., 50Gubscr, Charles, 48Gulf Stream

precision location of, 26

H

Harp, Eimer, Jr., 60Hart, Dr. Karl G., Jr., 74Hawaii, 56, 62H bombs, 44Illiaby, Najceb E., 94Health Cam, 48Heart

pacemakets, 50transplant, 50assist device, 97

Hemorrhaging,.50HEOSA2, 107High School Weather Clubs", 34High technology, 10, 67Highway

patrol, 62safety, 13

Hipsoperations on, 50

fificial joints, 50Presbyterian Hospital, 50

Horn:, 19Hospitals

planning, 40,48Johns Hopkins, 50Hollywood Presbyterian, 50

Hostility of intellectuals, 28Housing, 73Hudson Bay Fur Company, 114Hughes Aircraft, 8,11, 21Humanity

needs of, 3relationships among men, 3

Humor, 1. Humphrey, Hubert, 70Hunger, 73, 120Hurricane Camille, 33Hurricanes

preparation for, 35.36false alarms, 35costs, 36

Hydrogen atom, 85Hydrology

see WaterHypothalamus, 53

Iceland, 18Ice

monitoring system for Nimbus, 26mapping, 35

Illiteracy, 23, 42IMP.H. 107Imports, 10,75"Impossible Dream," 94India

TV experiment, 22and Pakistan, 71National Committee for Space Re-search, 95per capita income, 95reasons for space program, 95life expectancy, 95population growth, 95Agriculture, 96communications, 96weather, 96

Indiana Agricultural Experiment Sta.Lions, 57

Indian Ocean, 96Indies, East, 77Indonesia, 21Industry (industries)

vacuum, 14cryogenics, 13clothing, 11,40computer, 8, 76

Infectiondetection, 48in surgery, 50

Influence, international, 72Influenza

in England, 114and volcanoes, 114

Infrared, 44, 56detection of water, 56

Ionosphere, 110Insects

infuriation, 59weather effect on, 114German forest, 114

InstructionSatellite .0 clasuoom, 2i., 41

InstrumentsMultispectral, 59, 60

Insulation, 8, 28Insulin, 53Intellectual

hostility, 28fashions, 32anti-Establishment, 32

Intelligent lifepossible existence, 2, 87attempt to communicate, 2

Intelsat, 19, 26, 107, 108Interior, Dept. of, U.S., 55International

cooperation, 6, 59influence, 72leadership, 72technology, effect of, 72

International Narcotic Control Board, 59International teamwork, benefits of, 8International Telecommunications

Union, 70Interstellar dust, 85Inventory

textile industry, I IItaly, 18ITOS-D, 107

J

Jacobsen, Josephine, 31James, William, 44Japan, 8, 11, 19, 37, 96, 108Jastrow, Dr. Robert, 64Jet engine, 10Jet Propulrion Laboratory, 104Jobs, knowledge, 76Johns Hopkins Hospital, 48Joint Editorial Board USSR and USA, 6Jucunda, Sister Mary, 0, P. (nun), 120Judgment of nations, 77Jupiter, 61, 85Justice, 61, 69Justification

of space research, 18

K

Katmai, 116Kennedy, President John F., 72, 78Kingman, Dong, 'SOKorea, 71, 77Knitting machine, 40Knowledge

delay in using. 10jobs, '76fundamental. 98

Kohler, Dr, Foy D., 72Krakatoa. 116

Laboratorylunar receiving, 43

Laminar flow of air, 50Languages, multiple, 22Laser

technology, 11tracking sites, 39moon reflectors, 43discovery funding, 76

Launchcosts to orbit, 8vehicles, 36 (see rockets)capabilities, 36services for others, 37, 108compensation for, 37

Lawenforcement, 61Sovereignty, 68open skies, 68International TelecommunicationUnion, 70Liability, causes of, 70 -

UN legal bodies, 69, 70pollution rolls, 61

Leadersnew breed of, 3

Legal processes, 68Lerner, Dr. Max, 77Levitation-melting, 66Liability from space activities, 69Libraries

electronic, 19Library of Congmu, 31Licensing

technology, 10Lick Observatory, 45, 46Life

existence of, 2, 87threats to, 4lunar dust affects plants, 43Magazine, 29, 79

Lineaments, 117Lipodystrophy, 53Literacy

preliterate societies, 60Literature

recoil of literary world, 30mythology, 31

Litton Industries, 55Locusts, 39Logsdon, Dr. John, 72London Express, The, 23Los Angeles

Times, 72, 82, 83Louis XIV, 29LTV Aerospace, 11Luciferase, 49Lunar Dust

plant growth, 43 .

effect on bacteria, 43Lunar material, 4Lung transplant, 50Lymphocytes., 66Lunar Receiving Laboratory, 43Lynx furs, 114

M

MacArthur, General Douglas, 71MacLeish, Archibald, 4, 32, 87, 106Madagascar, 77Mradariaga. Salvador de, 72Magma, 17, 60Magnetometers, 55Mailer, Norman, 28Malaria outbreaks, 52Man

medieval notion of, 87conception of self, 2, 87

Man=ement Sy elems, 39Mankind

dispersion and destiny, 3environment of, 3extinction possibility, 2future of. 2origin and nature, 2concepts of himself, 2,87invulnerability, 2homegenizatlon of, 19

Manned space Hightcontroversy, 1, 73publicity, Iadvertising based on, 1, 11

Manpowersurplus of technical, 38allocation of, 37

Man's outlook, 3

130

Manufacturing in Space, 67, 118volume of, 67high technology products, 66, 72pilot plants, 68profits from, 67composites, 67pharmaceuticals, 67, 68materials, 67, 68

Mappingaerial, 35

Marcus, Stephen, 30Mariner 11, 104Maritime

Administration, U.S 26uses of satellites, 26technology in old China, 77

Mars, 5, 129Marland, Dr. S. P., 42Materialism, 5Materials

insulation, 8educational, 41pipeline, 11fire resistant, 27crystals, 65metals purity, 66foamed steel, 66alloys, 66composite, 67superior characteristics, 66

McCreight, L R., 67McDowell, Edwin, 28McElroy, W. D., 10Measurements

from the moon, 43from orbit, 55from aircraft, 66simultaneous, 110precision, 110

Meat prices, 56Medication manufacturing, 66, 118Medical

heart assist pump, 13, 97research, 48satellite, 52emergencies, 52

Medicinehealthy subjects 48Bio-Med applications teams, 48new knowledge, 48problems to aerospace firms, 48USSR information swap, 6obesity, 53

. bacteria detection, 48Luciferase, 49urine tests, 48engineering, 50heart transport, 50pacemakers, 50Manufacture in space, 66, 118

Merchant Marineuse of navigation satellites, 26

Metabolism of plants, 43Meteorology, 18, 32.36

(See also weather)Mexico, 18, 34, 59Microscope, origin, 120Military value of space domination, 71Milky Way, 44Miami, University of, Ili)Minerals

trace, 43satellite prospecting, 03, 118host rocks, 63plant uptake, 65deposits, 65, 118via aircraft sensors, 65

Miniaturization, 50Mining, 65Minorities, 76, 77Missionary, medical, 77Monitoring

of polluters, 61of ice, 26of Gulf Stream. 26

Monopolyin space, 9communications satellites 69

Monroney, Senator Mike, '74

Monsoon rains, 95 OpticsMoon perfect quality lens, 65

colonies, 2 highly refractive glass, 66laser reflectors on, 13 perspective on Moon, 101dust, 43 Orbitoptical perspectives, 102 synchronous, 16Voyage To The (poem), 106 polar, 118Moon Ground, The (poem), 105 Oregon, Univ. of, 4

Moore and Hanks, Co., 50 OriginMotivation, 3 of mankind, 3Mountains, 117 of universe, 2Mules, 73 Osgood, Dr. Charles, 19Mumford, Lewis, 28 OilMythology, 31, 32 . deposits, 55

slicks. 61Ore deposits, 61

N

Narcotic, 59NASTRAN, 39National

reputation among nations, 70style of U.S., 70

National Cable Television Association,21

National Conimission on Fire Preventionand Control, 28

National Council of Social Studies, 11National Debt. 71National Defense Education Act, 11National Gallery of Art, Director of. 30National Geodetic Satellite Program, 18National Geographic, 33, 80National Institute of Health, 52National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Agency, 33, 39National Science Foundation, 10, 38National Space Council, 70National Urban Coalition, 75Nature

acting on, 72Navigation

satellite, 18, 26Navy

Royal. 26U.S., 26, 35TRANSIT satellite, 26APT equipment, 35and ice forecasts, 35

Heathen'. Thornton 4, 117Negro, See Minorities, See BlacksNerve System

of society, 20Newell, Dr. Homer, 61Newsweek.11, 79, 82New York Daily News, 83New York Stock Exdiange, 18, 69New York Times, 82. 83New Zealand, 18Nickel-cadmium batteries, 50Nikolayev. Andrian, 9NIMBUS, 27. 31. 107Nixon. President Richard M., 8, 61NOAH, 32, 33Noah, 31Nobel Prize, 44, 90North American Rockwell Co., 8,10Nuclear

energy, 44warfare, 2, 3annihilation, 2ban in space. 70submarine, 70

Nun's views, 120Nutrition, 13, 63

0OAO-C, 107Obesity, 53Observation (see surveillance)Oceanography. 18Office of Telecommunications Policy, 21O'Hair, Madalyn Murray, 3O'Keefe, Dr. John. 5Omron Tateisi Electronics Co., .11Operating rooms, 50Opinion control. 5Opium, 59

P

Pacemakerrechargeable, 50

Paine, Dr. Thomas 0., 29.73Painters (see artists), 29, 100 6Pakistan

cyclone deaths, 32India war, 71

Paleolithic culture, 60Pan American World Airways, 8, 91Partisan Review, 30Patent Commissioner, 10Peaceful Use of Space, 59, 71Pedgier, D. E., 59Performance, levels of. 47Performance

American. Society for PerformanceImprovement, 47Handbook of Performance Improve.men... 47

Perspective of the cosmos, 3Pettis, Congressman Jerry L, 47Philco-Ford Corporation SMS produc-

tion, 33Phillippines, 22Philosophy

source and nature of man, 2, 87view of the universe, 3, 87mastery of nature. 72precious planet, 100space effects, 120stunt man, 72

Pilot-Plant Malin facto ring, 68Pioneer 10, 2, 85, 97. 107Pioneer F, 85Pituitary gland, 53Plants

effect of lunar dust, 43.metabolism, 43nutrition, 43

Plasmas, 44Platca, tectonic, 38Plato Republic Xll, 119Plaque, on Pioneer 10. 8.5Poems

The Moon Ground. 105Voyage to the Moon, 106The Sending, 104The Learned Astronomer, iiiSpace Prober, 103

Poetryabsence of. 31consultant in poetry, 31reaction of poets, 31

PoetsJacobsen, Josephine, 31Shapiro, Karl, 3 2MacLeish, Archibald, 1, 32, 106Dickey, James, 105Whitman, Walt, iiicaptive poets, 31Bergin, Thomas, 103Anderson, Virginia, 104

Pogo, 61Polaris, 71

'PoliceHonolulu, 62.California, 62

PolicyTelecommunications, 21foreign, 72

131

Polio vaccine, 98Political factors, 72Pollution

from power generation, 16on high seas, 26EROS detection, 55lawsuit, 61atmosphere, 60natural, 60man made, 60detection, 61monitoring, 61national problem, 73

Polyisocyanurate, 27Pope, Alexander, 3Popular Mechanics, 80Popular Science, 82Portuguese, 77Potassium, 55Poverty

cycle, 23problem, 73, 120

Powergeneration of, 15.18non-polluting sources of, 16, 17from orbit, 16of nations, 72

Pratt and Whitney Company. 17Prayer, objection to, 2Precision, 47Preservation of food, 62President Nixon, 8, 61Prams of meat, 56Priorities

national, 73versus space. 73, 120poverty, 73Gregory, Dick, 73

Problemssocio-tcchnical, 121Apollo, 3National, 3space generated, 69

Profitspace manufacturing, 67grubbing. 72

Propagandavia satellite. 5

Programsfor computers, 39at discount prices, 39

Prospecting, 63Psychology of public, 5, 19Public Health Service, US.. 52Public safety

aircraft over oceans, 21via fire protection research. 27weather satellites, 32storm deaths, 32

Publicity, I, 71Pulitzer Prize,1, 32, 87Pulsars, 85Purdue University. 57Puritans, 72Purposes

of space research, 18of India's space effort, 95of foreign space programs, 8

0

Quality. 47'Quality control, 1Quasars. 11Queen Elizabeth II (ship), 26

R

Races, relationships between, 76Radcliffe College, 41Radiation

sources, 55solar. 16, 111

Radionon-reliable over oceans, 25static free, 50World Administrative Radio Confer-ence. 42

Radioactive garbage. 61Radioactivity. 3Radioisotope

energy source. 97Radiology

fluoroscopy, 52Xray. 52satellite transmission, 52

Radiometers, 61Rains, monsoon, 969aisin crop, 35Rausclwnberg, Robert, 30RCA ('orporation, It 54Rechatgeable batteries. 50Rei:onnaissance lee surveillance). 70RAD, pripil abroad, 10Regional Dissemination. Centers, 10Reliability, 11.47,97, 122Religion

Genesis, 2prayer, objection to. 2search for creator, 2human destiny, 2creation, 6

Remote Sensingearth resources, 54Canadian Centre for, 54training programs, 59UN coopetation, 59

Rendezvous Magazine. 80, 81Republic, The (Plato), 119Rescue

of astronauts, 6at sea, 29

Research-economizing on, 29university facilities, 41need to invest in, 28, 75government sponsored, 76

Resolutions at UN, 69Revrces

of earth, 54, 121ERTS. 54inventory. 53,54. 55Data Processing Center, 55information, lack of. 58economic disadvantage, 58facts for all. 59

Rheumatic arthritis. 50Rights of suspects, 61Rio Grande do Norte, 41Roadbudding, 36Rockets

Q.THOR DELTA, 8ATLAS, 8sounding. 33, 96SATURN V,8casings. 14atmospheric. 33

Rockwell. Norman, 30Rocky Mountain states. 42Rostow, Walt, 72Rural areas, 22, 41Russell Bertrand, 20Russia

cooperation. 6, 122economy, 8Navy, 71(See also USSR)

Royalties, 64

S

Safety,(See "Public Safety)

Sagittarius, 45San Andreas fault, 3%San Francisco, Calif. earthquakes, 38Sarabhai, Vikram, 95SAS-B. 107Satellites

and farming. I I IApplications Technology (ATS), 22,24, 62Synchronous, 16, 33.62Navigation, 25tracking of, 39

weather. 32.36Uhuru, 44Medical. 52law enfr'ecement, 62privately owned, 69"quick look," 71peculiar advantages of. 110, 121

Saturday Review, 82.Saudi Arabia, 59Savings

agriculture. 35storms, 35aerial mapping, 35transportation, 35construction, 35road building, 35

Schlesinger. Dr. lames. 61Schools. 41. 73Schweitzer. Dr. Albert, 126Science

new vantage point, 42space science, 42

Sea Ice MappingFleet Weather Facility, 35Torecasting value, 35

Secrecy, 6Secret Sentries in Space, 70Seismology (see earthquakes), 117Seoul, 71Sensors

on cars, 13on Tacecraft, 18on !IRTS, EROS, 55on aircraft, 55, 56, 60

Shapiro. Karl. 32Shock absorber, 11Shuttle, 6, 7, 61

concept, 6payloads for, 67energy requirements, 94cost per pound, 94as air transport, 94

Signaturesof materials, 56and "ground truth," 56processing of, 56

Singer, Dr. Fred S., 110Sioux Falls, 55Skylab, 67Smithsonian Institution, 29Smoke

removal of, 97Synchronous Meteorological Satellite ar

vantage, to meteorolo.iiis. 33Social education, 41Social impacts

motivation. 3assistance from technology. 3problems, 4. 121,superfluous activities. 3of satellite TV, 19

Social planners, 3Social status. 76Societies

closed, 5Impacts on. 19traditional, 19isolated, 19conservative, 19

Societyextinction of, 5aboriginal, 60preliterate. 60Flat Earth, The. I

Sociologistsforesee cultural harm. 19

Socrates on astronomy. 119Solar

1311, 17energy, 44flare. 100radiation, 115

Solzenhitsyn, Akaandre, 90Sortie labs, 67South Dakota, 55Southeast Asia, 65Sovereignty

national. 67Soviet Onion (see USSR), 5.69. 70, 72, 108

132

SOYUZ 9.9Space

competition, 6cooperation, 6. 121direct utilization of, 18manufacturing in, 65challenges of. 68law, 68,69ownership, 69Council, National. 70sentries, 71peaceful uses of, 71objections to program, 73. 120consequences of exploration, 92. 121travel prospects, 92, 94

Spacecraftfalling. 69debits, 69

Space Age Research and Medicine, 48Space Business Daily, 8, 79, 80Space exploration

precautions, advisable, 4purposes of, 18

Space Lawsee Law, 69

Space programcurtailment of, 8justification of, 18

Space shuttlesee "Shuttle"

Space stationuse of, 5

Space Travelcommercial, 92cost of 92requirements for profit, 93

Spanish Galleons, 77Specifications, 14Speed

of Pioneer 10, 97Spectral

multi scanners, 59Spending, Federal, 75Sputniks, 41, 72Standards, examples for, 47Stanton, Dr. Frank of CBS, 89Status, social, 76Steam, geothemial, 17Steele, Robert (Congressman), 28Sterility, super, 50Stevenson, Dr. Robert E,. 55Stimuli to youth, 47Stratosphere flying, 33Stress analysis. 39Stuhlinger, Dr. Ernst, 120Sun, 44Sun Oil Company. 24Surgeon General, 52Surgery, 50Surveillance

air traffic control, 24security of nation, 71of polluters, 60

Survey of resources, 55Suspects, rights of, 6ISweden, 44Synchronous satellites

defined, 16Meteorological, 31Communications, 18-22Navigation, 24. 25Air Traffic Control, 24

Systems Engineering, 40

Taiwan. 55Talent

technical, 37allocation of, 37

Taxes. 72Taylor, Theodore, 92TIM, 107Teacher Shortage. 41Teaching

via satellite, 41in -service training, 42

Tech Brief, 12

Technologyavailable for national nerds, 3dineminatron of, 11advanced, 8laser, 11high technology items. 11. 67adaptability of, I Iapplications of space technology. 35lag, 8.72and poverty, 73. 120and social goals, 3, 73and national needs, 73foreign competition. 9, I I. 75effect on minorities, 76and the Black American, 76attitudes toward, 76Anti. 76moratorium, 76acceleration. 76deceleration, 76management of. 77and quality of life, 77mistrusiagement. 77soul Vcoducti. 77stimulation of. 95and social needs, 99new products. markets, jobs. 99

Technology Utilization. Office of, IllTectonic plates, 36Telecommunications Policy, Office of,

24Telephone

cable circuits, 20via satellite. 20

Televisionvie satellite, 19via cable, 19in India, 22

Telsat, 8, 107Temperature

decrease in world, 60ranges for food, 62of globe, with time. 114

Terminology in public usage, 1Test pilota

Society of Expenmental, 91Testing procedures, 13Text book gap. 41Textiles. 11. 10Thermonuclear fusion, 11Think tank, 11Thorium. 55Tiltmeters, 60Time-Life

documentary film. 38Time Magazine, 10. 70, 82, 83Timmons deposit, 65Trailer, Alvin, 76Topography. 117Toshiba Company, 18Totalitarian

censorship, 5sea, 72

Tovnbuc, Arnold. 28Trace minerals, 43Tracking of satellites, 39Trade

international. 8balance of, 10. 66

Trafficairborne, 21, 2fcontrol. 25rite over Atlantic, 21

Transfer Concept, ITransistors for power, 66Transit

navigation satellite. 26Transportation

glohal passenger system. 8, 92, 91Dept. of, U.S.. 26and wt-ither. 36systems, 40

national problem. 73Treasury Department, 37Treaties of UN, 69. 70Tribalism, 22Tiatei tory

pest Jupiter, 851 RW, 97Tumors, 66TV

India. 22

U

Uhuru. 41Ultraviolet. 14-46Understanding

by public. diminished, IUnemployment

scientist and engineers. 38of Ph.D.s, 38

Unidentified flying objects. IUnited Nations

Earth resounes, 59narcotics. 59opium. 59INCR. 59Space treaties, 70and law, 68censorship intent. 5, 89opposition to EATS. 113

United States of Americaadmiration for. 72foreign view of. 72materialistic charge. 72National style, 72survival of, 73, 71route to learning. 76

United Statesof Earth, Articles of Federation, 20

Urivvrienatuie and reality of, 2creation of, 5

Universitiesand technology utilization, 10research facilities, 11NASA grants, 11

University of Alaska. 59University of California at Davis, 53University of Colorado, 68University of Georgia. 39University of Illinois, 19University of Wisconsin, 42Uranium, 55Urinary tract, 19U.S. ambassador to Moskow, 72U.S. Geological Survey

experiment with NASA. 39U.S. Maritime Administration

collaboration with NASA, 26U.S. Office of Education. 12U.S. Navy, 26U.S. News and World Report. 82USSR (see Soviet Union, Rusin)

(unit flight plan, 6submarines, 71and India- Pakistan war, 71

V

Vaccines. 66,76, 118Vacuum

in manufacturing, 11Value of "ace activity for developing

countries, 95Venus, 104Vetssilles, 28Vietnam, 19, 29,73Villages

life in, 23Alaska. 12

133

communications among, 42Indian, 23lost, 59

Volcanoeseruption prediction, 60end ldtmeters, 60effect on weather. 111biological .ystemi r: action.. 111Krakatoa, 114Kaimai, 111

Von Braun, Dr. weigher. 60,62. 71,77

w

Wage Price Control, 56Wall Street Journal, 54, 55, 80. 81War, 6, 123WARC (World Administrative Radio

Conferentx), 12Warfare

radioactivity. 3nuclear, 3substitute for. 6conventional, 70diminished possibility, 70secret military moves, 70by miscalculation, 70leichnical advance. during, 99

Washington Post, 79. 80, 81Wastes

Radioactive, disposal of, 61Water

on infrared film, 58sources, 55, 117underground, 55depolits, 55movement to needed area, 40

Watt, Dr. Kenneth. 111Wavelengths, 11Wealth

creation, 75redistribution, 75

Weaponssee Warfare

Weatherover oceans, 32, 35cost savings, 36high school clubs, 31chilling of globe, 60picture transmission, 33satellite prediction. 32-35storm deaths. 32synchronous satellites, 33satellites and floods, 33hurricanes, 35, 36near India. 96

'Welsh, Dr. Edward C 70Western Union Telegraph Co., 20White House

Office of Telecommunication. Pol-icy, 21

Whitman, Walt, iiiWisconsin, Univ, of, 12Wisdom

popular, 1application of. 76

Wolfe, Thomas, 28World trade, 9Wormelli, Paul K., 62Wyeth, Jamie, 30

X

X-Radiation, 44

Zero-Dcfects, 47

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