DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 211 701 CE 030 944

AUTHOR Mercier, Lorraine Y., Ed.TITLE Outlook for the 80's: Adult Literacy.INSTITUTION Dingle Associates, Inc., Washington, D.C.SPONS AGENCY Department of Education, Washington, D.C. Basic

Skills Improvement Program.PUB DATE Sep 81CONTRACT 300-80-0800NOTE 106p.

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.Academic Persistence; *Adult Basic Education; *AdultEducators; *Adult Literacy; Adult Programs;*Community Support; *Educational Strategies; FederalLegislation; Futures (of Society); *LiteracyEducation; School Holding Power; Student Recruitment;Teacher Education; Teacher Role; Teacher Selection;Teaching Skills

ABSTRACTThese four papers look at some conditions and

circumstances surrounding the literacy education movement and ateducation's response to a new set of cultural requirements foreffective living. They provide idees for administrators of privateand public adult education programs, business and industryexecutives, and all concerned with adult literacy. In "Modern AdultBasic Education: An Overview" by Curtis Ulmer the state of the art isreviewed. Following a survey of the history of United Statesliteracy, the characteristics, attitudes, and needs of the illiterateare discussed, literacy is defined, literacy legislation and trainingare outlined, and effective programs are described. The paperconcludes with implications for the 1980s. "Critical Issues in AdultLiteracy" by Oliver Patterson and Louis L. Pulling covers recruitingand retaining illiterate adults, goals of literacy programs,identifying target populations, minimizing failure, and mobilizingcommunity resources. Adult education strategies are surveyed in"Adult Basic Education Instructional Strategies: Their Design andImprovement" by K. Owen McCullough.-The paper describes roles andclientele characteristics, expounds adaptation of variou learningtheories to adult basic education, cites instructional techniques andmaterials, and predicts changes in adult education.\"The Care andFeeding of Instructors of Adult Literacy and Basic Education" byWaynne B. James considers the need for quality instructors,instructor role, instructor competencies, instructor selection, andinstructor training/preparation. (YLB)

************************************************************************ Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made ** from the original document. *

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OUTLOOK FOR THE 80's:

ADULT LITERACY

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Basic SkillsImprovement Program

September 1981

Edited by

Lorraine Y. MercierProgram Specialist

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

CENTER (ERIC)

This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationonginatmg it

f I Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction Quality

Point: of view or opmions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official NIEposition or policy

MIS

Preparation of this publication was wholly supported by funds made available throughContract Number 300-80-0800 from the U.S. Department of Education, Basic SkillsImprovement Program. However, opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflectthe position and policy of the agency, and no official endorsement by the FederalGovernment should be inferred.

1=111111,

Project Staff:

Clarence M. Johnson, Senior EditorRamsey L. Said', Project DirectorMarca V.O. Piehuta, Assistant Project Director

dingle associates, inc.

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1625 Eye Street. NW. Suite 915Washington. DC 20006

FOREWORD

The present era is one in which tremendous forces of change are at work

in our society. The promises and the pitfalls which accompany these changesare often discussed and debated, as are the practical implications thesechanges may have on education's methodology, management, and perhaps its very

mission in future decades.

Thurpose of this particular project was to provide a vehicle for theexchange of such views between the Department of Education's Basic SkillsImprovement Program staff and representatives of some organizations interestedin adult literacy.

An Adult Editorial Committee was established, consisting of repre-sentatives from the Adult Basic Education Commission, the Adult EducationAssociation, the kmerican Association of Community and Junior Colleges, theAmerican Association of Public and Continuing Education, the AmericanFederation of Labor/Congress of Industrial Organizations and representativesfrom community-based programs. Working with the U.S. Department of EducationBasic Skills Improvement Program, the Committee discussed issues, prioritized,and developed detailed descriptions of topics, which resulted in thecommissioning of four concept papers.

One paper reviews the state of the art since 1960. Another paper dealswith critical issues in adult literacy and community-based organizations. Athird addresies what constitutes a successful adult program, while a fourthpaper is concerned with the pole selection and preparation of instructors.

The document is not meant to be prescriptive, however, this concertedeffort provides important ideas for administrators of private and public adulteducation programs, business and industry executives, and all concerned withadult literacy.

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Gerald W. ElbersDeputy DirectorBasic Skills Improvement Program

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are enormously indebted to the following members of the'EditorialAdvisory Committee on Adult Curriculum and to the organizations which theyrepresent:

Dr. Edward Cavert American Association of Communityand Junior Colleges

Dr. James Dorland American Association of Public

Dr. Curtis Ulmer

Mr. Kenneth R. Edwards

Dr. Waynne James

Dr. Oliver PattersonMr. Louis L. Pulling

Continuing and Adult Education

International Brotherhoodof Electrical Workers

Adult Basic EducationCommission, the AdultEducation Association

Community-Based Organizations

Dingle Associates, Inc., would like to thank Shirley A. Jackson, JohnMcCarthy, and Doris Crudup, of the U.S. Department of Education, Basic SkillsImprovement Program, who in various ways contributed to the project'ssuccess. Special recognition is due to Helen O'Leary who initiated theproject and to Lorraine Mercier, Program Specialist, who was responsible forseeing to its development and guiding it to its completion.

Accolades, also, must be given to many persons at Dingle Associates, Inc.,but especially to those who followed Outlook for the 80's: Adult Literacy toits completion, namely: Clarence M. Johnson, Senior Editor; Ramsey L. Sa'di,Project director; Marca V. O. Piehuta, Assistant Project Director; and CynthiaR. Porter, Editorial Assistant.

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PREFACE

The unity of knowledge, the nature of ideas, and the very notions ofsociety and culture have changed to such an extent that society today, in asense, is virtually a new world.

One thing that is new is the prevalence of newness--the changing scale andscope of change itself--so that the world alters continually. What is new isthat in one generation, knowledge of the natural world engulfs, upsets, andcomplements all knowledge of the natural world before. We need to recognizethe cha e and learn what resources are available. (Oppenheimer, PerspectivesU.S.A. II .

This new-world reality, so eloquently described by Oppenheimer, created anew society where the unskilled and undereducated citizen became disadvantagedin terms of coeing in society. As the nature of employment, man's ;relation toinstitutions, and his relations to others changed, so did his educationalneeds. No longer was the classic definition of education--the adaption of manto a static culture--sufficient for a lifetime of change. The definition ofeducation slowly, but with certainty, changed to the concept cf education thatenables individuals to become all that they are capable of becoming. Thisconcept, in turn, has changed the nature of education to a concept of lifelonglearning. Since change appears to be the only constant in society, the "fullcup" concept of childhood education is not valid in this generation. Instead,the purpose of childhood education is moving toward acquiring a basiceducation that will allow individuals to train and retrain and continue tolearn throughout life.

Illiteracy, then, is a social, economic, cultural, and educationalphenomenon that defies conventional wisdom regarding definition orremediation. It touches totally the lives of those who are afflicted by it,and, to some degree, it affects every citizen. For most of those who do notpossess a basic education--and therefore are functionally-illiterate--illiteracy is a modern curse that effectively bars them from participatingfully as workers, citizens, or parents. Education for illiterates must be acombination of social and occupational learning, as well as learningcommunication and computation skills. Today's literate citizen must learn tocope with the complexities of a technical society while learning to read,write, and compute.

The four,-papers included in this volume on adult literacy will attempt to -look briefly at some of the conditions and circumstances surrounding theliteracy education movement, and to look at education's response to a new setof cultural requirements for effective living. Obviously, the challenge isgreater than space permits, but, hopefully, a brief coverage of the majortrends in basic education will foster more understanding of the problem.Education was the spark which set off the technological explosion that createdthe new illiterates; and education is the only means by which the dilemma canbe solved. The catch 22 is that education for the illiterate must be aseffective--but different--as education for the modern scientist. It willrequire a proportionate share of our educational resources.

Curtis UlmerChairmanDepartment of Adult EducationUniversity of Georgia

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v

PREFACE vii

1. "Modern Adult Basic Education: An Overview"By Curtis Ulmer 1

2. "Critical Issues in Adult Literacy"By Oliver Patterson and Louis L. Pulling 23

3. "Adult Basic Education Instructional StrategieS:Their Design ang Improvement"

By K. Owen McCullough

4. "The Care and Feeding of Instructorsof Adult Literacy and Basic Education"

By Waynne B. James

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MODERN ADULT BASIC EDUCATION: AN OVERVIEW

By

Curtis UlmerChairman, Department of Adult Education

University of GeorgiaAthens, Ga. 30601

and

James DorlandExecutive Director, National. AssociationFor Public Continuirg and Adult Education

1201 16th Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20038

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ABSTRACT

Drs. Curtis Ulmer and James Dorlaud, in an overview paper, survey, thehistory of U.S. literacy education. They describe adult eveningclasses during colonial times, so-called Moonlight Schools startedafter World War I, military training programs during World War II,television educatibn programs-during the 1950's, and Federal trriningprograms durlpg.the 1960's and 1970's. They enumerate the criticalliteracy eduCation trends of the 1980's, touching on dramatiCcurriculum changes and the social and political awareness that willfora a major part of these trends.

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I. INTRODUCTION

To 4 large extent, any overview of a subject as complex as adult basiceducation will be subject to a variety of interpretations. Even the very term"adult basic education" has only been generally accepted and widely used inrecent years. Such terms as "literacy training," "literacy education,""fundamental education," "basic skills training," "elementary education foradults," "pre-high school education," and others have been used to describewhat is being referred to in this paper as adult basic education.

The lack of agreement over terminology is not surprising since variousterms are used to refer to educating (or is it training?) adults, such as:

adult educationcontinuing educationrecurrent educationlifelong learning

Theie is no clear consensus on these terms. However, there is agreementon the concept that education is a process which can continue throughout lifeand that there need be no age barriers to this process. How each country andeach society'educates its adults differ. This paper is an overview of modernadult basic education in the United States merely as the authors see it.

Populations served

Estimates vary depending on the source of data and definition ofilliteracy, but there are between 50 million and 65 million adults in theUnited States who lack the educational skills required to fully participate asworkers and citizens. Those who possess marginal skills find it increasinglydifficult to cope with society's complexities; others who lack minimum skillsgenerally have depended on society almost completely for food, clothing, andshelter. The social and economic costs of illiteracy are staggering - -in termsof the gross national product and the frustrations to individuals unable tocope with the-ordinary demands of modern living.

In a large sense, illiterates comprise an invisible minority, hidden bystandard dress that masks illiteracy from others. Thus, the population isidentified mainly through census reports, unemployment figures, schoolenrollment data, and welfare rolls. HOw did modern illiteracy occur and whatchanges must occur to alleviate it? Perhaps a brief review of the problem andeducational responses will help in understanding the complexities of theproblem in the 1980's.

Literacy education reviewed

In the United States, education has always been valued as a personalobjective and goal. Schools tended to follow the various migrations as theFounding Fathers moved from the Atlantic coast to-the Pacific coast overseveral generations. Furthermore, literacy has been pegged traditionally at

specifieeducational grade levels, such as the fourth grade, the eighth grade,and finally, the 12th grade. Only in recent years has the concept of literacybeen extended to include coping skills as well as grade levels.

Literacy education in the United States is practically as old as thepublic school movement. Adult evening classes were fairly common in thecolonial era, although the first significant literacy movement occurred as theresult of successive waves of immigrants and the "Americanization" classes forteaching language and the skills required for naturalization. The recent ,

influx of Indochinese, Cubans, and Spanish-speaking people from Puerto Rico,Cuba, Mexico, and elsewhere has created a new interest in English-as-a-Second-Language, although there is considerable difference between the needs of thesestudents and native illiterates.

Moonlight Schools. The next way! of literacy training began in and spreadacross the southeast after World War I. So-called Moonlight Schools involvedlarge numbers of persons who were taught by volunteers and public schoolteachers. This movement introduced the first adult-centered materials as-"primers" developed around adult themes principally related to religion, homeand family life, and the virtues of honesty and integrity. Cora WilsonStewart was the movement's spiritual head and wrote a number of "primers" anda popular book entitled Moonlight Schools. During the Great Depression. anumber of Federal programs devoted to literacy educationitcluding W.P.A. andC.C.C. effortsemerged, although the government gave work to unemployedteachers as a part of theseprograms.

Milftary.training. The military in World War II routed illiteraterecruits through training battalions for basic reading and computationskillsprior to assignment toduty stations. In addition to emphasizingcommunication and computation skills, the military stressed social skills formilitary life and personal hygiene, perhaps a forerunner of modern copingskills. The military also introduced a new concept in developing materials byusing cartoons and comic books to create in a lighthearted vein an interest inreading. The cartoons and comic books always taught some principle of safety,military discipline, or group living requirement. The military's interest inliteracy education has continued through the years, contributing much tocurrent knowledge of methods and materials in teaching illiterate adults.

Television and church. The next wave of literacy education began in the1950's and centered around three societal forces: the new technology oftelevision, the beginnings of the technologically unemployed, and the church.A national television program, Operation Alphabet, was shown in .a number ofStates. '-The viewer could get a book, generally free, and follow the programat home. Other television programs involved group viewing in a home or publicfacility; the programs would be followed by an instruction period led by avolunteer who may have had some previous experience or inservice training inliteracy teaching.

By the early 1950's, about 15 States had designated a person in the StateDepartment of Education who had responsibility for adult education. Mostclasses were sponsored through gublic schools and generally focused on high

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school diploma or high school equivaYzncy programs rather than the lowergrades. Emphasis was on hilh school completion for vocational training,licensure for a trade, or for college admission.

The third force of the 1950's sprang from an international program foundedby a missionary, Frank Laubach, who stressed a simplified teaching andlearning concept based on a simplified alphabet. It was hoped that eachperson who was taught by the "Laubach Method" would assume a moral obligationto teach another person to read. The movement quickly spread to the ThirdWorld, and millions of persons learned to read the basic materials provided ''.sythe Laubach Foundation. Laubach's materials used pictures that framed lettersof the alphabet to trigger interest and memory. The Laubach movement createdtremendous interest worldwide, resulting in the development of a literacycenter in Syracuse. The center became a leader in producing materials forliteracy students and research designed to make literacy teaching moreeffective.

Literacy as a national concern. The literacy movement appears to fallinto two relatively distinct periods--prior to 1964 and after 1964. Whileteaching methods and materials have tended to be cumulative, and much valuableexperience was gained prior to 1964, it appears that program purposes changeddramatically after that year. The earlier literacy training goals tended tofocus on enabling an individual to gain communication and computation skillsto achieve personal and occupational goals. Literacy program providers oftenacted for humanitarian and religious reasons. The curriculum tended to stressteaching, reading and writing, and English to recent immigrants, while theprograms stressed diploma and equivalency programs for advanced adult students.

Passage of the Economic Opportunity Act in 1964 signaled a change ofpurpose for literacy training. For the first time in the country's history,illiteracy became a national concern. The welfare of society is tiOdinextricably to the significant illiterate minority. To paraphrase a civilrights statement of the 1960's, one might saythat as long as a significantminority remains in a ditch, the majority must remain there with them.Passage of the act with its Title II-B provisions for Adult Basic Educationand the subsequent passage of the Adult Education Act of 1966 signified thebeginning of a new profession. Instead of sporadic waves of literacy trainingprograms staffed by volunteers, the adult basic education profession nowincludes thousands of full-time and part-time professional teachers,curriculum specialists, teacher trainers, and material specialists.Publishers have discovered a lucrative market and vie to produce the finestteaching materials. The new interest has extended to labor, business andindustry, and'Federal and State agencies. The military has increased itsefforts and routinely trains thousands each year in literacy programs.

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II. CHARACTERISTICS, ATTITUDES, AND NEEDS OF THE ILLITERATE

The invisible poor

The adult illiterate is categorized often as the invisible poor because,although they abound in numbers, they are not identifiable until they applyfor jobs or attempt to use a public agency service. It is estimated that asmany as .ont in five U.S. citizens falls into this category. Groups of ethnicminorities, inner-city residents, recent immigrants, farm and migrant workers,and rural poor tend to include numerous illiterates. The following social andpersonal traits--which must be considered and dealt with before an instructionprogrim is effective--characterize the illiterate adult.

The illiterate adult:

has a devastated concept of his or her own self-worth;

does not necessarily have the same values as themiddle-class citizen;

has not seen the *American Dream" realized in his orher life or in the lives of family and friends;

. is usually die last to be hired and the first to be

o is a target for replacement by automation;

has difficulty complying with society's regulations;

is likely to be on welfare;

leads a survival-based life--"live-for -today° syndrome;

generally does not see value in returning toschool--which was a bad experience for the few yearshe or she attended;

tends to perpetuate illiteracy through example andattitude to his or her children;

has innate potential for anger.and resentment;

is fearful of new experiences;

is unaware of the changing environment: because his orher own world seems unchanged;

is an inefficient consumer: and

is likely to have health problems.

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Obviously, no single set of characteristics adequately describes such a

large and varied population. However, illiterates tend to live in restricted

areas, and effective adult basic education program specialists can quickly

identify unique local characteristics. While the characteristics listed here

are by no means complete, they give some idea of the problems faced by local

programs. One well-established principle of teaching functional illiterates

is: They will not become effective learners until their pressing fears andanxieties surrounding their new venture are met. Added to personal fears is

their marginal status as wage-earners and what is often the unsatisfactory

nature of their personal lives.

Thete conditions must be dealt with by the adult basic education program,

regardless of the agency offering the instruction. It has been estimated that

on a:national level, only 2 percent.of illiterates attend classes.Unfortunately, most do not see literacy classes as a viable opportunity to

lead better lives. Perhaps more correctly, the low self-osteem and their lackof information combine to prevent illiterates from seeing literacy classes as

a means of improving their circumstances. Another possibility is thatilliterate adults perceive literacy education instruction programs in manygeographic locatitJas to be of no benefit--or that the education process is too

long to be of immediate assistance.

Employment ane the illiterate

The nature of work has changed dramatically in the last generation.Automation, space technology, atomic energy, and other technologicalbreakthroughs have created new demands for workers, but, at the same time,have abolished jobs traditionally held by illiterate or semiskilled workers.Future employees must have a basic education that will allow them to betrained and retrained several times during a career. The changing nature of

work, as well as other social forces, have altered the nature of educationfrom a static, youth-oriented institution to an institution in which studentsare often adult, often parttime, and in which the emphasis is on individual

student goals rather than on group goals.

The dilemma facing our national, political, and social structure is veryreal and can be summarized, although simplistically, in the followingquestion: Should the nation place its priorities on a welfare system for theilliterate adult or should it place priority on a program of education for the

poor and illiterate adult? While the question cannot be answered simply, itappears that the nation cannot adequately support a growing population of

nonproducers.

The obligation of education appears to be in restructuring publiceducational programs to allow adults to enroll at various times for eithershort- or long-range educational goals. Two educational institutions,

vocational-technical schools and community colleges, have moved'incressinglyin this direction over the past decade; but the program is often limited,lacking effective, parallel academic instruction at the vocational-technical

level.

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The conservative political shift of the 1980's may indicate growingsupport for public literacy programs and a corresponding cut in welfare-type

programs at the Federal level. A personal goal of many individuals enrolledin literacy programs has been to gain employment that would allow them to move

off welfare. Funding literacy programs provides an attractive legislative

alternative to funding welfare programs.

Target population.

The June 28, 1979, Federal Registcr targets seven special populations for!-%

emphasis for programs serving adults under the Adult Education Act of 1966.The groups tend to include those with the highest rate of illiteracy, but alsoincludes some hard-to-reach populations and others that have been historically

neglected. They are: .

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Adults with limited English

/nstitutionulized adults

Adult immigrants

The elderly (age 55-65)

The handicapped

Women

Minority groups

The Register also states that emphasis should be given to adults living inrural and urban areas with high rates of unemployment. Each targeted group

requires, to some degree, a specialized program relative to educational andsocial objectives. For example, adults with limited English and :saltimmigrants must first learn to speak English before they can learn to read and

write it.

Literacy training is often part of an inmate rehabilitation program atState and Federal prisons. A trend has developed in State prisons wherebyprisons are considered a separate school district, and extensive programa ofeducation are developed. In other systems, the local school district orvolunteers offer literacy classes in State and local prisons.

Older-age groups are increasingly enrolling in literacy progrims. Theyoften return to school to work toward a new part-time occupation or for

personal goals.

Illiterate groups contain more handicapped individuals--those withspecific learning and social disabilities and physical handicaps--than the

general population. In many instances, the handicap is the reason the person .

failed to learn to read or write during childhood. Others are handicappedbecause of inadequate diagnosis and treatment of visual or hearing problemsthat could be corrected with treatment. Programs for the handicapped require

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the services of specialized personnel to diagnose medical and personal

problems. The remaining groups for special attention--women, minorities, andrural and urban residents in areas with high rates of unemploymenthavegenerally been the focus of recruiting and training in literacy programs.

Participation by illiterates

Each illiterate adult tends to be socially isolated, ill-prepared forwork, subject to family and personal problems, and requires an educationalprogram tailored to his or her needs to maximize the chances for success. To

this extent, almost all illiterates are similar. However, those with

additional burdens of a physical handicap, institutionalization, or the lackof ability to speak English have even more difficulty fitting into a program.

As mentioned, many illiterate adults do not wish to participate ineducation programs sponsord by Federal, State, or local government agencies.Some feel that additional skills in reading, writing, and computation wouldnot improve their economic circumstances, while others think that the Process

takes too long. Others believe that they are simply incapable of learning;still others do not participate because they feel hostility towards the U.S.

Government.

However, many undereducated adults may not have the information required

to make good decisions. For this reason, it appears that effective

orientation programs should be developed through informal institutionsfrequented by illiterate adults. This orientation could be to publicizeliteracy programs, and could include some program innovation in whichinstruction for short-range goals could be conducted in 1- or 2-week

institutes.

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III. THE CONCEPT OF LITERACY

There is no single accepted definition of literacy because the termencompasses culture, time, place, and national economy, as well as educational

level. For xampleo in some countries persons are considered.literate if theycan sign their name, while in a highly technical nation, a high schoolgraduate maybe considered illiterate. Within the past two generations in theUnited States, literacy has been set at three levels: fourth grade, eighthgrade, and at high school completion.

The concept of functional literacy has been accepted generally byeducational practitioners the past few years. Briefly stated, functionalliteracy is the ability of a person to function adequately in his or herculture as an effective worker, citizen, parent, and consumer. It impliesthat literate persons possess the basic educational skills that alloy them totrain and retrain for employment or for personal goals. Functional literacyis a philosophical as well as an educational concept. It is tied closely tovarious curricula offered in places such as public schools, military services,business and industry, and labor unions where the intent is to provide thebasic skills needed to cope in a specific area, such as the military, or ineveryday life. The concept is one that allows persons to learn specific,useful information while learning to read, write, and compute. The concept isassociated with the adult learning principle that states that adults willlearn those things that are immediately applicable to their lives. Adulteducators recognize the importance.of the "developnantal task,theory,".as well :

as the value of the "teachable moment," when learning takes place readily.

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Confusion exists over the term functional literacy for several reasons.In one area, a functional literacy program maybe concerned with teachingadults the language and computational skills required to mix farm herbicides,while, in another area, the group :maybe learning the language and geometryrequired to navigate a ship. What is essential is that growth incommunioation and computation parallel growth in a specific skill.

It is predicted that by the year 2,000, 80 percent of homes in the UnitedStates will have a computer. Practically the entire population isfunctionally illiterate in using home computers, which will involveprogramming, automatic accounting, and many other functions. Millions willrequire computer training. However, there will be one important distinctionbetween training for its use and the training that an illiterate receives:Most persons who receive training in computer use already possess-adequateverbal skills, but the illiterate adult must learn verbal and computationskills, in addition to modern technology skills.

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IV. LITERACY LEGISLATION AND TRAINING

The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 provided the first Federal funds for

literacy training. The funds were allocated by the Office of EconomicOpportunity to the U.S. Office of Education late in fiscal year 1965, so thatlittle was done by the various States until after June 30, 1965, the end of

that first fiscal year. The following year, the literacy-program (calledAdult. Basic Education) was included in the Elementary and Secondary EducationAct and formally titled the Adult Education Act of 1966. The program at theFederal level is administered by the Division of Adult Education Programs inthe Department of Education. Federal funding for the Adult Education Actincreased from an initial $5 million a year to $100 million a year for theState grant program in 1980.

The responsibility for allocating funds and administering the programrests with the States--specifically the State departments of education. Thestate's fundamental role is that of providing leadership and assistance indeveloping local programs. It also his certain regulatory functions regardingthe use of funds, requirements for teachers, outreach, and other aspects ofthe program.

To receive Federal funds for literacy programs, each State must submit acomprehensive plan according to Federal guidelines required by the Departmentof Education. States are required to provide matching funds equal to at least

10 percent of the Federal grant. However, most States exceed this amount, andseveral States provide more revenue for literacy education than they receivein Federal funding each year.

The historical significance of Federal adult education legislation appearsto be that illiteracy is a pressing national concern, since a highlytechnical, industrial society cannot function effectively when large numbersof its citizens are illiterate and incapable of participating..

Adult education providers

Sources that provide adult education services are more likely to beinformal rather than a school or formal class organization. The illiteratelearns to survive in many ways, through knowledge gained from the street, thepolice and courts, television, on the job, as well as in the home andcommunity. The research of Allan Tough, in Adult Learning Projects, indicatesthat adults generally turn to sources other than schools when they need tolearn. This is particularly true relative to specific training in businessand industry, the military, and other agencies where the training function isprovided by the employer. However, in the past, it was generally assumed thatthe person being trained should possess basic reading, writing, andcomputation skills, and the training would be work specific.

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During the 1960's, many.service providers discovered that they could nolonger depend on attracting workers with sufficient communication andcomputation skills, and many included basic educational skills in theirtraining programs; the demands of high technology required workers with betterbasic educational skills.

The following agencies have adult education as one of their majorinterests, and most of them provide literacy education through formal andinformal programs. For example, major newspapers will often includesupplements with articles written on two-graded levels that are available forpurchase by literacy programs. ;".

Educational institutionst'i'i'

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Public schoolsPr.Colleges and universities Pr.

Cooperative Extension Service.

Business, technical, and special-interest schools. ..-e...'

Private correspondence schoolsr

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Private adult schoolst'.:..

Libraries .

aHuseums i:-'

Government agencies and departments i

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U.S. Department of Agriculture::U.S.. Department of State'

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U.S. Department of EducationMiscellaneous Federal agencies that inform the public on

specific fieldsState departments of educationHealth departments and institutions

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r'-Armed forces programsPrison education F:.

7::Inservice training of government employees

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Health education agenciesFamily counseling and guidance agenciesCogmunity welfare organizationsRecreation and youth (I's, settlement houses, etc.) r!

Civic improvement groupsAdult education councils and associations

Trade associations and business organizationsIt.!

Inservice training of employedLabor unions ;.

Professional organizationsFarm groups F

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Business and industry

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Miscellaneous organizations

Women's groupsService clubs-Fraternal organizationsParent-teacher associationsAlumni groupsVeterans and patriotic organizationsPolitical associationsChurches and religious groups

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Mass media

Newspapers and magazinesRadio and televisionMotion pictures and theater

Social legislation

The era of the middle 1960's was truly the Time of Camelot" for literacyeducation. Much Federal manpower was allocated to literacy education, andsocial legislation contained provisions for it. And, with the exception ofliteracy programs in the public schools,, many offered famlly support or jobsfor participants. Training programs flourished. Most programs were adequate;however, literacy components often had more enthusiasm than trained teachers,adult-centered materials, and a well-coordinated study program. Many programsran for 3 years: adequate to generous funding the first year, maintenancefunding the second, and phaseout. the third.

The nation's enthusiasm and generous funding for eradicating illiteracyseemed to be unlimited, providing illiteracy could be abolished in a 3-to-5year period. As the realization grew that abolishing illiteracy was a majorsocial and economic problem that would take one or more generations to solve,the programs tended to revert to the public schools, military, business andindustiy, and those agencies whose traditional function was to implement adulteducation.

professionalism movement

Following the exuberance of the 1960's, a long term trend toward theprofessionalization of literacy education began. The trend developed more orless evenly across several broad areas that included: curriculum development;teacher training, and, in some cases, certification; materials development;and organizational stability. The move toward professionalization wasimproved substantially by a parallel trend of utilizing full -time adultteachers instead of traditional part-time day teachers.

The professionalism movement tended to be coordinated by a network ofState and national professional organizations that provided a forum forsharing new program advances among various agencies, organizations, andbusinesses involved in literacy education.

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The public schools, State departments of education, and universitiesjoined forces to develop a unified concept of instruction through curriculumdevelopment, materials, and teacher training. Nationally, it may be said,with notable exceptions, that the programs were staffed with patt-time dayteachers who used the same teaching materials and methods used in theirelementary or secondary classes.

The pressing need to provide teachers with a new orientation aboutcharacteristics of illiterate adults emerged. A second priority was toinstruct teachers in the methodology of adult education, with an emphasis onthe differences in teaching children and adults. Many literacy teachers hadlittle, if any, experience in teaching reading/ and consequently, teachingreading to adults was, and continues to be, a foctis in teacher' training foradult, literacy teachers.

Development of teaching materials

Materials for teaching illiterate adults were practically nonexistent inthe early 1960's. Those that did exist *ere primarily workbooks that werequite similar in format and purpose to those used in day programs forelementary children. Teachers often resorted to preparing their own materialsto make instruction relevant to the needs and interests of the illiterateadult; but this was costly in time and effort. Two examples of effectivematerials developed in the late 1960's were learning kits prepared by EdwinSmith at Florida State University's reading clinic and materials in theNeaderrS Digest Adult Beading Series.

In 1969, themajorpublishers met with leaders in the adult literacy fieldat Cherry Bill, N.J., to determine the needs of this growing field; and adialogue was established that extends to date. Since that time, many majorpublishers have added a series of adult literacy materials, and several newpublishers entered the field to deal almost exclusively in the field of adulteducation. Programmed instruction materials, basal reader series on severalgrade levels, learning center software, and general occupational and consumer-related materials abound. In addition to the proliferation of booksendsoftware; an assortment of hardware has been developed in the last 10 years.Included are language masters, video cassette programs, and many otheraudiovisual materials for use in the classroom and learning centers.

Since the late 1960's, the situation has reversed itself to the degreethat teachers now need assistance in evaluating materials for use in specificlocations and for specific audiences.

Development of literary curriculum

The emergence of storefront learning canters and institution-basedlearning laboratories that in some cases operated from 12 to 24 hours a day,spurred the development of two trends: using full-time professional adulteducation teachers and implementing a more efficient curriculum tht addressedspecific needs of the illiterate adult. Both trends brought together in acooperative relationship the staffs of State departments of education, local -

adult education administrators, and college and university adult educators.

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In briefly reviewing the development of literacy curriculum, one may saythat it quickly grew toward the concept of individualized instruction based onthe life needs of each student. This concept passed through several stagesand tended to culminate with the concept of teaching life-coping skills withthe necessary reading, writing, and computation skills. The University ofTexas conducted istudy in the early 1970's and developed a series of skillsand tests to measure the need for instruction, as well as an instructionalmodel. A number of States adopted Competency Based Adult Education (CBAE) astheir preferred curriculum for literacy instruction. The curriculum,materials, and teaching philosophy are based on concepts that recognize theimportance of individualized instruction and the generally accepted emphasison behaviors in learning that concentrate on the purpose and outcome ofeducation in terms of the learner.

Under the provision of the Adult Education Act, considerable funds wereset aside for research and development and for-teacher training.' These fundshave paid dividends in terms of research in literacy, materials development,and curriculum study. A,second and significant result has been thedevelopment'of-new graduate study programs in adult education across thecountry in-which teachers and administrators working in the field of literacycan pursue graduate degrees in adult education.

Military training programs. Military adult literacy training hasbecome increasingly important in this technological e:a. In years past, thefunctionally illiterate or marginally literate soldier could be screened intothe infantry or some other area where his limited knowledge would not endangerothers. Modern weapons systems, machinery, and communications require higherlevels of education at the same time that the "all-volunteer services" areattracting less educationally qualified persons. The ability of the armedforces to react to a national emergency is qualified in part by the ability ofindividuals to read, write, and compute. As an example of the scope of theilliteracy problem in the army, a contract for more than $20 million wasawarded to Temple University in 1980 to'conduct classes in basic andoccupational education in.Europe for soldiers who needed remedial skills.When the requirements for service personnel in the United States and otherparts pf the world are considered, the annual cost for remedial education is asignificant portion of the defense budget. Military literacy training isoccupationally related, although basic skills in communication and computationmust be taught. Military educators have developed sophisticated instructionprograms and have generously shared experiences and programs with civiliancounterparts.

Industry education programs. Business and industry traditionallyhave supported adult education through training programs for employees,tuition payment plans, and staff development offices. Some businessescustomarily give full- or part-released time for employees to participate in

literacy classes and other educational activities. As a matter ofself-interest and public service, a business or industry will pr)videclassroom space and instructors in its plant for convenience of employees andthe community.

15

Federal programs. Federal programs stemming from such legislation asthe Manpower Development Training Act (MDTA) and the Comprehensive EducationTraining Act (CETA) have been implemented through contracts with privatecompanies since the 1960's to provide literacy education along with skilltraining. Generally, these programs were developed to provide jobs andliteracy training to persons who were not employable because they lackedminimum literacy skills. Job Corps and Teacher Corps had similar purposesduring the 1960's and 1970's, although the training prograls differed.

It is too early to gauge the success of these Federal programs, but theprinciple and value oftraining is well established in business and industry.

Literacy training has been a part of U.S. history and culture since thecolonial period. Periods of national emergencies, such a; wars anddepressions, created a need for training for immigrants and workers who weredisplaced by assembly lines and increased technoldgy. Training generally wasconducted by volunteers and part-time workers and had little, if any,coordination between agencies. Public education agencies provided sometraining as a adjunct to their primary function of teaching children and youth.

Passage of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1965 began a new era inliteracy training, which became a matter of national purpose in which focusand funds for the movement became institutionalized. Concern for teaching,research, materiali, and curriculum development moved into State departmentsof education and colleges and universities; and major responsibility forprograms shifted to public schools, military services, business and industry,and other ageheyhases.. .From 1964 to date, a new profession has beendeveloping.. Whilethe programs are by no means fully developed, there hasbeen a logical, coordinated, and rational growth in literacy teaching. Thetrend toward full-time teachers, day programs, and relevant instructioncontinues, hopefully at an accelerated pace.

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V. EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE PROGRAMS

It is dangerous to label,adult basic education programs, and it would befoolhardy to designate any as the "best." Doubtless, there have been manyeffective programs which have operated throughout the country. In recentyears, the federally supported Joint Dissemination Review Panel (JDRP)validated three adult education projects. Briefly described, they are:

The Adult Performance Level (APL) Project in Austin, Tex. In1971, the U.S. Office of Education funded the APL Project at the University ofTexas to conduct eiresearch study with two specific objectives: 1) to defineadult literacy in terms of actual competency to perform everyday life skills;and 2) to assess those competencies for the adult population ofthe United_States. Based on the APL survey, 19.1 percent of the U.S. population wasestimated to bequnctionally incompetent, 33.9 percent was functioning withmarginal success, and 46.3 percent was performing at a high level ofcompetency. The APL project developed a competency -based curriculum which hasbeen widely adopted, adapted, and used throughout the nation.

New York State External High School Diploma Program. This is analternative high school credentialing program for adults who have acquiredskills through life experience and can demonstrate these skills in applied .

performance tests. Its objective is to provide adults with an assessment andcredentialinq process that is an alternative to traditional diploma programssuch as the GED (General Education Development).

Project CLASS (Competency-Based Life-Ability Skills), Clovis,Calif.' This project utilized a series of 60 modules to teach survival skillsto a broad range of adults with low"Ievel reading abilities.

Although these three JDRP-validated projects were experimental in design,the mass of adult basic education programs are not so research-based. Manyadult educators pointed with pride to the fact that ABE programs take placeunder the aegis of a wide range of providers and with a variety of approaches.

Many approaches have been used. For example, an emerging delivery systemusing indigenous paraprofessional aides in home instruction was demonstratedby the Appalachian Adult Education Center in Morehead, Ky., in providinginstruction to isolated, educationally deficient adults unable or unwilling toparticipate in formal programs. Other states -- including Vermont, Kentucky,and Ohio--have developed similar programs.

In Philadelphia, the Opportunities Industrialization Center experimentedsuccessfully with Operation Armchair, a program in which tutors taught adultstudents on a one-to-one basis in their homes. The Los Angeles Unified SchoolDistrict developed an-adult basic education program which became one of themost comprehensive in the nation, as did the Dade County school system inMiami, Fla. The Lundberg School in Piney Point, Md., developed a heraldedadult education program for seafaring people. Learning laboratories, store-

17

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front center*, and a variety of full-time adult centers have sprung up across

the country. The 1978 amendments to ti Adult Education Act for the firsttime included funds for community-based organisations, thus stimulating theentry of even more providers.

Ultimately, the effectiveness of any adult basic education program must bemeasured by the impact that it has on the life of the program's students. AnEconomic Impact Survey conducted by the National Council of State Directors ofAdult Education in May 1981 showed over one-half billion dollars in savingsfrom adults wbo were removed from public assistance rolls, became employed,received job promotions, or received drivers licenses for the first time as aresult of their participation in adult basic education classes. Obviously,these re3ults show that many of the programs have been effective.

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VT. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE 1980'S

In a December 11, 1980, U.S. News and World Report article, Alvin Tofflerwarns that under conditions of high-speed change, a democracy without theability to anticipate condemns itself to death.

Literacy is a cultural concept, and woven into the heart of the conceptare factors of work, technology, attitudes, and, above all, concern for thefuture. To discuss literacy for the 1980's, one should look at long termsocietal trends that are related directly to literacy training. The followingtrends were extracted from a larger group of trends appearing in the September- October 1976 issue of Public Administration Review byJoseph F. Coates:

Economic prosperity, affluence, and inflation

Expanding edu4ation throughout society

International affairs and national security as a majorsocietal force

Centrality and increasing dominance of technology in theeconomy and society

High technological turnover rate

Specialization (in work)

Expansion of credentialism

Women, blacks, and other minority groups entering intothe labor force

Growth of consumerism

The institutionalization of problems (This is thetendency to spawn new institutions and newinstitutionalism mechanisms for dealing with what werepersonal, private, or nongovernmental responsibilities.)

Growth of demands for social responsibility-

Critical trends

Oppenheimer warns that society has changed more in one generation than in

all the generations before, and that the world changes continually. Worldfuturists see change accelerating in the 1980's, predicting that this periodwill be a critical one that will severely test institutions regarding theirability to adapt to change. For example, when society needs a basic servicethat is not being provided, it often invents or creates an institution to -

19 x),

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provide thateervice. The expectation is that public education, business andindustry, and government agencies will change fast enough to provide adequate 1,.

! literacy programs; but in the event they do not, the service will be provided--1

simply because literacy will be a requirement for effective living.I!..

.k

1980's: Competency-based individualized instruction programs; technologicalt%.;:n.71

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1 advances in educational media and hardware; and parallel advances in programs t,.:

'.':0in public education, military, buainess and industry, and other agencies which ?.;;will tend to benefit each other's programs. These trends will be accelerated

i':,.:.

by the movement toward profess onalization of literacy education in which:::"..full-time professionals, utilizing adequate materials and media, will continue

;:s..,to make literacy programs more attractive and beneficial to the vzrious targetE-.;:*:

audiences.t; t, +,

The 1980's and beyond will likely see a return of the concept of financialsupport for adult literacy students. It will be a matter of public interest

i:.:.,:.

to support a person for a few years rather than for a lifetime on the Federal:'or State dole. The past failure of,these programs can be corrected in part by',::.

more understanding by planners concerning the social, educational, and.::.:-.personal aspects of literacy planning. As society moves to increase citizen !:'':. ,

subsidy.t 1

1.-

The armed forcei will instibUtionalize functional literacy trainingCurough training p Ograms untilan individual reaches a katisfactory 0"performance on.a p ascribed reading and,mathenatics level.- These levels will

t:'vary according to ssignmentAand training Will be vocationally centeredi - .

around training m nuals and individual assignments. The military mainlywill ..

rely on :Ova qed echnology for individual instruction and will make a numberof improvements i curriculum development. The return of t national draft ',.

could delay this /movement for a few years, but, in any event, it ihould be inplace within 10 o 20 years.

V...-

self-sufficiency, there is a strong likelihood that requirements for literacy i!"-.-

forms of !-.training will be attached to welfare payments and other governmentr

Labor uniyna involved deeply in adult education activities over the past r.

20 years will become involved heavily in literacy education (includingconsumer, occupational, and citizenship education), as they recognize thesignificant econom.cal and political impact of illiterates. Union activitywill tend to move away from the present Single -trade approach to a moresocially active role in the urban and inner-city P reas.

Dr

As teachers become full-time professionals, the curriculum of literacyeducation will become increasingly sophisticated. Terms such as competency.based education and coping skills will become obsolete, since it will beassumed that every person has a basic right to an instruction program based onthe individual's needs. The instructional mode will change dramatically and'will be based on the individual learner's aptitude, abilities, and needs.Some persons will work outside of class using programmed instruction and

amatic curriculum changes

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packaged instruction programs; they will come to the learning center for

assessment, assignments and teacher assistance. Others will work in a group

setting with frequent teacher assurance and support.

The most dramatic curriculum changes will occur for adult students who aria

'nonreaders or who read below the third-grade level. Initial instruction for

these individuals will be conducted on a one-to-one basis by paraprofessionals

or volunteer teachers, supervised by a professional teacher. Students will

continueflo be tutored until they can read at a third-grade level or higher,

at which time they will transfer to a learning center or group instruction

proq ram.

soCial)._,ti.calentareness

Literacy education in the 1980's will become more political and social.

Minority groups, immigrants, and inner-city residents will increasingly demand

programs designed around social and political, as well as, educational

objectives. These programs will tend to resemble the "socialization" concepts

advocated by Paulo Preire. Neighborhood literacy programs will grow, and

consequently, there will likely develop a strong peer pressure for

participation. In these areas, the curriculum thrust will be toward more

political and social goals, and individuals enrolled will focus on

participation in group activities. As labor unions and community groups

become involved, the literacy movement will embrace "blue-collar" activities

and move away7from the more traditional middle-class activities.

As formal childhood education changes, so will the structure of adult

education. The trend whereby adults increasingly return to college will shift

to secondary and elementary schools. However, the age groups will likely be

separated under administrative structures that recognize the centrality of

adult education in the total educational process. New administrative and

financial structures will provide education at any level according to adult

needs and interest. This concept is already in place and operating in the

nation's community colleges and is fast becoming a fact in colleges and

universities.

The question for the 1980's and beyond is whether this will occur within

the presently established public education programs or whether a new

educational institution will be established. The answer will depend largely

on the flexibility and responsiveness of elementary and secondary education

programs. The key element in this breakthrough is the increasing social and

* political awareness of the more than 60 million people whose educational

skills are below acceptable standards for survivel. The news media keep these

persons informed on world and national affairs better today than college

graduates were informed a few generations ago.

That illiteracy lowers the quality of life for all is a social fact.

During the 1980's, this fact will become a major consideration of society--and

society must decide how to deal with it.

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CRITICAL ISSUES IN ADULT LITERACY

By

Oliver PattersonProfessor of EducationThe City College, CUNY

Convent Avenue at'138th StreetNew York, N.Y. 10031

and

Lewis L. PullingLiteracy Action, Inc.

201 Washington Street, S.W.

Atlanta, Ga. 30303

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ABSTRACT

Dr. Oliver Patterson and Lewis C. Pulling deal with the problem ofrecruiting and retaining illiterates in an adult literacy program,raise critical issues regarding the goals of such programs, and

"describe strategies for mobilizing community resources to supportthem. The authors tackle the problem of defining literacy anddetermining the most effective teaching approaches for use inprograms. Descriptions of illiterates' attitudes, perceived motives,and fears are included.

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I. INTRODUCTION

During the past 20 years, a purported objective of American society has

been to eradicate adult illiteracy. The Federal Government, in fact,

recognized illiteracy as a uitionwide problem in passing the Economic

Opportunity Act in 1964. For the first time, Federal money was allocated

directly for adult literacy education. 'Evidence of the magnitude of the

support is furnished by Bina and Dowling (1976), who reported that from 1966

to 1976. national expenditures for adult basic education programs increased

from $32.5 million per year to $67.5 million per year.

Although progress has been made in reducing illiteracy (Fry, 1979), it is

generally agreed that much still remains to be accomplished. In fact, it has

been estimated that if the ability to read and comprehend the daily newspaper

is used as the criterion offunctional literacy, there may be as many as 40

million functionally illiterate adults in the United States.

The results of Corder's analysis (1971) of census data clearly reveals

that illiteracy is disproportionately distributed in our society:

Illiteracy was much more pervasive among African-

Americani, Mexican-Americans, Native Americans (i.e.,

American Indians), and Puerto Ricans.

Illiteracy was found to be acute for those over 25

years old in the South and in metropolitan'areas.

The rate of illiteracy for black men was found to be

twice ,,the rate of illiteracy for black women. Only

among blacks was there a significant literacy

difference between the sexes.

4 Of the total number of illiterates, more than 77

percent were found to be over 45 years old.

It is clear that illiteracy is much more pervasive among those groups that

have been traditionally powerless in this country. Although one might wish to

believe that the social distribution of literacy is an accident of history, it

is obvious that it is not. For example, it leas against the law to teach

blacks to read prior to the Emancipation Proclamation. Moreover, publicly

supported education was unavailable to teach blacks even in the most

rudimentary form in many areas of the country prior to the 1930's.'

The important psychological point, affecting both the literate and the

illiterate, is that for most of U.S. history, society has made the issue of

illiteracy invisible, and in doing so, has persuaded the illiterates--in

schools and factories, cities and.towns--to become invisible. (This pap

will deal with the problems of recruitment and retention of illiterate

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students in a subsequent section.) It is essential to understand that associety attempts on the one hand to call these people forward, it continues onthe other, to send a message to them to remain invisible.

Definition of literacy

Webster literate: instructed in letter

illiterate: Ignorant of letter; synonym:ignorant

ignorant: Destitute of knowledge

There are important implications in the terms used to describe thisphenomenon, i.e., reading, literate, and illiterate. Reading is a relatively

!'!>-simple skill. Literate implies the ability to read, and illiterate shoulddescribe the absence of a specific skill; and it does mean that, butregrettably it means a great deal more.

Illiterate means bad, and every illiterate in America knows that; most U Y

iat. .

literates do not. Illiteracy is the kind of bad that touches every aspect ofone's life. It is a condition that affects not only one's ability to read--it r$: -effects one's ability to be. A literacy program has to be a program that ;-

i..deals with a person's ability to be. It should involve the whole community. t

4..

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When historians analyze the situation, perhaps they will find that thegreatest illiteracy lies in the illiteracy of the literate. about our

. ". ... " ..

illiteracy. There Is 'still time.to prove the historians wrong, and that iswhat this report is all about. The critical issues are:

Goals of coaasunity-based organizationsRecruitment and retention of studentsInstructional objectives and evaluationIdentifying populations to be servedMinimizing failureMobilizing community resources

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Although there is almost universal agreement on the fact that the UnitedStates has a literacy problem, there is no agreement on a definition ofliteracy. Gray defined a person as functionally literate:

when he has acquired the knowledge and skills inreading and writing which enable him to engageeffectively in all those activities in which literacyis normally assumed in his culture or group (Gray,1956, p. 24).

If we accept Gray's definition, the logical question is: What is theminimal level of reading and writing ability needed to function effectively inAmerican society?

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y.,"':)

Some adult literacy spt7t' s maintain that ability to read andunderstand newspapers should be the minimal level of functional literacy, fornewspapers are the primary reading diet of Americans. Smith (1970) reasonedthat since newspapers have a seventh-grade readability level, a seventh-gradereading achievement level should be the minimal standard.

-A second approach advocated by researchers is to examine the minimalliteracy skills needed to profit from vocational training. Sticht, et. al.(1972) sought to determine functional literhcy levels needed for four selectedmilitary jobs (i.e., cooks, vehicle repairmen, supply clerks, and armorcrewmen). It was concluded that-an eighth-grade level was a reasonable"general purpose" target for functional adult basic education. Interestingly,the Adult Basic Education Act of 1968 recommended achievement of theeighth-grade level as the target of the Adult Basic Education Program.

It does appear that a literacy - knowledge level that corresponds roughly tojunior high school achievement is needed to function effectively in Americansociety, if by functioning one solely means abiliti to: (1) read andunderstand newspapers and (2) profit from vocational education.

A danger inherent in accepting such a prescribed level of literacy is thatwhile it may answer the economic system's work needs, it may neither answerthe needs of individuals nor of their cultuiircommunity. Many individualswho have worked long in adult literacy programS firmly believe that Gray'sbroad definition of total functional literacy, which stresses human as well aswork needs, is preferable to the very narrow definitions currently employed.

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II. RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION

As the introduction pointed out the "deficits" of the illiterate are

considerably more extensive than just "reading skills," and it is worthwhileto examine these deficits in more detail.

In the goal-setting process for the literacy program, the ability tocomprehend written information is the bottom line. Since instruction in thereading process is given, the question remains -What other issues need to be

addressed? If one begins with the students, when they first become involvedwith the project, one can attempt to analyze those factors in their lives thatwill impair literacy development.

From this list, some difficult choices must be made, for any literacyprogram cannotand should not-Ao all things to everyone. The progmas,therefore, should identify those agendas which it will address-;-those that itwill encourage the student to address and those-which will be avoided.

Literacy programs must never undertake intervention beyond the program'sprofessional capability. Here are some examples for purpoSes of illustration:

.Appropriate intervention: developing the student'spositive self-image about his or her ability to learn.

Appropriate areas of support: encouraging students toorganize their time-te minimize scheduling conflictsthat reduce class participation.

Inappropriate areas of intervention: pscyhological,

financial, and social crisis in the student's life.

It boils down to this: The program will not work unless it recognizes andmakes adjtIstments for the fact that the illiterate lives under enormouspressure, with often limited life-coping skills.

------

The program will not work if it tries to intervene in areas in which itcannot effect a poSitive result. Regrettably, there are not, and probablynever will be, a universal list of "do's and don't's." The project will haveto address and resolve the issues on an individual program basis, but here are

some ideas.

What is the student's self-concept?

What aspects of the student's self-concept bear on his or her ability to

become literate? And which of those aspects should the project addressformally and which ones should be addressed informally?

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S

What is the student's self-conceptin relation to' thers?

The same questions apply as in the previous paragraphs, except that- problems in this area will more likely bear on issues of recruitment,

participation in scheduled activities--particularly classroom activities- -and fear of discovery. These issues are absolutely critical to the project'ssuccessful implementation.

Now does the student relate (

to the Physical world?

Issues og money, transportation, shelter, clothing, recreation, as well asspecific knowledge relating to the physical world, can criticallytimpairparticipation. These agendas most likely will lie outside the scope of directintervention but must be acknowledged as everyday realities affecting theproject.

Gaining an understanding of the student is the essence of the programdesign, intervention strategy, recruitment, and community support efforts.This understanding is also the foundation of the goal-setting process and theevaluation strategy. Unfortdnately, there are few models available in publiceducation, since most existing education programs consider curriculum thegiven and students the variable. Quite the reverse must be true in basicadult literacy.

Characteristics of the illiterate student

We shall examine some general characteristics of an illiterate student inthe hope that these characteristics may be\helpful in identifying andunderstanding pupil popolatiod in a wide range of project situations.

Poor versus nonpoor. By and large, illiterates are raised poor andremain poor.. Poverty affects the language base, scope of personal experience,self-concept, and logistical factors influencing the students' consistentparticipation. Many students, - however, are economically successful.Individual entrepreneurship, job seniority, and personal thrift are factorsthat can lead to economic security even though the individual is illiterate.Obviously, the economically successful individual will have fewer deficits andmore strengths. These factors mist be built into the program's concept.

Cultural majority versus cultural minority. Perhaps the mostprofound deficits are those that exist between majority and minority persons.While in the broadest sense poor and female are minority, the cultural, ethnicminority classifications are considered here.

In this melting-pot nation, people fail to understand each other andtheir differences. The traditional majority, i.e., white middle class, is asimpaired (when it comes to understanding the illiterate) as any group. Thereare great pressures imposed on minorities, e.g., Native Americans, Hispanic,and black, that must be acknowledged if the literacy program is to succeed.It is particularly important to understand and remember that the literacybeing discussed is presumed to be the literacy of the majority culture.

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"Noneducated" versus 'education failure." Many Americans, .

particularly older ones, simply dropped out of school early. They contrast

with people who attended through their 16th year. School failures havenegative attitudes about organized education and their ability to function in

such a setting. That self-concept may be an absolute impediment toparticipation unless it is dealt with and overcome.

A sensitivity to the stimulus that evokes negati71 feelings towardresources must be maintained. Forms to fill out, rows of classroom furniture,blackboards, bellsp teacherish--looking people--all have an impact on thebeginning "education-failure" student much more than the "noneducated" student.

Male versus female. There is a difference. It varies with age,ethnic background, andRegion. The difference also varies with the ratio ofprogram participants. It is difficult to make many valid generalities exceptto say that the gender issue can be an absolute impediment and must beanalyzed according to conditions in each community.

Young versus old. Age certainly is a factor in the rate of learning;older students tend to be more persistent but progress slower. Adolescentsand children may threaten a rung adult. These concerns are greater for thebeginning student, but are always present.

"Given up" versus "yet to succeed." It is probably true that mostbeginning students see themselves as either having tried to learn to read andfailed, or they have yet to complete their "trying" process, Obviously, the

..,..".tried and given up"..have.e:serious_impairment. Unless the impairment isrecccnized'and addressed, there will be a high dropout rate, resulting in alarge part from the self-fulfilling prophecy. Many of the samecharacteristics arc seen in the "noneducateds versus " education failure'analysis. In this category', students have an extensive exposure to formaleducation but see themselves in a wide spectrum of personal commitment tomastery of the reading process.

"Learn to read' versus "get it together." Many students,particularly those over 30, have developed a stable life style--stableresidence, income, and a relatively unstressful daily routine. For thisstudent, reading maybe a clearly defined agenda. While the student may nothave a realistic concept of what literacy really Ls, at least the student hasa clear focus on one aspect of life.

By contrast, there is the student who perceives his or her life asbeing disorderly. Income, housing, and daily routine may experience widevariation. Literacy may be perceived as the answer to the dilemma. If thestudent is to be effectively retained, he or she must find a way to sort outthe various life problems and to see literacy as a related but separateagenda. Otherwise, the student may experience a failure in expectations or alack of concentration and commitment to literacy.

--7.,;".

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"Ego secure" versus "insecure." With rare exception, the illiterateadult will have a seriouslydamaged ego. Any effective literacy program mustbe eke to deal with this reality. Ego strengths' will almost universallyimprove with instructional progress, but theiego issue will account for alarge part of the dropout rate. Some entering students, however, will havepositive and balanced self-concepts and, therefore, will exhibit greater egostrengths. The point is that eqo deficit is directly proportional to rate ofgain in literacy. Individual students must be assessed, and self-confidencemust become a specific program agenda.

"Marginally committed" versus "fully committed." Since most enteringstudents tend to be "education failures," "given up," "get it together,""insecure" types, they perceive great personal risk in committing early toseeing the literacy training successfully through to completion. Students mayprovide themselves with an "escape hatch," just in case. While that hatch hasobvious value to the student, it also may limit full involvement to the pointthat progress is impaired. .

Some will makee total commitment. The successful program finds thatdelicate balance between overtolerance and inflexibility. It recognizes thatextent of commitment is a legitimate concern but a genuine impairment. Theprogram is structured so as to encourage growth in commitment while .

maintaining high expectation.

Impairments to participation

There are a number of other existing conditions that need to be recognizedthat bear on the student's ability to participate successfully. It isimportant to remember that illiteracy as an impairment does not exist inisolation; it nearly always exists in combination with other impairments.

Logistical impairments may include availability and cost oftransportation. Life crisis impairments that affect participation includeillness, death, incarceration, eviction, and termination of employment. Theyare real situations and must be acknowledged. The difficult decisionconfronting the project is to determine when the policies are too stringentand when they are too lenient.

Emotional impairments are not uncommon and vary Zrom mild neurosis topsycopathic behavior. Each case must be weighed individually, but, outside ofreferral, psychological intervention is best left to the professional.Neurologically impaired students include the retarded and learning disabled.If the condition is accurately assessed, an instructional program can beconsidered which is specifically tailored, and if found appropriate, it can beimplemented.

perhaps the most significant impairment, and the one most frequentlyencountered, is the one resulting from the student's highly individuallyoriented (syntagmatic) language behavior. (Dinnan, Lodge, 1976). Unless thisimpairment is confronted, the student may be in for a long hard program.

It may appear on the surface that a rather negative view of the adult

learner has been posited. However, what has been done is that programobjectives have been identified, which are designed to recognize and cope withthe participant's impairment so that the principal goalliteracycan beachieved.

Coupled with whatever impairment there might be are many strengths, and itis upon these strengths that the foundation for a new and expanded literacYwill be built. Chief among these strengths is the ability of students toperceive and think about their human experiences and to translate those

1 __ perceptions into language. If students can talk intelligibly, they can writesif they can hear intelligibly, they can read.

But what has this to do with recruitment and retention? The answer issimply that each program must know clearly and accurately how it seeks torecruit and retain. In most cases, students will be difficult to recruit andretain, and much time will be required to give the program a solid streetreputation.

Gaining community apport

In the broadest sense the recruitment program begins by recruiting thecommunity leadership.--For illiterates to join the literate society, theremust be a willingness of the society to open its membership. This communityleadership recruitment campaign needs to be one -on -one, with program personnelmeeting with power brokers. (Part VI deals with this question in moredetail.) Both altruism and cost-benefit arguments are effictive, coupled with

' arguments that's-upport-the'projedt's Credibility. Also, having a programbrochure to present and an influential and visible board of directors orsteering committee to call upon is important.

A media campaign is the next step. It reinforces the power brokerrecruitment effort and initiates the student recruitment drive. The campaignshould be designed either by ad agencies or professional advertisingassociations. Radio and television public service announcements form thebasis of the campaign, reinforced by bus cards, billboards, and printed media.

The first campaign may not recruit many students, but it is an importantmessage to the illiterate population: The door is open here." The programwill be seriously handicapped unless there is an open climate. Since mostilliterates feel very unique and isolated, the media campaign helps them tofeel less threatened about being discovered.

The next aspect of the recruitment campaign will be one-to-one contactbetween the program staff and other human services agency personnel. Health,welfare, corrections, offender rehabilitation, education, and labor are allrepresented by case workers who have hands-on contact with illiterates. Wherethese professionals have established credibility with nonreaders, theirrecommendation will carry much weight.

32 30

.

0...

)

Of course, there are many alternative channels of communication, includingchurches, schools, community-organizations: and community leaders, but thegreatest recruitment opportunity is in the reputation the program has in the

streets. The reputation comes slowly, sometimes only,after years of work.And it comes about because the program understands, respects, and protects thestudent--and it works. Graduates and participants will spread the word, ifthey believe it themselves.

Persistence and patience are essential recruitment campaign ingredients.A less than 2year campaign is probably shorts:.qhted. The sell has to besoft, and nonreaders have to iasntify with the ads. Using newly taughtcommunity people as advocates is a powerful strategy. September and Februaryare good times for the campaign to peak.

The illiterate has been preoccupied with reading and learning to read fora long time; fear and uncertainty have been constant companions. Thus, whenthe media campaign begins, these issues will be in his mind. The,firstdecision the illiterate will have to make is to take some specific andconcrete steps--"go to a place," "call a number."

Whatever the step, it should be the focus of the media campaign. Fromthen on, the recruitment is oneonone, and it is up to the program to seethat the student finds an environment conducive to survival.

Student retention strategy

The retention program must begin when the student first contacts theprogram. New students will relate to some program sites better than others.Obvfously, transportation is an important consideration, but the "feel" of thesite is the critical factor. Unfortunately, there is some history of poorlyorganized and managed "storefront" and itinerant, alternative eductionprograms. Street people know this and will test the new program to see if itis solid, serious, competent, and dependable; so the location should projectthese qualities. The other extreme is too much institutionalization.Illiterates do not relate to traditional classroom settings. The best programavoids both extremes: It projects the feeling of being an expression ofcommunity concern and involvement without overpowering the student.

Also, it is most important that the program schedule be adapted to studentneeds. Hours should be flexible, covering day and evening.

For the most part, the students, particularly new male students, willexperience a great deal of personal stress during initial contact. The staffperson, must be able to help them overcome this stress. If the project has aclear understanding of the characteristics of the client population, tp4reshould be no problems.

Go easy and slow and help the new student relax. Emphasiz the.program

;1and recognize that each student is unique. Stress the fact th t the programis flexible in content and learning rate, and that it is safe a d patient.The purpose of the initial contact should be to agree to meet a second time.

333,9

1.,

The second contact should be scheduled with ,.a counselor and should allowthe student ample opportunity to.share his or heir feelings, hopes, andconcerns. A nonthreatening, informal reading assessment can be made,particularly if it emphasizes the student's basic language facilityhis orher strengths. At this point, the student should be encouraged to beginseriously considering committing tobecoming literate. This process will varyfrom one session to 3 months, depending on the student. Some students may beready for the first level of formal instruction t4hile others may be capable ofinteracting only on a one-to-one basis with a tutor.

Dropping_out. Most programs probably will experience a high studentdropout rate at specific intervals: during the second to third week, at 3months, and at 9 months,. It is important for the project to accumulate thisdata and to act accordingly. A basic literacy program will have to follow upwith students whose attendance falls short.

The first dropout point occurs early because students panic over thethreatening prospect of failure. The second dropout point occurs becausestudents have satisfied their ego that they are not stupid, thus, theirmotivation is reduced. It also maybe because students feel that theirprogress has stopped.

If dropout.occurs because of external agendas, students may findtheir way back into the program, but they must be encouraged not to let theirprevailing mood on a certain day or week override better judgment. In thefinal analysis,the student must make the decision. The project must be ableto differentiate between intervention that does the student's thinking andintervention that 'causes the student to think.

Learning to read well. This is a long, hard process for an adultnonreader. No program can succeed that does not recogNine and act on thisreality. Therefore, it is essential that new students be given a solidfoundation on which to build their new literacy. This foundation-buildingstrategy is the most important component of the retention strategy.

First, every new student possesses a very extensive and complex orallanguage base, even if it is not used. It is important to note thatnonreaders lack awareness of, and confidence in, their existing capability.Thus, step one is to get in touch with the strengths.

Beginning readers need to deal with oral language as a confidencebuilder, as well as a foundation skill. -Thus, the second step is to helpstudents develop confidehce in their ability to learn and acquire andassimilate new information. Students do a great deal of this in everydaylife. The prOblem is that they 4o it unknowingly, and therefore, derive noself-confidence from the experience.

The strategies for this second step are legion, but need not, andprobably should not, involve a lot of "reading." The program should beinformal, nonihreateninq, practical, and "everyday." Any kind of simplereal-world learning experiences which the new student can master will serve todevelop learning confidence.

34

4

We it slow and be patient. New students are really learning aboutthemselves; it will take a little time to absorb the new knowledge. Theexperienced teacher will be able to avoid going too fast or too slow. Yourbest teacher should be in this early instruction activity because good

i

teaching and effective retention are synonwous.

Finally, hold off on the heavy reading instruction until the 'student ;

has acquired an operational language base that will allow the new learner toclassify new information and to relatetimes'quantity, quality, and space.The ability of young children to learn to read is developed by more or lessformal instruction in reading readiness. Many adults display an apparent lackof these kinds of readiness skills, and while the instruction of adults isobviously different, there are striking similarities between the twoconditions. (A useful reference is Adults Learn Again, Curtis Ulmer and JamesA. Dinna, State of Georgia Department of Education, 1981.)

r--

As seen, the basis for effective participation is good preparation, butthe retention: program must be augmented with a counseling resource. We arenot recommending psychological counseling, but rather educational counseling.

. ,

Because of the acute pressure unique to this population, support and.encouragement must be available, particularly at the crisis points, i.e., 2weeks, 3 months, and 9 months. The best plans will not be 100 percenteffective, but will have Substantial success if the needs of this populationcenbe distinguished from the needs of the typical and traditionalpostsecondary student.

35 41

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III. GOALS OF COMMUNITY-BASED LITERACY PROGRAMS

This section raises critical issues regarding the goals of community-basedadult literacy programs, pointing out that Federal monies have traditonallytied literacy instruction to employment. Although, increased employability isobviously a goal of literacy programs, it has beeneuggested that other goalsare extending the ability of individuals to understand, control, andeffectively function within their social context.

Employment. Most community-based organizations have a primeobjective: improve the adult's economic status through literacy education.However, critical issues have surfaced which involve achieving this objective.

Weber (1975) questioned whether or not literacy skills, in and ofthemselves, were significant in widening adult employment opportunities. She

stated, "There is little to suggest they do. Basic education students, eventhough their numbers are small in relation to the job market can rarelyattribute a new job to their new reading skills" (p. 150). The research ofDentler and Warshaver (1965) suggests that education does not create economicprosperity, but rather follows it.

It is interesting to note that the national survey conducted by Kent(1972) found that two-thirds of the adults in reading courses gaveself-improvement, not employability, as the major reason forttending. YetFederal legislationhas.traditionally tied Literacy_ to employment... The statedpurpose of the 1964 Economic Opportunity Act was:

to initiate programs of instruction for individualswho have attained age 18 and whose inability to readand write the English language constitutes asubstantial impaiiment of their ability to get orretain employment commensurate with their realability...

For community-based organizations, employment is only one of theprimary objectives of literacy education.

=

Functional competence. A literacy program goal his been to make-*; students functionally competent to perform tasks required of adults in

society. Greenfield and Noujeira (1980) noted that the Adult PerformanceLevel (APL) Study greatly assisted in identifying the skills and knowledge anadult needs to be competent. The matrix on the next page shows theintersection of skills (reading, writing, speaking, etc.) and knowledge areas(consumer economics, health, etc.). To be considered functionally literate,an adult must be able to apply the set of skills to the set of knowledge areas.

Although Mezirow (1970) did not directly criticize the APL approach,his broad criticism of adult programs appear also to apply to APL. Mezirowsuggested that for many adults, it was difficult life problems which ofteninterfere with their education and vocational training.

,

364 2

Reading

Writing

Speaking,Listening,Viewing

Problei-solving

InterpersonalRelations

Computation

ConsumerEconomics

MATRIX OF INTERSECTING SKILLS

OccupationalKnowledge Health

CommunityResources

Governmentand Law

Read labelson cans.

Read a helpwanted ad.

Read firstaid direc-tions.

Read a movieschedule.

Read aboutyour rightsafter arrest.

Fill Inincome tax

forms.

Complete ajob appli-cation.

Write amenu.

Complete anapplicationfor commun-ity service.

Write yourcongress-person.

Ask ques-tions of

IRS.

Listen toan employertalk abouta job.

Listen toa doctor'sdirections.

Use thetelephone.

Describe an,

accident.

Decidewhich houseto rent.

Decide whichjob suitsyou,

Decidewhen tocall adoctor.

Use stampmachinesin thepost office.

Decide whichcandidateto votefor.

Relate toa salesclerk.

Be success-ful in ajob inter-view.

Interactwith hos-pitalpersonnel.

Askdirections.

Interact withpolice suc-cessfully.

.

Computesales tax.

Calculatepaycheckdeductions.

Decide howmany timesa day totake apill.

Calculatethe timeit takes totravel adistance.

Calculate thecost of aspeedingticket.

374'3

r,-

Life Skills. Following Mezirow, Adkins (1973) suggested a curriculumapproach, called Life Skills, which would focus instruction around thespecific vocational, educational, and personal problems experienced by ,

adults. Following are the major curriculum tracks and representative units inthe life skills approach:

Tracks Representative Units

1. Managing a career. Identifying and developing one'sinterest and abilities, choosing an

.7 occupation, locating jobs, conductinginterviews.

. 2. Developing one's selfand relating to others.

3. Managing home andfamily responsibilities.

4. Managing leisure time.

. .

..

S. Exercising communityrights, opportunities,and responsibilities.

Caring for health needs, presentingone's self effectively, dealing withconflicts.

Becoming a parent, meeting needsof wives andqiusbands, budgeting andbuying, dealing with the landlord,helping children in school.

Planning one's tide, changing mood anolpace through recreation, participativeversus spectator activities.

Dealing with representatives ofwelfare, health, and employmentorganizations; handling discriminatiop,finding one's way around the city.

The life skills approach not only attempts to have the adultunderstand specific problems, but also focuses on translating learnedknowledge into action. For example, a unit on controlling emotions might haveadults rule play an anger-evoking situation. The adults would exhibitapplication of acquired information into action by delaying anger.

To some, the life skills approach might evoke images of earlycounseling programs which attempted to socialize and assimilate immigrantadults. Rather than examining the social context and institutions which giverise to poverty, inadequate housing, and bad schools, such programs, it is 4*,contended, foster adjustment to the status quo and manipulation of it.

Conscientlzation. This ia theory developed by the Latin Americaneducator Paulo Friere and is aimed at having oppressed peoples develop anunderstanding of the social context which shapes their daily lives and theirability to change it. In Freires formulation, individuals gain control overthemselves when they begin to articulate the reality of their existence.Freire's writings are difficult, but as Weber stated, "Freire has successfully

-called into question the training objectives that motivate literacy programsby placing people at the center of a cultutal context in which making a livingis more than holding a job' (p. 152).

38

44

t

"""" .-

Obviously, there are many questions that could be raised about the

Freire approach. Perhaps the most important is its transferability to the

United States, for it must be remembered that this country's history,

technology, economic structure, and social patterns are significantly

different from those in Latin America.

Instructional objectives and evaluation

Because of a lack of consensus on the goals of learners, instructors, and

administrators (Mezirow, 1970), community -based org'inizations are often

limited in their effectiveness. The result is often high rates of attrition

and low attendance.

Obviously, there is a need for an internal process of assessment to ensure

that all agents- -adult learners, teachers, and administrators--know the

objectives, as well as understand the educational design required to

'accomplish them. Frequently, the lack of specific objectives results in

neither learners nor teachers realizing when the programmatic goals have been

accomplished. The following flow chart is a prototype process model which may'

be used to monitor program effectiveness.

LITERACY MODEL

Conceptual Framework

Contextual Evaluation Needs Assessment

[People'

r--1DifferentiatedStaffing ,

Plan

Goals and Objectivesh

ptaffDevelopmentDesign

1 Processes

Process Approachto

IndividualizedInstruction

Assessment EducationalPlan

InstructionalProcesss

Properties''

Pbvsical! Instruc-Facility! tional

EquipmentResourcesSupplies

Non-Instruc-tionalSupplies

Application 1 Evaluation!Transfer

Process Evaluation

! Product Evaluation!

39

4o

I

I"

Conceptual framework. It is extremely important that administratorsand teachers generate the major theoretical underpinnings of their program.Too often, programs appear to be merely collections of materials, forms, andmotivational techniques with little or no broad framework to give these bits

and pieces meaning and unity. Following are seven examples of generally.accepted concepts of the nature of the reading process which may form thefoundation of a literacy program:

1. Reading is a developmental process, and all people can be viewedas being at some point on the developmental continuum.

2. Reading is an act of information processing daring which thereader makes use of linguistic and experiential cues to extractmeaning.

3. Reading is a cognitive process, highly influenced by thecognitive style and cognitive map (i.e., the manner in which thereader has uniquely organized information and attitudes) of thereader.

4. Reading comprehension is highly dependent upon thecorrespondence between the receptive languaging ability of thereader and the expressive language of the author.

5. Reading achievement is related to attitudes toward self as alearner.

6. Reading"dysfunction among particular groups_in the United States(e.g., blacks) is neither genetic nor cogenital,_but is highlyrelated to their social status, as well as their comprehensionof and access to the institutions affecting theirlives.

7. Reading is a functional activity, needed by virtually everyonein today's society if they are to perform prescribed socialroles (e.g., parents, workers, hobbyist,'etc.).

yeeds assessment. A popular criticism of public schools is that theyexist in splendid isolation from the community they serve. The curriculumused in a wealthy suburban district maybe the same one used in animpoverished school district, although the educational needs of the studentsmay differ.

` Every literacy program exists in a specific community, and it isvital that the needs of the community are assessed. To accomplish theassessment, leaders of other human services organitationshospitals andhealth-agencies, colleges and public schools, civil rights organizations, andemployment bureaus -- should be interviewed.

Goals and objectives. As previoUsly pointed out, the literacy skillsof communication and computation are applied to a set of knowledge areas. It

is important that the staff move from broad objectives to the very specific

40

4 6

, . ":;*.--7

terminal behaviors that they wish adults to exhibit. The steps outlined inPreparing Instructional Objectives, by Mager (1962), may be used in helpingthe staff generate objectives.

People, processes, and properties. These are the means by whichinstructional objectives are realized. The instructional process is presentedon the chart (p. 26) as a five-stage process with a planned evaluation at eachstage.

1. The purpose of the assessment is to determine thelevel of adult literacy and specific areas ofstrengths and weaknesses.

2. The-educational plan is based on the assessmentand normally would contain the stated objectives,the teaching-learning strategies, materials to beused, and the criterion measure.

3. Four instructional processes are-usually used:personalized help from a teacher; large-groupactivity; small-group work; and independent work.

4. The application stage seeks to have the adulttransfer learned literacy skills to differentadult knowledge areas. For example, readingskills'might be applied to health materials.

5. Evaluation should determine the degiee to whichthe instruction process has been successful. It

is important that the evaluation reflect theeducational plan. If the goal of instruction isto learn a specific set of vocabulary words, thenthose words should be tested, not words nevertaught.

F -

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.

417

O

IV. STRATEGIES FOR IDENTIFYING TARGET POPULATIONS

Educational sociologists have found that targeted populations for literacyprograms fall into specific categories.

01

Self-directed adults. Mason (1978) defines self-directed adults asthose who may not have finished high school but who are economically andpersonally secure. These individuals will seek out adult programs.

Severely underemployed and sporadically employed. To reach theseindividuals, Mason (1978, p. 58) suggests the following strategies:

A link with agencies that provide individualizedservices for disadvantaged adults.

Developed materials that are easy to read and canbe personally delivered and explained.

Developed media campaign that lends credibilityto personal recruiters.

Emphasis on publicity and personal contactsconcerning whatthe program can do for people:

.Talks within the community to inform people ofwhat the program offers, and an exchange thatelicits what the community feels are its needs.

Stationary poor. This group has the greatest need and is often thegroup not reached by traditional adult programs, community colleges, anduniversities. The stationary poor. feel powerless, lacking control over theirown lives, living each day as it comes. They are the unemployed, the welfaremothers, usually lacking skills which would make them employable. Use of themedia is not effective in reaching the stationary poor, and community peopleoften must identify them.

Specialized target populations. Every community has specializedpopulations which are often overlooked by traditional programs. In New YorkCity, for example, there has been a large influx of Haitians, Greeks, andVietnamese. Not only is each group different, but each has its own particularinternal communication network which must be understood if contact is to bemade.

Public school dropouts. In many urban centers, an estimated 50percent of the pupils fail to complete high school. One reason for manyleaving school is illiteracy. It is interesting to note that until veryrecently public high schools rarely addressed problems of functional literacy,concentrating instead on success in the content areas of literature, socialscience, and mathematics. For example, 'reading instruction traditionally hasaimed at solely improving reading ability in content areas.

42

4th

71-7-4757:::5;7

0Incarcerated. Anyone kho has conduced a prison program cannot help

but be moved by the enormous talent of many prisoners. The fact that prisonsare better known as graduate schools of crime than as institutions ofrehabilitation is a devastating comment, not on American prisons, but onAmerican society. Prison authorities are not the easiest administrators withwhich to deal because their first concern is obviously security, noteducation. They often see the literacy educator as an interference, but theyneed to learn that literacy programs actually improve security by engaginginmates in productive activities.

Community-based agencies should establish linkages between themselves andother human services agencies if they are to identify targeted populationssuccessfully.

Such agencies include:

Alcoholics Anonymous

Church groups

Community organizations

Comprehensive EmploymentTraining Act State sponsors

Correctional institutions

Private organizations

Parent-teacher associations

Service clubs

Social Security

Social service groups

Special Federal and StateDepartment of docial services commissions

Ethnic organizations

Farm groups

Health services

Immigration and naturalizationservices

Neighborhood Youth Corps

Organizations for communitydevelopment

Other educational agencies

State departments ofagriculture, and consumerism

State employment services

State parolee commissions

Veterans Administration

Vocational rehabilitation

Sororities and fraternities

43 40

a

V. MINIMIZING FAILURE

There will always be adults who fail to benefit from instruction, havesporadic attendance, and drop out of the program. The task, then, is not toeradicate failure but to institute specific tactics to minimize it. Such

tactics include:

Designing the edumAional program with the adult,based upon the intake interview and 'Ne assessment.Too often, goal-setting is solely t) task of theinstructional team, with little or no input fromstudenti.

... -

r..v%

. ..-

instituting a variegated curriculum to meet the.. .:...

different needs of students. The following curriculawere described in this paper: functional literacy, 1: : .

life skills, and conscientization. i ::...:-,.. %.

Employing a variety of instructional processes ...,. :-

encompassing individualization: adults working ;; :-...

independently, teachers providing personalized help, i-,:n

small groups of Adults working on a common area ofneed, and large group activity.

Counseling adults periodically to determine problem; %

areas. Often, what seems to be an insurmountable .problem might easily be resolved by the professional !

'..

,, , - - staff; ..--..,, =..-..-.f.---.. .., ,,,,.... ,.. . , . . .. ...'......: .

i'

Creating a student attrition committee which will ..

address programmatic problems, assist in gettingi..students back into the program, and help with future

problems. f.--

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VI. STRATEGIES FOR MOBILIZING COMMUNITY RESOURCES

(Several aspects of this topic were examined under Sections I and II.)

Selling universal literacy to a community as an abstract concept is easy,

but selling it as an operational reality is very difficult. Part of thedifficulty is the unfortunate reality that there are very few, if any, really

effective and efficient models. There is a credibility problem. A reallyeffective community literacy program is more a marriage than a sale broughtabout by the program staff sitting down with members of the community anddesigning an effective program.

Community leadership and power centers

Community leadership has as many forms as there are communities, but someprinciples do seem to apply generally in dealing with community leadership;they include the following questions:

What are the various power centers in the community?

How do they relate to each other?

How extensive is the problem of illiteracy?

What are the real tradeoffs to ignore it or deal with

it?

Is it possible.f., reduce the incidence of illiteracyin a significant way?

Who should be responsible for the program?

Who will see that these questions are raised,answered, and acted on?

Selling the community on the program begins with a serious collection ofspecific and well articulated data and includes an accurate assessment of thescope and nature of the community problem. The needs assessment should befollowed with a description of the intervention program, and how it fits withexisting human services and educational resources.

In examining the objectives for the community involvement program, onefinds that the foremost objective is to build a consensus--just for its ownsake--that illiteracy is a problem. Illiteracy can be reduced; there is a

cost benefit, and the program deserves a priority.

koonsensus on this issue will encourage cooperation, discourage turfguarding, and convey to. the illiterate a sense that the community cares.Also4_consensus can lead to financial aid, as community organizationssupporting project objectives may be in a position to contribute much needed

funds.,

45 51

The question of overlapping responsibilities may arise, Ultimately, theanswer lies. in agreeing on who will assume responsibility for the problem.Cooperation is the key, and the needs assessment should show that all sidescan contribute in solving the problem.

Probably the most accessible power centers are small groups of individualsin the community who are committedfor one reason or anotherto thecommunity's well-being. They are usually visible and active in civicaffairs. They should be approached on an individual basis, listened to, andpersuaded to embrace the advantages of effective intervention. This initialapproach should be largely philosophical rather than operational. Go slow, bepatient, and assume that initial efforts will succeed.

There is also a network of private sector agencies which should becontacted and enlisted, at least philosophically. They include, but are notlimited to individual corporations, private individuals, private agencies,service clubs, churches, and the local chambers of commerce. Other powercenters includes

Political subdivisions. There is an instinctive reaction to claimimmunity from responsibility because of constitutional constraint. Howeverthat maybe, each subdivision can contribute significantly. 'There is anotherreaction to take the position that,^u/f they're not going to, we're certainlynot going to." Once that defense is breached, it can be turned around to say,"They did, why don't you."

. .

Begin with the subdivision with which the project has the bestrapport or which has traditionally been most active. Illiteracy is a verypolitical issue, and the body politic must'be involved. Carefully approached,each subdivision can offer ongoing financial support.

Educational community. No program can be successful without theencouragement and support of the larger educational communities. Each power

center must be courted, listened to, and given full cooperation.Historically, these groups have been under attack, and the emergence of aliteracy project has the potential for increasing public criticism of

3:institutional education. Great care' should be exercised to avoid namecalling, finger pointing, or emotionalism.

C....

The project has only one goal--solution. Funding support is

unlikely, but possible. There is, however,:an invaluable resource intechnical assistance. It is essential for a community-based program topossess impeccable professional credentials: Hire good people becauseteachers make or break the project.

1,:-fq::

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Community agtricies. Any public or private community agency that ii' .._ 4........,_

deals with marginally functional people confront the effects of illiteracy :- /,..1,every day. Agencies dealing with clients in the areas of health care, -.::-.:f:-

welfare, law enforcement, courts/probation, employment, housing, consumerism, r1.;:..5,

and child care can identify prospective students. They also can often help . :.!:;:#.1:!-:.,

through vocabulary development and psychological encouragement. `..

. 1:7-/::....

P:":-.'.....,

46 ... -

. -

:

By working with community- based, ongoingagencies- -which often have a

degree of flexibility denied the legislatively mandated agencies- -the program

Will broaden its base of support and further reduce the turf-guarding issue.

Once.the linkages are established, however, they will tend to weaken unless

they are maintained.

Subdivision leaders. Even though political subdivisions have been

approached, it is important to contact individuals within the subdivision.

Mayors, aldermen, commissioners, State representatives, and congressmen and

senators who have constituents being served by the program will have a

personal interest. Since illiterate people arepolitically impotent, it is

important for the elected official Z..o come to them at the instructional

center. Advocacy is always strongest on a one-to-one and personal basis.

Government departments. Finally, there are a number of departments

of the Federal Government which have 1 presence in some way in the community.

These agencies tend to have relatively little interaction between themselves,

but a community -based organization can be a catalyst, advocate,-and convincer,

both for ongoing departmentalprograms and for possible cooperation between I

separate initiatives. Governmental departments are sometimes sources for

financial support, but are always potential advocates for literacy instruction.

The initial contact with each power center will be largely informational.

Ongoing contacts will begin to develop real cooperation and coordination, but

any active community involvement will collapse unless it is continually

maintained.

Newsletters, informational meetings, and personal contacts are essential.

Starting the program is a unique problem; but maintaining it depends largely

on success in instruction. Operation must be objectively evaluated, and the

results disseminated.

47 53

. 1,

REFERENCES

Adkins, Winthrop R. 'Life Skills Education.' Adult Leadership (reprint).

June 1973.

Bina, James V., and Dowling, William D. "Recommendations for Adult Basic

Education Legislation." Adult Leadership. XXV (October, 1976): 34-36 and

61-62.

Corder, Reginald. The Information Base for Reading. Berkeley, Calif.:

Educational testing Service, 1971. ED 05492Z.

.Dentler, RA., and Warshauer, M.E. Big City Dropouts and Illiterates. New

York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. 1965.

Fry, Edward. 'College and Adult Reading.' In Projections for Reading. H.S.

Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C.: 1980.

HEW Publication No. (OE) 77-00110.

Gray, William S. The Teaching of Reading and Writing. Paris: UNESCO, 1965.

et... .

.

.

Greenfield, L., and Nougeira, F. 'Reading Should Be Functional: The APL tApproach.' In Reading and the Adult Learner, edited by L.S. Johnson.International Reading Association, 1980: 30-34.

Mager, RoberF. .12i..st.rucclalObjectives.' Palo Alto, Calif: Lr .

?salmon Pubs., 1962.

Mason, Mildred. *Recruitment and Retention of Clients." In Adult Literacy

Program, edited by A.B. Montez. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and t.

Welfare. Washington, D.C. 1980.

Nemirow, 'Ts Analysis and Interpretation of Adult Basic Education Experiencei.-':

in the 'Inner City. OEG 0T9-422163-441 (324). Annual Report, May 1969 -. . %

June 1970. ;-.".'.

i.--..

,_Smith, Edwin H. Literacy Education for Adolescents and Adults. San Francisco,1,.t

Calif.: Boyd and Fraser, 1970. VE.:%

i.v.

Sticht, Thomas G., and others. "Project Realistic: Determination of Adult !%.:"4.

_Functional Literacy Skill Levels." Reading Research Quarterly, VII

(Spring 1972): 424-65. ..,--

Weber, Rose- Marie. *Adult Illiteracy in the United States." In Toward A i:.H.%*

Literate Society, edited by J.B. Carroll, and J.S. Chall. New York: !:......

McGraw-Hill, 1975.:. t.

4. v.....:

! ;.

48. .

54

- . : . ..

f

ADULT BASIC EDUCATION INSTRUCTIONAL

STRATEGIES: THEIR DESIGN AND IMPROVEMENT

By

K. Owen McCulloughDepartment of Continuing and Higher Education

C,

The University of TennesseeKnoxville, Tenn.

5i

1111

ABSTRACT

Dr. K. Owen McCullough surveys adult educational strategiesfrom themultilevelled, GEE- oriented Adult Basic Education program and thelabor-intensive Adult Reading Academy program to clientele-oriented,campus-based basic skills programs and independently funded and.administered programs- . Re describes the role of the adult basiceducation teacher, as well as clientele characteristics; expoundsvarious learning theories and their adaption to adult basiceducation; cites instructional techniques and materials; and predictsfor the 1980's "exciting" changes in adult education.

5

I. BACKGROUND

"What a piece of work is man!" said Shakespeare's Hamlet. "How noble in

reason!" Yet, since before and after the 16th century, some people have

always been considered less "noble in reason" than others. These were the

people who built the Egyptian pyramids, block by block, supervised by an

overseer who was.just a bit more "competent" since he knew where the blocks

should go. These also were the people who, using picks and shovels, dug the

American barge canals of the 19th century. They were directed by gang leaders

who,themselves, were managed bysuperintendents, who, in turn, were

supervised by still others--each with differing, more comprehensive, more

generalized "competencies." These were the people who chopped cotton in the

Old South and built railroads and the Empire State Building. 'These were the

people--these are the people--whose most singular competence is to keep a

strong back and arms bending, pulling, and lifting:

But there is little need for such people in a computerized, cybernetic,

technological society. Now, even a strong body and a willingness to work must

be coupled with a certain degree of more generalized "competence." This

competence is the ability to communicate through the rather complicated

symbology of written words and numbers; the ability to "sell yourself" to

prospective employers, keep a job in an era of rising unemployment, manage

one's own finances, live in harmony with one's neighbors in even closer

proximity as the world shrinks in the face of overpopulation and

interdependence.

These are the minimum competencies demanded today of everyone. To have

them is tb be "functionally literate," an all-encompassing concept derived

from a long list of concepts evolving at least from the late 1960's. These

concepts - -such as basic literacy, survival skills, coping skills, minimum

performance levels, minimum competency, employability, basic skills--imply

one's worth, dignity, perhaps even nobility. To be functionally literate is

to be "OK." To be functionally illiterate is to be in need of treatment, to

be "not OK."

Adult Basic Education levels

As the concept of functional literacy evolved, so too did the response of

the Federal Government. Long before the Adult Basic Education Act of 1964, it

was recognized that millions of adults had somehow escaped the net of

mandatory public education. In an economy, however, which could still easily

absorb the unschooled and unskilled, an economy of "piecework" and nonexistent

mandatory wage laws, such a labor pool was not a problem. Laborers were

trained on the job at wages low enough that businesses and industries could

absorb the costs of minimum supervision and inevitable mistakes. But as

technology demanded more worker sophistication, and as minimum wage laws made

workers more expensive, the pool of unschooled and unskilled could no longer

be absorbed. Federally funded, State-directed, and locallyadministered adult

basic education was deemed an answer to the problem.

51

s

Adult Basic Education (ABE) was originally a program essentially similarto the public school curriculum, except that It was divided into threelevels., Level I was to provide illiterate adults with the reading, writing,and arithmetic skills usually developed by children in grades one through

four. (Plato called these preliminary learning skills.) Level II

corresponded roughly to Grades five through eight. In level II, adulti were'to improve their reading and writing skills and be introduced to mathematics,literature, and social studies. Level III was to cover the essentialsOf thehigh school grades pine through 12 curriculum. It was really preparation forthe General Education Development (GED) examination, but with primaryconcentration on reading comprehension. (Many "adult learning laboratory"personnel discovered, in fact, during the late 1960's and early 1970's, thatif they could raiae the reading comprehension leirel of adults to at least theninthgrade levelthrough heavy doses of programmed learningthose adultscould alma t be guaranteed to pass the GED. Tis, of course, is still true.)

To ensure emphasis on levels I and t/ in ABE, no Federal money wasappropriated for level III. Local ABE programs were to use their Federal

dollars to eliminate adult illiteracy. But the adult illiterate is a hardperson to teach, even a harder person to find, and still a harder person toretain in a program. Adult illiterates have learned to hide their*handicap.' They have developed elaborate coping mechanisms. Illiteracy is

embarrassing, and illiterates, obviously, seek to avoid embarrassingsituations. Most of them "failed* in school, pot realizing that the schoolsalso.failed them. School, therefore, is not a pleasant place, and teachersdiscover what is wrong with you rather than what is right with you.

ABE teacherswere (and ire) overwhelmingly "moonlighters" drawn mostlyfrom elementary and secondary schools and trained to deal with mythicalhomogeneous classes with predictable, similar experience levels. Elementaryteachers had the edge over secondary teachers in that they were at least usedto ability grouping within classes., but neither, the elementary nor thesecondary teachers were prepared to individualize the instruction of eachperson in class. And even those who did try to individualize instruction weretoo tired from their day-school classes to make a sustained effort. ABEclasses, especially in the early days of the program, tended to becontinuations of day classes -- materials, curricula, teaching techniques, eventhe buildings and the furniture were the same. lc was assumed that adults whomissed the public school experiences merely had tc have that experience.

ABE and the GED carrot

For adults with the GED certificate as their goal, this assumption wasnearly correct. They would endure youthoriented teachers far more than theirlowerlevel classmates. They had a tangible goal, and the teacher wasinstrumental to that goal. They were motivated and not difficult to teach.Tired teachers could give little effort and still be successful.Consequently, dropout rates became exceedingly high in ABE. The dropouts werethose who needed the program most, the level I adults, those who likely hadnot been able to "keep up" with their classes when they were children and whonow found themselves unable to "keep up* with their adult class, a "class"supposedly designed to serve them exclusively.

5250

4'... "` . ; .- ..

ABE programs across. the nation, not by design, but by chance, became

associated with GED preparation, even though it was supposedly illegal to

expend Federal money for level three. The GED certificate became the carrot

held out to entice adults to attend ABE classes. (What tangible item could be

used to entice level I adults?) Ever since the original Johnstone and Rivera

study, Volunteers in Learning, it was known that the more education an adult

.has, the more likely he or she will want more education. The converse, of

course, is also true. Because of the high dropout rate, "recruitment" and

retention" became the dominant ABE themes of the 1;960's and 1970's. And

predictably, both recruitment and retention were most successful when coupled

with the GED carrot. Level I adults remained predominately hidden and

insulated.

The original intent of the ABE program was never fulfilled. Illiterate

.adults would seldom come to class, and if they did come, there were no

adequate materials for them to use. There were few teachers prepared to teach

them, and there was no tangible reason for them to be there. (In 1968, one

creative, retired elementary school teacher in Georgia decided to try teaching

adult basic education in her rural county. From 1968 through the early

1970's, she had the highest recruitment and retention rate in southern

Georgia. She was admired, respected, and loved by her level I adult

students. Her secret: She had known them or their families for more than 60

years, having been reared with many of them. She also owned and operated a

farm, and she,always promised each of them a bushel of corn if they stayed ill

-class the full 120-day session!)

From its inception ABE has had some remarkable successes, but also too

many failures. Untrained teachers, inappropriate materials, untrained and

indifferent local supervisors, and no career-ladder incentives have combined

to become-the "tragic flaw" of the original ABE program - -a laudable, necessary

program, but a failure in eradicating adult illiteracy.

53 50

a

II. NEW PROGRAMS FOR ADULT BASIC EDUCATION

Perhaps in response to the apparent failure of ABE to reach the masses of t

illiterate adults. the Federally funded Adult Reading Academy program was.

started in 1974. An outgrowth of the public school "Right to Read" program,the Reading Academy program was specifically developed for only "functionally'illiterate" adults age 16 or older. To receive a Federal grant for an AdultReading Academy, an agency had to develop a comprehensive proposal whichtargeted the specific population it would reach, the techniques it would usefor serving that population, and its plans for recruiting community volunteers.

rk..

The academy program was to be inexpeniive, and very few administrativestaff members were allowed. Some financial commitment had to be guaranteed bythe receiving agency, and only volunteers were to be used for teachers'. Most ks::-of the money was to be spent on appropriate teaching materials and staff ri

:.

e, ..

i. :.:' promotion and recruitment activities. Teaching was to be one-to-one, C-:..:

preferably at a time and place ccnvenient tóthe adult.

7.....:,.ABE and Reading_Academy conflict 7 ..: .

'.'.1

Highly sensitive State ABE directors an.J local ABE supervisors looked uponthe program as

i

duplicating theirs and, therefore, in competition with them. ,...-

As they came tor recognize the true mission of the program, they realized thatit served a clientele who had either dropped out.of ABE or who had never even

Ir.

t ,entered ABE. Successful academy students, however, would very likely be

1%candidates for ABE programs because they could only remain with.the academy

i

until they had-achieved a fourth-grade reading level. Success in the reading , .'

academy would prepare them for success in ABE. But conflict over territorial1

t-,

rights led simply to truces, with each program operating as if the other did i

not exist. ! ,.

. _

Revealing the unique character of the academy' program is the followingdescription taken from the brochure of an academy in Tennessee:

t .

Community volunteers, are recruited and trained to providefree, private, individual reading instruction to_any adult, 16years of age or older, who is functionally illiterate. Each

.

student is assisted to learn to read effectively according tohis or herIneeds. Each curriculum is individualized, centeringon the interests, life style, and goals of the student.

*-rf

Each'adult student who enrolls goes throughoan initialintake process, a specified sequence of events designed toprovide information necessary for the development of his or herreading curriculum, the purpose of which is to assist theindividual in becoming a functionally literate, effectivelyliving adult. During the initial interview with the Student -

Coordinator, the student's specific reading skills and gradelevel are determined by two formalized tests: the {leading

F1-';':*(.-

54 iT

..

G()

Section, Level II, of the WRAT (Wide Range Achievement Test)

provides a standardized reading'grade-level score; the READ

(Reading Evaluation -Adult Diagnoiis) identifies the student's

reading competence in such areas as readiness, alphabet

knowledge, sight vocabulary, word attack and analysis skills,

and reading and listening comprehension. Everyday life coping

- needs are assessed by the,Academy's Informal Coping Skills

Inventory.

Personal information, such as the student's aspirations and

occupational goals which have implications for teaching, is

gathered in the initial counseling interview. The Counselor, i'n

addition to assisting the student to articulate these goals,

records this information and identifies problems in the

student's': nvironment which may be barriers to participation and

learning. The Counselor refers the student to appropriate

agencies when needs unable to be met by the academy are

identified.

Student support is offered through quarterly followup

contacts with the student by the Counselor, posttesting and

re- evaluation, of the student's goals and progress, and referrals

to other-appropriate agencies. The academy also holds several

fundraising drives throughout each year to earn money for

various supportive services unavailable through outside

agencies. An example of such service is the provision.of eye

exams and eye glasses for those students who need them in order

to learn to read but who cannot afford them.

The volunteer reading tutors (unpaid) are recruited from

the local-community. Each volunteer attends an orientation

during which illiteracy and the academy approach are discussed

in detail. Those volunteers who then decide to help another

adult learn to read sign a Volunteer Agreement which commits

them to provide reading instruction to one student for 2 hours a

week for a period of 6 months.

After a short waiting period, the volunteer is matched with

a student; matching is based on mutual availability and other

criteria such as personal backgrounds and personality traits.

During their first meeting, the tutor administers the Academy

Informal Coping Skills Inventory in order to secure important

information concerning the student's ability to apply reading in

everyday tasks--such as using the telephone directory, reading a

want ad, or understanding highway signs.

Information from the three sources--the student's reading

abilities and deficiencies as measured by the WRAT and READ;

information gathered by the Counselor concerning the student's

goals, interests, and problems; and the student's coping skills

ability assessed by the Informal Coping Skills Inventory - -is

used to develop the curriculum outlined in the student's

Suggested Reading Program (SRP).

SS61

-

1.

: .

Tutor training is scheduled immediately after the initial

tutor/student meeting. This training session (lasting

approximately 2.1/2 hours) gives the volunteer tutor instructionin those teaching methodologies, basic skills materials, andcoping skills supplements most suited to and needed by thestudent.' In other words, this training is tailored to the needs

of each tutor/student pair: Materials are selected specificallyfor the individual student and their uses demonstrated to the

tutor.

Each volunteer and student meet for lessons 2 hours a week

at a pAnimum. Tutoring takes place whenever and wherever it is

convenient for the student. Whenever possible, employed adultsare tutored at their job sites where reading-for-job skillsinformation is readily available. Each adult learner is taught

to read what is most important for his/her immediate needs.

The staff supplies ongoimq support to the tutor as well as

the student. Consultation and retraining are available anytime

for tutors. Other tutor support'efforts include regularlyscheduled workshops --on such topics as teaching techniques,materials, and common problem areas experienced by tutors in thefield -- bimonthly newsletters, and monthly phone contacts.

(On the folloz:ing page is a graphic model of, the Adult Reading

Academy Program.)

r..

.. " .

Anyone who studies the modeland who has even an elementary acquaintancewith ABE, can immediately see that nothing is duplicated from,the ABE

program. The Adult Reading Academy, one can say, augmented ABE orsupplemented it, and may even have logically preceded; it, but certainly did

not duplicate ABE. Notice once again the distinguishing characteristics of

the Adult Reading Academy: 1) the use of volunteer tutors instead of paidteachers; 2) one-to-one instruction rather than classes; 3) complete diagnosisof student.strengths and weaknesses; 4) curriculum and materials tailored tothe student's needs, personal goals, and major interests; 5) interaction withother social service agencies to connect the student with resources which helpreduce the barriers to a student's learning process; 6) the extensive use of

(Acounselors; and 7) delivery of the program to the student at the mostappropriate and convenient time and place.

The academy program was extremely labor - intensive and as much concerned

with the effectively developing a student as it was with cognitive

development. The program emphasized developing. positive, personalrelationships between the tutor and the student, peer relationships whichrecognized and sincerely believed in the OK-ness of each, and the fact thateach person involved had unique characteristics and strengths. The programrevealed that when the relationship concerned reading, one knew more than theother, but when other topics or interests developed, the roles may and often .

would reverse. The tutor was merely a person willing to help another learn to

read, and the ability td read did not automatically establish one'ssuperiority over the other.

56

62

ADULT READING ACADEMY PROGRAM MODEL

TARGET AUDIENCE:Functionally illiterate adults

RECRUITMENT

TARGET AUDIENCE:

1Literate adults willing to help

RECRUITMENT

INTAKE

Student

Appointment

Initial

responds7-self or referral.

is made for an interview.

interview with Student Coordinator 1

1

Volunteer tutor responds to appeals.

Volunteer is scheduled for orientation.

Orientation in group (1 1/2 hlurs with

.

Volunteer Coordinator

Collection of student data 1Collection of tutor data

Reading diagnosis:General orientation of adult literacy

WRAT--standard scoreTraining in administration of ARAP

READ--skills diagnosis 1Informal Coping Skills inventory

Student enrolled; signs Student Agreement. Tutor signs Volunteer Agreement.

Waiting Period 1Waiting Period <

S udent Coordinator and Volunteer Coordinator compare data on students

a volunteers (personal data,geographic locations, modes of trans- ,

par tion, times available for lessons).

STUDENT MATCHED WITH TUTOR

1

TUTOR CONTACTS STUDENT - -FIRST

MEETING IS MUTUALLY ARRANGEDFIRST LESSON IS HELD:

Tutor and student get to know each other.

Tutor administers Informal Coping Skills Inventory.

Counseling InterviewTraining Session II (2 1/2 hrs.)

Information gathered fr9m student One-to-one session individualized for

Goals Attainment Plan developed particular student-tutor pair through

Obstacles to participation or instruments of student assessment:

learning identifiedSupport services provided by

referrals to appropriate agencies

WRAT, READ, Coping Skills Inventory,Goals Attainment Plan.

....PERIOD OF TUTORING

SUPPORT AND MAINTENANCE

1

Quarterly counselor followup Monthly contacts by phone

Posttestinq and re-evaluation 1 Monthly lesson reports

of student skills and goals 1Newsletters, workshops, additional

1training

REASSIGNMENT OR SEPARATION

CONCLUSION

//1".. SEPARATION OR REASSIGNMENT

57 6.3

Basic skills education

The academies are virtually gone. They have become Adult Basic SkillsCenters within new Federal guidelines, but they have retained all of theirformer characteristics except that they have expanded their curricula toembrace all aspects of functional-literacy:7The demise of the academies,then, was not brought about by their failure, but by their success. Using thesame administrative structure, the same emphasis on volunteer labor and peerrelationships, continued linkages with other social service agencies, and thesame portability of programs to the learner, they have become truly a successstory for what were formerly classified as level I adults in basic 'education.And they have stimulated interest anew in level I adults by traditional adultbasic education programs, brought: about in part by the admission that ABEtraditionally served adults who were most easily served, most motivated andhigher up on the educational ladder.

Basic skills education for adults is the new catch word in adult basic

education. There is hardly an education conference one can attend withouthearing discussions of adults who need biiic skills, of programs that providebasic skills, of teachers who teach basic skills, or of agencies who provide

funding for basic skills.

Basic skills education also has now become part of the function ofcomprehensive community colleges, State technical institutes, area vocationalschools, some junior colleges, and a growing number of 4-year colleges anduniver- "+es such as Lincoln Memorial University in Tennessee, the College ofSouthern Idaho, Lesley College in Massachusetts, and others.' Even majoruniversities: such as Johns Hopkins, .the University of Tennessee,'CaliforniaState University, the University of Kentucky, the University of SouthernMaine, and many more, have established campus- based, externally supportedbasic skills centers. These were origintlly conceived to serve asdemonstration schools where faculty could do research, curriculum and \techniques could be developed and tested, students could gain practicalteaching experience, and adult clientele could be served.

Although these objectives are still ostensibly the purpose of campus-basedcenters, the emphasis has now shifted almost exclusively to serving clientele,and student tutors are greatly outnumbered by community volunteers.Campus-based centers receive facilities and budget management expertise fromuniversities, 4nd have truly become arms of the universities. They reach outinto the communities, dealing directly with agencies, helping people who, forthe most part, will never become university, degree-seeking students. Andthrough Federal support, they are establishing a semblance of autonomy.

University purists frequently grumble about whether such centers ought tobe identified with, the university if they are not directly serving a highereducation function. But the centers have discovered many friends within theuniversity communities; quite often faculty members and administratorsvolunteer as tutors. Indeed, some centers even serve the occasional collegeor university student who is unable to cope with introdgctory English or mathcourses at the freshman level., (This is not, however, an advertised functionof the skills center, unless it was set up directly to serve studentsunprepared for college curricula.) .

58

61s"",: ": if!"

r

Basic skills programs pow dot the American landscape. They are sometimes

part of current adult basic education programs; but more frequently, they areindependently funded and administered programs, receiving Federal schooldistrict or United Way agency funds.

Moreover, professional educators no longer dominate the basic skills

personnel ranks. Lay citizens are in the forefront, volunteering time not to

a program but to a cause. They are linked with others whose singlecommonality perhaps is the desire to help others help themselves. These arefrom various professions and occupations, retired people, students, the mostliterate and the barely literate, the very rich and the very poor.

They operate out of places such as Volunteers of America of Los Angeles,the Urban Coalition of Metropolitan Wilmington, Del.; Literacy Action,Incorporated, Atlanta, Ga.; the Opportunities Industrialization Center,Atlanta, Ga.; the Alternative School Network of Chicago; the National Leagueof Cuban Americans of Fort Wayne, Ind.; Literacy Volunteers of New York;Solidaridad Humana, Incorporated, New York; the Columbui Basic SkillsUnlimited Academy of Columbus, Ohio; the Douglas-Cherokee Economic Authorityof Morristown, Tenn.; the Indochinese Refugees Social Service program inAlexandria. Va.; the Literacy Council of Alaska in Fairbanks; the Universityof Tennessee Adult Basic Skills Center; and thousands of churches andsynagogues. An offensive on adult functional illiteracy has begun in Americansociety, and lay people are the frontline soldiers.

59

.1,

III. INSTRUCTOR ROLES AND CLIENTELE CHARACTERISTICS

Perhaps more true in adult basic education than in any other specific,education program areas, (such as secondary education, higher education, andtechnical education') the content of what ie to be learned must be determinedby the dynamic interaction of the learner and the teacher with the availableinstructional materials. Adult basic education programs are still voluntarilyattended, and, except in the case of external criteria--such as the GEDexamination mandates mastering of specific content--ABE clientele determinetheir learning goals. They and their instructor determine specific objectivesand decide together which instructional materials are the most effective inhelping the learners achieve those objectives. The materials are a means tothe objectives; the objectives are a means to the goal. The instructor' inthe truest sense, must be a facilitator of learning, helping learners reachgoals in the most efficient manner, tailoring content and teaching techniqueto the unique goal of each learner.

Instructor-qualities

Theinstructor is instrumental to the goal of the ABE learner, andsuccessful ABE instructors are comfortable with this role. They are notautocrats, gatekeepers, disciplinarians, or upholders of externally derived

standards. They are nearer to counselors as a profession than they are tostereotypical classroom teachers.- Their relationship to the learner is a

,'predominately helping one and their expertise is more in prbcess than incontent. Thty must be able to analyze the articulated goals of learners (whatlearners want to achieie) and determine what learners need to reach theirgoals. Instructors must be able to develop specific objectives for each need,create instructional sequences for each objective, and help lekrners throughthe sequences with efficient adult learning strategies (explained in a latersection of this paper). Simultaneously, they must also assess and reassesseach step of the process' and constantly striy to maintain the morale and )

perserverance of each person involved.

In telephone interviews of administrators, teachers, and tutors in basicskills and ABE centers across the country, the following comments were made tothe question, "What qualities do you look for in a tutor or an instructor ofadults?"

L

From Alaska: "A good tutor keeps his students' immediatet

and long term personal and vocationaleducational needs foremost by teachingskills and developing lessoni geared to

:

helping the students meet these needs. Agood tutor makes creative use of available

!:,4:-!:-instructional materials and develops theirown material where applicable."

t.

--aonnis Brody ;7;:Literacy Council of Alaska

is;.

.

60'

6 6 .

"" 7- . " 7-1 "s" : -- '-:,...7-11":-.- ;;: : --77. .:- .

,..11.

t

From Florida: *Good teachers need patience, empathy,sensitivity. They can't be anxious,overbearing, or demanding."

--John FullerOrange County School Board

"The people who work best for us areindigenous people, people from thepopulation we are trying to serve. Theydon't have to have technical knowledge, butthey do have to be skilled at working withothers."

From California:

From Tennessee:

e

--Olga GarayPartners in Learning

Good'teachers must be adaptable, mustbe good at both group and one-to-oneinstruction, must be good at helpinglearners develop positiveself-concepts."

--Herbert ThompsonCorona-Norco Unified School

"A good tutor is a fr4end and a peer.Learners need tutors who can be proudof them. Tutors cannot be easilyfrustrated."

--Tom KrollAdult Basic Skills Center

"Instructors must be willing to givemuch psychic energy. They must be openand flexible. They must believe thatthe world of illiteracy and poverty is

. truly another world and that those wholive in it are victims of h societythey never lehrned to cope with." 1

--Steve LoweryAdult Basic Skills Center

t'

1. .

I .

"Tutors must believe in the genuinequalities of their students. They havegenuine qualities that are soadmirable. They can do many thingsthat so manypeople can't do. Tutorsmust look for their strengths ratherthan their weaknesses. They must build

61

1

Prom Wyoming:

on those strengths. Some of theirstudents have never received positivereinforcement. In.this prograh, theyget the reinforcement they never had."

--Barbara LideAdult Basic Skills Center

"Tutors must be able to convince, thestudents that they can learn. Thetutor's job is to help them learn."

--Tom SalterAdult Basic'Skills'eenter

"Literacy work is like the tarbeby.Once youget into it, you can't pullloose from it:"

--Rath y Aycock

Adult Basic Skills Center

"Tutors or aides or teachers must beperson-centered rather thtn subject-centered. They must b' concezned aboutthe feelings of those they areworkingwith. We'd rather have someone'leasprepared academically than,one who isnot a caring, sensitive individual.The people we serve need much personalhelp, much tender loving care. Theyhave not developed personal workhabits. They have learned well how tofail."

--Carol ArnoldLaramie County CommunityCollege

These and similar comments from Illinois, Indiana, and New York confirmthe importance of personal qualities over academic or technical competence forbasic education instructors. It was also expressed that'instructors from anadult learner's own peer group are as successful and sometimes more successfulthan trained teachers. Peer group instructors or tutors are role models.They are tangible evidence that people'can rise above difficult circumstances,and they tend to feel immediate empathy for those in situations from whichthey, therselvea, emerged.

Clientele Characteristics

The most important part of the adult basic education process is the adultlearner, a person who typically has been described as undereducated,unskilled, disadvantaged, culturally deprived, culturally inferior (and ..

62

unique), functionally illiterate, and poor. These negative terms make it easyfor an ABE instructor to unwittingly ascribe negative characteristics to ABElearners. An instructor who sees these terms as being synonymous with "slowlearner" is not likely to believe sincerely that adult students are capable ofmuch more than learning minimally how to read, write, and use basicarithmetic. Such instructors treat adult students as juveniles. Theypatronize them, create dependency in them, deny them the opportunity forgrowth, and ultimately lose them; in doing so, they fulfill their originalprophecy--that ABE students are not very capable.

The self-fulfilling prophecy is a powerful psychological phenomenon whichcan work either for or against an adult learner, and since there is noevidence which shows that the ABE student population is mentally inferior tomodel American society, ttiere is,every reason to believe that they can succeed.

Certain characteristics of ABE clientele, however, do have considerableimpact on the teaching/learning environment. Being general, thesecharacteristics ao not typify each ABE learner, but they do provide the

: .ingredients of the major problem of each ABE instructor. P

ABE clientele are mainly products of a distinctive cultural milieu whichhas within it unique value priorities, behavior patterns and expectations, andsurvival strategies. Generation after generation of poverty, socialisolation, and low social status have produced a hard core of American poorwith low self-esteem, unmarketable skills, little or no futureorientation,and lack of motivation and self-confidence. They distrust' education, but areas capable of learning as any other population segment.

Eor them, just to enter an ABE program is a heroic step. It incurs thegnspicion of their peers and possible hostility of spouses. It breaks theday-to-day routine and asks them to prepare for a possible tomorrow that theyhad never even considered before. It is a big, frightening step from whichthey will retreat at the slightest provocation. Sadly, only a small minorityof millions of potential ABE clientele has taken it.

Understandably, these students are tentative, nervous, anxious,unconvinced, and definitely uncommitted, and,perhaps tired from a full day'swork. They see the Asp program as possible entry into a better way' of life.They usually know what they want but are rarely able to articulate what theyneed to achieve their wants. They desire tangible items, the abundance ofwhich can be acquired with higher - paying jobs or with better management oftheir present income. They are highly utilitarian, desiring to use their timeto gain useful knowledge and learn applicable skills. A successful ABEinstructor always makes certain that whatever is being taught has been"approved" by the learners as having direct applicability to each of theirneeds. This is part of what is meant by the phrase "tailoring instruction tothe student's needs."

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IV. LEARNING THEORIES ADAPTED TO ADULT BASIC EDUCATION

The study of learning theories and theorists has been part of-theeducational preparation of nearly every teacher who ever graduated from anaccredited college of education. The names of David Ausubel, Albert Bandura,Jerome Bruner, Robert Gagne, Donald Hebb, Clark Hull, Carl Rogers, and B. P.Skinner, to name 4 few, have been memorized by thousands of prospectiveteachers at every degree level. Their principles have been evaluated in lightof specific learners and subject areas. It is doubtful, however, thatteachers a year or more out of college can remember very such about either thetheorists or their theories.

Por examnle, in an unpublished study done by this author of doctoral levelstudents in a graduate course in instruction, only the names of Dewey,Skinner, and Rogers-were recognizable. According to the graduate students,Dewey was the proponent of "learn by doing,". Skinner was the "discoverer" ofthe power of immediate reinforcement, and Rogers emphasized the need not onlyto have empathy for students; but also to recognize and use their individualdifferences. These were close approximations of the positions of Dewey,Skinner, and Rogers, but those of other learning theorists could not berecalled.

The doctoral students haddone what most professional educators havedone: they had taken what they have found to work from whatever group oftheorists that they have studied, and they have developed an eclectic,pragpatic teaching strategy unique to their own personality characteristics.

Learning thedry_themes

To be fair to the learning theorists, however, it seems justified tobriefly review their dominant themes, at least those which appear to be mostuseful in adult basic education. If those theorists were talking to adultbasic education instructors, here is what they would surely say:

David Ausubel: *Organize the material to be learned in amanner most relevant to the learners. Tie the material to real-lifesituations. Be sure that the adult learner is ready to learn, thatprior prerequisite knowledge is present, and introduce the materialat the appropriate knowledge level of the adult."

Adult educators, knowingly or not, use Ausubel a great deal,especially in basic education. They know that adults usually learn best whenthe material has immediate utilitarian value, when they can see its relevanceto their lives. They know also that adults have a busy schedule and arereluctant to give time to material they already know. Adults also usually donot want to go beyond a knowledge level they cannot use.

64

70".. , 7-:A .f r--: " .;. ".::. 7 r ":

-.

Albert Bandura: "Don't assume that there is only one right

way to do something. Introduce adults to many alternatives and let

them choose from amorg those alternatives. Be a role model for your

'adult students. If they,are to be continuing learners, you must

also be a continuing learner. If they are to be excited about

learning, you must be excited."

Too often, dogma and boring instruction experienced by adults in

their youth. destroyed their curiosity to learn. Learning became like castor

oil which nobody liked but everybody was forced to take. Adults are reluctant

to come back to such situations.

Jerome Bruner: "Nothing can be taught unless one renders

what is to be taught worth knowing. In all instructional

situations, two roles must be played -- the teacher and the

learner. Each has a responsibility, but the learner is ultimately

responsible for his or her own learning."

Educators realize that adults must be convined nearly everyday that

what they are learning is worth their effort. They must see progress, not to

`the instructor's goal, but to their own goal. Therefore, instructors are to

help them reach their goal, but cannot reach the goal for them.

do, Robert Gagne: "Develop specific learning objectivesmutually with each adult, and recognize that for every learning task

there is a hierarchy of knowledge which precedes or supercedes that

task."

Educators must take adults where they want to go, but they must also

be able to analyze what is to be learned so that they can help adults acquire

the knowledge or skill to reach the objective.

Donald Hebb: "Break the knowledge or skill into separate

components and teach them first."

This is sometimes difficult because adults want to proceed directly

to their goal. Therefore, the components must be shown to be an integral part

of their goal..

Clark Hull: "Before attempting to help an adult learn,

remove all competing stimuli."

The learning environment must be free as possible of internal and

external distractions. An adult distracted by personal problems or who is

physically uncomfortable, is not ready or even willing to learn. Educators

must recognize that staying on the learning track is not always possible, that

sometimes all that can be done is to help the adult deal with something

unrelated to the course content.

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Carl Rogers: 'Tech adult is unique, a bundle of uniqueexperiences which make him or-her different. Learn to respect those

individual differences. Develop empathy for those differences.Accept them in a genuine, sincere manner."

All adults want to be accepted, and 'acceptance is different fromtolerance. No adult wants to be tolerated: Adult educators use theindividual differences of their students to help enrich the learningatmosphere. Adult basic education is more than silent classrooms with eachadult working at a specific learning task. It-is also a program inwhich social. skills are developed, and ideas and experiences shared.

B. F. Skinner: 'Reinforce only desirable behavior, and'reinforce such behavior immediately.'

Differences are always easier to see than similarities. Professionaleducators have been trained to detect what is wrong rather than what is

however, learn beat by building from one small success toanother' Undereducated adults especially are used to tieing told how wrongthey are, and it is surprising how quickly they respond to an atmosphere thataccents how right they are

Learning theorists usually concentrate research en easily accessiblepopulations. Piaget,.for example, concentrated on children; Skinner on smallanimals, particularly birds; Gagne on school children and members of the armedservices. Prom observing these populations, theorists develop or testhypotheses, which become-theories as the hypotheses are substantiated. Thetheories, then, are reported, and educators everywhere and in every programarea draw inferences from them, especially as the theories are found to beuseful and adaptable to other learning environments.

Eclectic learning theory

Adultbasic education, like some other educational programs, does not haveits own specific learning theory. What has appeared workable in theory hasbeen adapted and adopted by ABE instructora, and what has emerged is aneclectic body of theory loosely called adult learning theory. A good exampleis J. Roby Kidd's book, How Adults Learn, which Kidd, himself, would notdescribe as a theory-generating book. Adult basic education is a field ofpractice, not a field of research, encompassing an array of strategiesgathered from theories found most applicable to adults.

This is not to say, however, that ABE teachers practice outside the twodominant learning theory classifications--stimulus response theories andGestalt-field theories. In fact, ABE instructors are overwhelminglypractitioners of Gestalt-field theories. The stimulus-response theories areseen as too mechanistic for adult-learners. They treat learners assingle-response organisms. Single stimuli which require single, specificresponses do not consider the mediating influences of the learner's pastexperience, motivational factors, or whatever else the learner brings to thelearning environment.

72-.; ;IS,' ;,; 7: ,

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Gestalt-field theories, by nature, recognize the learner as an active,

mediating part of the triumvirate--learner/content/instructor. Instructors

using Gestalt theory spend a great deal of time ensuring that adults

understand not only what is to be learned, but why it is to be learned, and

how it is related to their goals. Each adult becomes aware of his or her

present knowledge, which can be used as a foundation for his or her learning

goal. Upon those individual foundations, the instructor helps the adults

build whatever knowledge and skills are iequired to reach their goals.

To reiterate: There is no dominant learning theory used in adult basic

education. There is a composite of learning theories that have been woven

together, blended, and modified until they now reside as a set of principles

in the arsenal of strategies which every successful adult educator brings to

the learning environment. They are logical principles which can be taught

quickly, even to lay volunteers without an education background. It matters

not that the derivation of those principles has been forgotten by most of

those who use them, since experts in learning theory do not necessarily make

the best instructors of adults. Something far more intangible makes good

instructors.

Perhaps what is most intangible is that course content does not dictate

what is to be learned in adult basic education--adults do. Adult basic

education instructors are not gatekeepers, nor are they certifiers of

accomplishment or credit, nor do they follow specific curriculum guides. They

are people who help adults learn what they need to learn to do what they

choose to do. That is their foremost responsibility.

:

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V. INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS

\ss,

Within the various, current education levels in American society, adultbasic education is the most homogeneous in both the materials and thetechniques used. Overwhelmingly, instructors use commercially produced printmaterial for content, and the instructional role they adopt is one of helpinglearners master the content. Seldom "do teachers present new material or

lecture. They individualize the learning process by using high interestmaterial appropriate to the learner's needs. If commercial materials are notreadily available for a particular learner's interest, teachers will thenutilize whatever is available in the learner's immediate environment, i.e.,job-oriented, neighborhood-oriented. or community-oriented print material.

A national telephone survey to determine the extent that multimediahardware and programs are used in,ABE, showed qpite low usage. However, theresults should be of no surprise, given the natire of both the,typical ABElearner and the learning task. These were the results in a random selectionsurvey of 20 State ABE programs or basic skills centers. The results alsoinclude commercial material use:

TYPES OF EQUIPMENT OR MATERIALS USED IN CURRENTABE AND BASIC SKILLS PROGRAMS: (20 programs surveyed)

Equipment or materials Number of Programs ReportingUse

Commercial Print MaterialsTeacher Made Materials

Language MastersTape RecordersFilmstripsFilms,Videotape RecordersComputersGamesTelevision

20

20, but only assupplementary12

12

9

4

1

1

1

0

Although this survey cannot be generalized to the hundreds of other ABEprograms and basic skills centers, it provides (in this author's opinion)information about the current general trend. There were many reasons givenfor not usinq equipment or "canned" programs. One reason was that learners

. are not sophisticated enough to treat such items as useful learning tools.Another reason was the general lack of appropriate materials. A comment

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regarding this was, "It's kind of hard to get teaching films or filmstrips

that directly relate to the Alaskan environment and the typical Alaskan ABE

student." Still other reasons were the lack of portability of such equipment

or programs and the general lack of expertise among the teachers or tutors in

using them.

Personal interaction

The major reasons given, however, related to the perculiar nature of the

adult basic education teaching/learning environment, which emphasizes the

quality of personal interaction between teacher and learner. ABE teachers

must be highly adaptable individuals, being able to seize upon the many

teachable moments that arise within the learning process. Simultaneously,

they must be aware of the very delicate commitment most learners have to the

idea of learning and being helped to learn.

3

Hardware and "canned" programs are impersonal. They cannot make learners

believe in themselves, adapt to the unique personal needs of the learner, or

develop personal regard and friendship for the learners. And even though

developing basic knowledge and skills is the only measurable mission of ABE,

perhaps what is ABE's most important mission is rebuilding and

strengthening --even restoring- -the many human psyches that have been

"weighed," in the biblical sense, and have "been found wanting." It is a

dual, difficult mission, one which cannot be fairly evaluated if the only

criteria used are reading gains, or numbers of people who have completed

certain content areas, or any one of a dozen other ways programs can be

quantitatively measured. And it is also a delicate mission, depending heavily

on compatability and sensitivity of personalities.

Teaching literacy cannot be done by the timid, aloof, or by those who feel

superior. It can only be done by those who are ready to "give until it

hurts " - -in Mother Teresa's words--by those who-can dedicate and rededicate

their lives to adult learners, just as a Tennessee staff did a few years ago:

In Memory ofJohn Tucker

An A.R.A.P. StudentWhose Determination To Learn To Read

Was An Inspiration To His Tutor

And Those Who Knew Him1978

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VI. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE 1980's'

It would be Simple to look at the 1980's in adult basic education from theperspective of the 1970's and simply extrapolate from that decade and say,*What we did in the 1970's we will continue to do in the 1980's.°Extrapolation is one way to peer into the future, especially the short-termfuture, because it is safe to say that a population of 25 million functionallyilliterate adults in 1981 cannot all be trained to function at minimum levelsby 1990. Indeed, as the complexity of society increases, perhaps even at ageometric rate, minimum functional requirements will rise, not fall, thusadding to the functional illiteracy rate, regardleis of the efforts of ABE toreduce the rate. Extrapolation can also point to the gloomy financial picturefor adult educationindeed most of education--in 1981 and easily predictcontinuing financial problems. ,In other words, extrapolation merely extendsgrowth and decline trends usually for short time periods, and predicts thatwhat is grot-ing will continue.to grow, and what is declining will continue todecline.

Generally, in adult education there are increasing numbers ofnontraditional students involved in credit as well as noncredit programs.

`There is also an increased uae of instructional technology. Extrapolation,therefore, can predict continued growth in adult education. But in adultbasic education. stsubset of adult education, stagnation has set in, mainlybecause government-mandated budget cuts; thus, extrapolation can onlypredict future stagnation. . ,

Creating the future

Another way to look at the future, however, is to create a scenario. Thepast to a person of this futuristic persuasion does not predict the future.The future is born everyday, and what predicts the future is what is done ornot done today to create it. This method of futures prediction is advocatedby what my be called the "create- the - future" futurists.

Looking at the 1980's from a create-the-future stance, one can predictexciting changes for adult basic education, possible changes for which theexpertise already exists. All that is needed is the will to make them happen.

A career ladder for adult basic education teachers will be4evelc'ed in every State, thereby creating fulltime ABEteaching positions with all professional benefits andrequirements such as certification and mandatory continuingeducation. This will practically eliminate the constantproblems associated with part-time, moonlighting,untrained, tired teachers, and it will surely boost themorale of teachers who truly want to make a professionalcommitment to ABE.

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."^" . :. . ...PT, :.4 4. t l,

New areas of instructional technology will be developed and

used, such as microprocessors and video discs that will not

take the place of the instructor but will help learners at

basic cognitive levels where repetition and rote memory are

important. This will free instructors to give more time to

teaching at higher cognitive levels where attitudes and

values more- readily emerge.

Functional illiteracy will virtually disappear. It will be

recognized as a handicap and a result of society failing

individuals who, in turn, fail society. Eliminating

functional illiteracy will provide a new role for adult

basic education, that of helping adults cope with constant,

complex change, as well as helping them become independent

learners.

Lifelong learning will become a way of life with ABE and a

permanent part of the entire educational spectrum.

Education will not be looked upon as a "thing," but as a

process through which adults efficiently learn whatever

they deem necessary to learn.

Adult basic education will cease to be predominately a

nighttime activity. Because of flexible work schedules and

cooperative relationships with business and industry,

adults will be able to participate at their convenience,

and ABE proqtams will be there to serve them.

The 1980's will be an exciting decade, a desirable prologue to the decades

to come. An army of ABE teachers, staff, tutors,,lay people, supervisors, and

directors can be counted on to move ABE out of its 1981 doldrums. Another

army of engineers and technicians are now at work perfecting new technology.

All that is needed is the unifying determination to take responsibility for

creating a predictable, desirable ABE future.

I

THE CARE AND FEEDING OF INSTRUCTORS OF

ADULT LITERACY AND BASIC EDUCATION

BY

Waynne B. James

School of Occupational and Adult EducationOklahoma State UniversityStillwater, Okla. 74078

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ABSTRACT

Dr. WeInne B. James provides some answers to the questions regardingfinding, hiring, and training instructors of adult literacy and basiceducation programs. She considers the need for quality instructors,the role of instructors, where they can be found, required qualitiesand competencies, selection criteria, and required training and/orpreparation. She also discusses several innovative trainingapproaches and products. She sees the instructor of adults in the1980'3 as having a combination of technical and humanistic skillseffected by training which addresses both content and process needs.

7 9

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"Every adult illiterate, ever y school dropout....is anindictment of us all."

--Jimmy Carter, gubernatorial inaugural address,January 12, 1971

60

I. INTRODUCTION

The reported number of adults with literacy problems differs from source

to source. However, according to U.S. Department of Education schoolcompletion' estimates, 54 million people fit into this categor. The NationalCouncil on Adult Education (NACAE) estimates that the number may be as high as

65 million. Competency-level estimates reported by the Adult PerformanceLevel (Final Report, 1976) imply that 57 million adults lack the'competenciesnecessar\, to function adequately in society.

It is within our power to transform the situations but the price will bea large one and the task will not be easy" (Kozol, 1980, p. 101). A part of

the solution is to prepare instructors for adult literacy and basic educationprograms. This paper is an attempt to present some guidelines foridentifying, selecting, and preparing these instructors.

The term instructor is used to represent a facilitator of the'learninq

situation. Similar terms--i.e., teacher, trainer, facilitator, inservicecoordinator--could be used synonymously, depending on the setting of the

instructional programs.

The problems of adult'literacy and basic education instructors arerelated, to a large extent, to several factors specific to characteristics ofthis field. For example, although some adult literacy and basic educationprograms are required, most adults attend on a voluntary basis. Adults inthis instructional setting are generally very heterogeneous, with physical andsensgry differences due to age and socioeconomic and ethnic differences. Theyalso have different educational and vocational experiences, ability level,motivating factors, and feelings.

One other factor which complicates adult literacy and basic educationproblems is that most of the instructors teach parttime; their outsideresponsibilities are often greater than their instruction activities.

This paper seeks to contribute insights into the problems associated with

instructors of adults. It provides some answers to questions thatadministrators or directors typically ask about hiring and traininginstructors for adult literacy and basic education programs. The paper

considers these questions:

Why is there a need for quality instructors in adultliteracy and basic education programs?

What are the roles of these instructors?

What competencies are needed by the instructors?

What is unique about working with adults?

Where can potential instructors be found?

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What criteriainstructors?

What traininginstructors?

should be considered in selecting

and/or preparation is necessary for

' What are some of the more innovative projects/productsavailable for training?

78

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II. WHY IS THERE A NEED FOR QUALITY INSTRUCTORS INADULT LITERACY AND BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAMS?

Quality instructors are extremely vital in adult literacy and basiceducation programs. Crucial issues involve the students' self-concepts andexpectations of new learning experiences. Program instructors must beconcerned with such more than mastery of any one subject area since adultshave numerous factors impinging on their classroom existence. Instructors whoset the stage for a new learning experience necessarily must incorporate aspecial sensitivity for the student who is entering a program for the firsttime. An adult's self-concept as a learner and his or her expectations ofwhat a learning environment is have roots in past experiences. These past.experiences must be considered as that unique frame of reference each studentbrings into the learning arena.

It is not enough for an instructor to ascertain each student's functioninglevel. Literacy and educational levels can be misleading when not consideredwithin the framework of the adult's previous experiences as they relate toother'structured learning activities. Aside from learning disabilities,physical problems, and other obvious impairments to learning, the adult'sexpectations, based on previous learning experiences, must be considered,since self-concepts are developed as a result of past successes and/orfailures.

As the adult learner is introduced to the learning experience, theinstructor must ensure that the new experience is different from pastexperiences. Since first impressions often determine whether or not.a studentreturns, the introduction must set the tone of an open, nonthreatening,atmosphere. It is imperative that the student understands that it is not theinstructor's responsibility alone to determine what will be learned or how itwill, belearned. Students must assume responsibility for their own learningand become increasingly more self-directed. If ice instructor's role is one ,

of support, assistance, and guidance, the chances, of the learner feeling anystigma or alienation can be minimized, and the'learner will be more likely toremain in the classroom.

Quality instructors who understand and practice these points will gain thetrust and respect of adults and, in turn, will be able to encourage studentlearning positively. Good instructor-) 'eep a program operating, and withoutinstructorswho.attract and retain students and who help them achieve desiredgoals or ski ls, there will be no continuing program of value.

Genetic iackground.and the environment contribute to the diversificationof adult interests, preferences, and skills. These, in turn, create a widerange of adult needs and wants. Each learner has a rich experientialbackground which can be used'to relate current learning to older, morefamiliar concepts. In addition, the variety of different experiences withinthe classroom can provide a wealth of information from which learners canc,rasp new ideas.

79 ,

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.

WHAT ARE THE ROLES OF ADULT LITERACYAND BASIC EDUCATION INSTRUCTORS?

The general responsibility of an instructor is to challenge the learner

to move to increasingly advanced stages of...development' (Cross, 1981, p.

40). The instruction process is one in which an instructor arranges theconditions to facilitate learning by the adult. The process may require the

instructor to serve in various capacities, such as a dispenser of information,

guide, encourager, clarifier. The instructional process consists essentiallyof setting the climate or preparing the environment, then arrangingexperiences in an instructional model:

Where is the student? (diagnosis)

Where is he or, she going? (objectives)

Hew will he or she get there? (strategies)

How will he'or she know when he's (she's) gotten

there? (reassessment)

How well did we do? (evaluation)

.

Because of unique factors, the setting foi adult literacy and basiceducation programs encompasses different needs and demands and different

: .approaches"and skillsthae does traditional education.'. The primary rolesassumed by adult literacy and basic education instructors are the same asthose assumed by all instructors; however, instructors of adults need toemphasize certain aspects of these roles to a much greater extent. Each role

has various functions or skills that accompany it, and fulfilling each roledemands that the instructor function in various capacities. Because these

roles are not mutually exclusive, there is much overlap..

Four basic roles

The four basic roles and responsibilities of adult instructors are:educator (which includes the functions of expert, formal authority, andfacilitator); counselor; friend; and administrator.

Educator. The expert transmits information, possesses necessaryknowledge, and knows more than the learners in a particular-rea(s). In

general, he or she is the presenter of information, organizing and presentingcontentmaterial. Specific skills required are the abilities to listen, toanswer learners' questions, and to prepare presentations. This function -one

traditionally emphasized in public school education--is significant inteaching adults as well; however, other functions are more significant. It is

important to stress that the instructor is more than a dispenser of

knowledge. 'Too much lecture defeats the ultimate purpose of learner

participation.

80

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84

1

; -:-ze--;:'...r::e )',,

Formal authority also is traditionally emphasized in our public

schools; but in adult learning situations, it takes a secondary position. A

person who functions as the formal authority is responsible for setting goals

and establishing procedures for reaching them. Specific duties include

evaluating performance, which sometimes requires testing or defining standards

of excellence in other ways. One reason this function receives less emphasis

in adult education is that adults tend to take increasing responsibility for

setting their own goals and determining if those goals have been met.

Probably the most vital function an instructor of adults can perform

is that of facilitator. The facilitator promotes creativity and individual

growth towards dependence on self as opposed to dependence on others. A

facilitator helps design and arrange conditions in such a way as to help

overcome obstacles to learning while,drawing out and improving the learners'

capabilities.

A facilitator's most vital skill encompasses the concept of

individualizing instruction. Individualized instruction is not one learner

working alone; it is not dependent on gadgetry or media; it is not a

one-to-one relationship; nor is it a particular organizational structure or a

particular type of learner. Individualized instruction is a philosophy and a

process of teaching that provides for learner differepces--in ability,

learning rates, backgrounds, and goals. It depends on providing alternatives,

using individual standards rather than group standards, translating into

practice the instructor's philosophy, and employing instructor flexibility.

To implement these concepts, the facilitator must practice integral

aspects of the process: Know the person on the other end of the process--not

just what can be observed but what is beneath the surface; heat and see what

the learner is telling you by what is said, observed, or not spoken; be

committed to the individual learner as opposed'to the content to be learned;

and put oneself into the process so that it is a personal matter, not a

mechanical step-by-step ritual. Facilitators who utilize these skills and who

support the individualized instruction Concept truly design an arrange the

conditions so that learners can benefit greatly from the instructional process

and become increasingly self-directed;

Counselor. As a counselor, the teacher clarifies for individuals

goals and/or career paths and provides personal counseling. Typical

counseling skills include listening, clarifying, and serving-as a

confidant(e). For adults, this role is often vital, since they often

encounter conflicting responses to learning needs. The counselor's role

basically is that of a helper, providing guidance for adults in meeting their

academic, personal, social, and economic needs. This role becomes more

important if the system lacks a counselor, since the counselor helps to convey

a sense of excitement and value towards learning. Instructors must

demonstrate constantly that it is worthwhile to commit personally to the

process of education.in general and to students in particular. In adult

education, this is also an important role because adults need to find someone

to serve as a role model, to respect, and emulate.

81

Friend. Perhaps the most important teacher role is that offriend -- merely being human. It is extremely vital that instructors be viewedas trustworthy, warm individuals who accept students as they are rather thancontinually condemning them. Acceptance validates each person's existence. .

To adults who are often fearful of a learning situation or additionalfailures, acceptance and encouragement may often make the difference between-continuing or quitting.

Administrator. A final role is administrative in nature and consistsprimarily of managing nonacademic areas and recordkeepinq. It includesmaintaining written records, possibly recruiting students, promoting communityrelations, or possibly supervising teacher aides. Mani, teachers consider thisrole trivial, but administrators feel that it is vital to program functioning. -

.4

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IV. WHAT COMPETENCIES DO INSTRUCTORS NEED?

Before considering how to identify, select, and prepare teachers, it is

important to consider- the - competencies needed b y adult literacy and basic

education program instructors. A review of some of the more important and

pioneering research on instructor competencies follow.

Most research related to adult educator competencies centered on general

adult education programs. Identification of these competencies began with a

stu.ly by Chamberlain (1961), who pinpointed 45 competencies fOr practicing

adult educators. Practitioners rank-ordered Chamberlain's items according to

their importance for the general field. The resulting statements were used to

develop a set of objectives for a curriculum in graduate adult education.

Liveright (1964) worked with a theoretical framework developed by William

McGlothlin to arrive at competencies of graduates of adult education

programs. Liveright's five competencies were:

1. Competen6e to practice one's profession

2. Social understanding

3. 'A philosophy and set of values which make effective

practice possible

4. .A zest for continued study

5. Competence in conducting and interpreting research

//In another work that dealt with general competencies of adult educators,

Grigsby's (1974) study focused on developing a competency -based program for

community education personnel. Community education refers to all types of

educational services for adults; thus, it requires general adult edudator

competencies. Grigsby's study identified 87 competencies which were rated by

indiViduals in 11 service areas, i.e., offerings designed to provide a

specific service to a specific population. The results revealed no

significant difference in ratings among service areas, except for extension

educators who felt that student evaluation was not critical to their job.

Competency-based education (CBE) related specifically to adult literacy

and basic education is in a relatively early developmental stage. Although

numerous studies have been conducted, none (as with all competency -based work)

has been validated in an actual instructional setting. A discussion of

several of these studies follow.

Fenn (1972) identified a list encompassing knowledge, skills,

understandings, and attitudes needed to achieve minimum effectiveness in an

adult education teaching situation. Thirty-four competency statements were

rated according to importance by a selected and random sample of teachers,

students, county administrators, state department of education personnel, and

professors of adult education in Florida.

83

87

Aker's (1974) review of CBE literature concentrated on competencies whichwere deemed most crucial to effective teaching. The compatencies wereidentified by research on learner performance and teaching effectiveness.

-Aker limited more detailed information on teaching strategies to sixcompetency areas. ,;according to Aker, an effective adult literacy and basic

educationEtaacher-muot .

1.' understand the nature and mission of adult' education=

2. be aware of and sensitive to the characteristics,problems, and interests, and needs of students;

3. apply behavioral science principles to create optimumconditions for, adult learning;

4. acquire skill in designing a functional and relevantABE (adult basic education) curriculum;

5. select appropriate learning materials and apply adulteducationmethods; and,

6. be e continuous learner.

Mocker (1974) conducted a study to identify, classify, and rankcompetencies needed by ABE teachers. His study was divided into four phases.Phase I consisted of compiling numerous items representing knowledge,` .

attitudes, and behaviors deemed important in ABE. .The c6dpilation resulted ina 'list of 60S statements derived from 61 different documents. In phase II,the list was reduced to fewer statements, using a jury to validate theresults. Phase III entailed creating an inventarywith.each statementclassified into one of four categories (scope and goal of adult education;curriculum; ABE learner; and instructional process). Phase IV consisted ofmailing the inventor y,of 291 competency statements to a national sample of ABEpersonnel. Some 234 individuals responded, and their ratings resulted in adivision 9f competencies into high- and low-priority items within each of thefour categories.

Kreitlow (1974) and.a group of 25 ABE teachers identified 38 exemplary ABEteacher competencies. The competencies were grouped into the following fivebroad categories:

1. Teaching techniques2. Use of materials3. Use of community resources and facilities4. Student-teacher relationships5. Assessment of academic outcomes

General competencies,

The list of competencies that follow represent broad general areas thatinstructors of adults should possess to be totally proficient in theinstructional setting. Obviously, the mastery level will depend on past

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training, length of experience, and commitment to instruction. These areas

were identified by combining Mocker's list of competencies into broader

statements and asking professionals in basic education to rate through

comparison the importance of these items (James, 1976). An effective teacher

has:

the-ability to design appropriate instructional

experiences for the ABE student;

the ability to apply an understanding of learning

theories and learner characteristics in

teaching-learning, or counseling situations;

the ability to establish effective interperson'al

relationships with students;

the ability to provide guidance, or counsel, to ABE

students;

the ability to evaluate students in teaching-learning

or counseling situations;

the ability to manage learning activities;

the ability to develop a curriculum in ABE;

the ability to apply knowledge of the general field of

adult education in performing his (or her) or other

roles as a teacher;

developed a personal philosophy of adult education;

"a mastery of the subject area(s1 taught (e.g., math,

coping skills, problemsolving:i;

the ability to continue developing professionally; and

the ability to perform administrative tasks associated

with ABE programs.

85

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V. WHAT IS UNIQUE ABOUT WORKING WITH ADULTS?

Much of what constitutes "good teaching" for adults is directly related to"good teaching" for youth. However, there are certain differences that makeworking with adults unique. Also, it is imperative that certain adultcharacteristics be accepted and dealt with because the relative importance ofactivities is magnified by life roles and past failures.

The most commonly accepted theory of teaching adults (Knowles, 1980) deals ,with the concept of a learner-directed atmosphere. The instructor'sresponsibility is to help or facilitate, focusing on skills and the learningprocess. Learners, themselves, provide input an4 assume some responsibilityfor decisions affecting their learning. For example, learners participate inthe planning process by diagnosing their needs, setting wale, and evaluatingprogress. Also, there tends to be more emphasis on individual learningprojects and/or independent study.

Traditional education hes focused in the past on teacher-centeredmethodology and transmitting content. In general, teacher-centered situationsimply a dependence of the learner on the teacher to make decisions, set goals,provide information, and evaluate progress.

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This is not to say that one approach is good and one is bad. Bothapproaches can be viewed as opposite ends of a continuum; the one used isdictated by a particular clientele or setting. -

Matce motivation

The most important characteristics to consider when teaching adults focus 1.s.

on areas related to maturity, experience. and motivation. Knowles (1979)believes that the greatest differences between adults and children are ;..'..1

, -*

prevalent in certain areas which have many implications for other areas r.

-

related to adult learning.'....

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.-'.Self-concept =vet; toward independence in adul compared to the dependentposture of children. Self-concept is the single most importan'. factor

::'

affecting behavior, and as adults gain confidence, they tend to become more o.,

self-directed'and take increased responsibilities for their learning.II.,

Er:Experience greatly influences adult learning because the amount and

evality of experience that adults possess is much greater than that ofchildren.

Readiness to learn is evident in adults in relation to problems,responsibilities, and life cycle changes. Adults are not as easily motivatedby curriculum or subject orientation as children are. They are motivated tosolve problems, help meet responsibilities, and adjust to caanges in theirstage of life.

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Adults seem to have an urgency to learn, manifesting an awareness that

time is "running out." They want learning to be immediately applicable and

.practical, whereas children feel that learning is something to be used and

applied at an indefinite time in the future.

Adult learning orientation is problem-centered and demands experiential

methodologyrather than subject or content orientation. Simulations, role

play, problemsolving group processes and projects, and self-,directed-

activities are effective adult learning activities.

Adults are motivated by internal needs rather than by external elements,

such as rewards or grades. Research reveals that most adult learning occurs

to help solve problems, to enhance one's self-esteem, or for self-fulfillment.

A recent research study team (Oberle, 1981; Offill, 1981; Price, 1981;Woody, 1981) has attempted to identify the principles under which adultlearning ideally occurs. After an exhaustive review of existing literatureand research and a synthesis of the available information and validation byexperts in the field of adult learning, nine basic principles were identified:

1. Adults maintain the ability to learn.

2. Adults are a highly diversified group of individualswith widely differing preferences, needs, backgrounds,and skills.

3. Adults experience a gradual decline in physiCal and

sensory capabilities.

4. Experience of the learner is a major resource in the

learning situation.

S. Self-concept tends to move from dependence toindependence as an individual grows inresponsibilities, experience, and confidence.

6. Adults tend to be life-centered in their orientation

to learning.

7. Adults are motivated to learn by a variety of factors.

8. Active learner participation in the instructional/learning process contributes to learning.

9. A comfortable supportive environment is a key tosuccessful learning.

Adults do learn and can continue to learn. Although the rate of learningdeclines, the capacity to learn remains or can be improved and enhanced with

continued use. This implies that adults do well under timed tests, butproblemsolving, synthesis, and reasoning abilities also remain strong.

87

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Because there is a gradual decline in the physical abilities of adults as_ they tie- -their energy level, visual acuity, hearing ability, and movement areaffected --a comfortable physical environment is needed to accommodate thesechanges.

Supportive environment

7 IAAdults desire a psychological atmosphere that is supportive, caring, andwarm and friendly. The adult learner not only needs to feel respected as aunique person, but also needs to feel that he or she is learning somethingworthwhile and beneficial. The climate of the instructional setting.including physical and psychological aspects, ofte^ Ag..*rm4nes whether or notthe adult returns to class.

Different role responsibilities and life cycle crises create a variety ofdifferences in adults. These responsibilities and crises significantly affectthe learning process by promoting or detracting from the need to learn. .;.;

While children are having theirs molded and shaped, the attitudes, values,and interests of adults, more or less, have been formed and internalized.These attitudes must be respected, and they can be changed, but only within asupportive, nonthreatening environment.

Both genetic and environmental backgrounds contribute to the diversification of adult interests, preferences, and skills. These, in turn, creatediverse needs and wuits among adult learners. Each learner has a richexperiential background. to draw upon to relate current learning to older more.familiar concepts. /n addition, the variety of different experiences withinthe classroom can provide a wealth of information from which learners cangrasp new ideas.

)The required competencies and the underlying principles involved inworking with adult learners create the need for instructors who can operateeffectively in the classroom setting. Unfortunately, there is no simpleanswer to.the many questions related to finding and/or preparing instructorswho meet these requirements. Also, the diversity of organizations in whichprograms are based complicates the problem. For example, literacy programsare offered not only through public school systemsABEbut also throughcommunity colleges, businesses and industry, volunteer literacy programs, andthe military. Although there are many similarities in how programs areconducted, they vary extensively in their presentation, philosophy, orsupport. Some programs require students to pay, some are free; some arerequired, others voluntary. Some teachers are paid, others work for free;some courses deal with all subject areas, others concentrate on a singletopic. Some classes have set meeting times, others are open entry/open exit;some courses are in urban areas, others in rural locations. All in all, thevarious settings present a mixed array of possibilities and problems that mustbe dealt with.

A common problem facing programs and administrators is identifying andselecting class instructors.- Obviously, it would be impossible to present onecomprehensive list of suggestions for every class variation; however, certaingeneralities are possible.

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VI. WHERE CAN POTENTIAL INSTRUCTORSOF ADULTS BE FOUND?

Although finding instructors may be troublesomethey can be recruited at

several common sources: public schools, volunteer programs, civic gro s,

colleges of education, community colleges, or churches. Also, activelyadvertising programs may both attract good prospects and publicize programs.

Public school teachers may make good instructors for several reasons. For

one thing, they are already trained to be instructors, and they generally have

one (or more) content specialiti*s. In instances where a subject specialistis necessary, secondary public school teachers should be good prospects. All

locations have teachers available for nighttime, weekend, or summer work.Obviously, classes conducted during the day would cause conflict unless the

position was fulltimd. Access to teachers can be achieved easily through theschool systems, teacher groups, or PTA's/PTO's. A warning on using public.

school teachers: There is some evidence that they tend to treat adults the

way that they treat elementary or secondary students. This may cause problems

if teachers are not provided with some basic training to work with adults.

Community colleges and other community-based programs might be sources-for

. instructors. The community college's staff or part-time faculty may bewilling to serve as instructors, and student or faculty wives or husbands also

could be considered as potential instructors. In additiondeans ordepartment heads may have lists of people interested in this type of work.The network of community involvement should provide an excellent source for

instructors. .

Colleges of education could be another good source of potentialinstructors, as students being trained in various areas might be willing to

work to get additional experience in teaching. Also, the placement office

might have access to certified teachers seeking work. Again, student or

faculty spodses might be a source of instructors.

In addition to being a possible source ftv: instructors, civic andvolunteer groups (garden clubs, Rotary, and Lions) can also help publicize

programs. In fact, even if the groups, themselves, do not produce anyp6tential instructors, some members may know qualified individuals.Obviously, actively pursuing such groups possibly can provide many benefits.

Students who have alre/ady completed an adult literacy and basic education

program tend to make excellent instructors. Peers seem to know instinctively

how the adult feels since they, themselves, have experienced the samefeelings, thoughts, and concerns. Although peer instructors mayilack formaltraining, their ability to empathize, combined with appropriate Inservicetraining, should promote success with adult learners.

'89 93

2

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1

VII. WHAT CRITERIA SHOULD BE (0NSIDERED FORSELECTING INSTRUCTORS?

Administrators often select instructors intuitively, hoping that they cantrust their own judgment. 'Although there is no simple answer to the selectionprocess, certain guidelines can be offered. Obviously, required information.will vary according to the setting in which the instructor will be placed.But if the person will be teaching only English, specific evidence of masteryof English will be more important than if the individual would be teachinq avariety of subjects.

Alonso (undated) presented some potential,' pertinent areas for inclusionin a teacher hiring guide:

A suggested list of basic knowledge and skills which acompetent literacy teacher should have.

7 Suggested ways of interviewing candidates for jobs,including interviewing techniques, ways of discoveringsocial or cultural biases, questions to ask concerningbackground knowledge or adult learners or teachingmethods of philosophy.

Note on'what and how to get useful. supplementalinformation on prospective teachers, such asrecommendations, sample lessons, and writing mmples.

Suggested ways of-observing and evaluating teacherperformance once the candidate is hired.

Suggested cues for detecting areas for added training.

It is vital to consider several of the 12 competency areas (Section IV)when hiriiig instructors for either a specialized or general position. The twoPost important areas are ability to relate to the student and mastery of thesubject area (or areas) to be tight. As mentioned, if the prospectiveinstructor will be teaching only math or reading, it is a fairly simpleprocess to check on courses, degrees and/or certification in that area. Ifthe candidate lacks this background, proficiency tests are available through awide range of sources.

For instructors who will be required to teach various areassimultaneously, it it more important that they have exposure to numeroussubject areas rather than concentration in one. Background in teachingreading should be a strong asset to the instructor since many adults attendingbasic education courses are either unable to read or have great difficulty indoing so.

90

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Asking the right questions

The ability to relate to adults appears to be the most difficult to

judge. Surprisingly, adequate observation and some simple questions may

provide sufficient information on which to base a decision. For example,

noting such factors as whether the individual seems friendly, appearsenthusiastic, smile's a lot, or is just generally pleasant would indicate some

positive support. On the other hand, if a person is curt or unfriendly, it is

a tipoff that there/May be a problem.

One director asked a series of questions of prospective instructors which,on the surface, seemed selfdefeating because anyone could give the answer the

director "wanted" to hear. However, most people tend to answer honestly and,

thereby, ,rovide some decisionmaking information. Some possible questions

might be: "How do you get along with your coworkers?" "Do you find them

helpfUl?" "What do you like best about working with people?" "What is your

philosophy about teaching?" If the individuals truly dislike working withothers or if they cannot accept others as equals, their responses will tend to

give them away.

' Additional questions to disc/over background experience and /or creativity

might include the following: "If money were no object, how would you ideally

set up a class of for adults?* "What do you think is an ideal

arrangement for classes for adults?" To probe for social or cultural biases,

one could use "What type questions, such as: "What if you wereteaching a unit on nutrition and a black (or native American) said, 'But wecan't stand potatoes that are not fried'?" (The students would have been toldby the instructor that too many fried foods are not good for them.)

Similar questions, such as: "What would you do if von couldn't understand

your students' language?" Or, "How would you respond if a student whobelonged to a cultural minority called you at home and accused you of playing

favorites to others in class?" Obviously, the interviewer can use a number ofideas to evaluate a candidate's background knowledge and possible social bias.

It is also important to note that while certain skills are vital forsuccessful teaching, som of them can be quickly learned while other.s takemore time; still othere4pbably cannot be mastered, or changed, for a longperiod. Survival skills, such as instructixdnal design and management, orbasic reading skills, can be learned fairly quickly while mastery of subject

areas probably takes longer. And the capacity and abilityto relate to adultsis generally something ingrainedthat would take a very long time to transform.

One suggestion is that directors look first for a "people peKson," someonewho can relate well to adults and accept them as they are and not look down on

them. If Unconditional positive regard is present, mastery of subject areas

can be assessed. Finally,.dependinq on whether the individual hasinstructional design skills or knowledge of reading skills, some initialtraining can be provided to supplement existing skills.

91

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VIII. WHAT TRAINING PROGRAMS ARE NECESSARYAND AVAILABLE FOR INSTRUCTORS?

Fro' the moment new instructors are hired to teach adults, they generallyhave no idea of what to expect or what is needed to deal with studentseffectively. Preservice training, when it exists, consists largely of'administrativia," or filling out forms and reports.

In reconsidering the competency areas mentioned, it is important to not'that there must be a distinction between "survival" skills--which arenecessary for the initial entrance into the classroom settingand moreadvanced skills for refining the instructor's proficiency. Ideally, withminimal preparation and various materials, any instructor can handle the ::Irstclass meeting adequately. To begin with, each instructor should be acquaintedwith the unique characteristics of the adult learner as well as the specialtraits of the undereducated and/or disadvantaged adult. In addition, theinstructor needs a familiarity with available materials, knowledge of informaldiagnostic and placement techniques, and some specific hints on bow to handlethe first session. One of the classic resource books in adult literacy andbasic education is Teaching the Disadvantaged Adult by Curtis Ulmer (1969). Amore current version (Ulmer and Rennen, 1981) is Adults Learn Again.

Grabowski (1976) identified eight different models for inservice trainingprograms for teachers of adults:

-I.' Laboratory approach2. Classroom experience3. Teaching demonstration4. Self-directed learning5. Team-structured6. Inquiry-based learning7. Independent study

Self- learning- related models.

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According to Grabowski, these models offer "possible alternatives for the.planner seeking to accommodate to the resources as well as the needs of theteachere."

Grabowski (1976) in his book, Training Teachers of Adults: Models andInnovative Programs, discussed seven selected innovative programs. Theprograms, with objectives and type of training, are:

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92

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PROGRAMS OBJECTIVES TYPE OFTRAINING

CONTACT

1. Apperception -

InteractionMethod

To learn the pro- Teaching-writing

cess of teaching workshop, problem-

and materials inquirydevelopment toteach copingskills

AIMWord Education1414 Sixth AvenueNew York, NY 01109

2. Teacher-TutorPair

To dtvelop a model Readings, discus-tutoring program sions, observations,for ESL and editing/

adapting writtenplans

Dr. Doris MossProgram DirectorTTP - CareerDevelopment ProgramNew York Boardof Education

130 Clinton StreetRoom 700Brooklyn, N.Y.11201

3. Culturally-OrientedTeacher-EducationModules

Improved teaching Readings, self- .

effectiveness analysis, and field

through increased observationscultural awarenessand ethnicunderstanding

Department ofHigher and AdultEducation

Teachers CollegeColumbia UniversityNew York, N.Y.100 27

4. -Telelesson'TeacherEducationSeries

To increase basic Videotape offerings,competence as adult readings, individual-educators ized learning

activities, andresearch ofcontemporaryproblems

ABE/TV ProjectAdult EducationSection

Maryland StateDepartment ofEducation

P.O. Box 8717 --BWI Airport

Baltimore, Md.

21240

5. Problemsolv-ing and Peer-instructionAndragogy

To provide well Simulationworked out examplesin Ooblemsolvingand peer-instruction

Dr. Richard SuchmanHuman ResourcesResearchOrganization

27857 Berwich DriveCarmel, Calif.93921

93

97c

PROGRAMS OBJECTIVES TYPE OFTRAINING

CONTACT

6. LouisianaAdult Eduta -tion StaffDevelopmentProject

To provide basic. Small -grouptraining experience instruction andto adult teachers multimediawin no formal presentationtraining

Bureau of Adult andComm. Education

State of LouisianaDepartment ofEducation

P.O. Box 44064Baton Rouge, La.70804

7. Student Assess-ment andEvaluationProgram

To develop instru-ments to assesslevel of ESLstudents

Development ofAssessment instru-ments and procedures

Mt. TerrliW. KraussPrincipalBassett Adult

School904 N. WillowAvenue

-La Puente, Calif.91746

One of the programs, A Telelesson Teacher Education Series, BasicEducation: Teaching the Adult, deserves further explanation. The programconsists of 30 half -hour videotapes on various topics related to teachingadults. A manual accompanies the tapes for additional comment andactivities. Tape contents include:

1. An overview of the background of the ABE learner

a. Characteristics and their implications

b. Physiological, psychological, and sociologicalprinciples

2. Understanding and designing the ABE program

a. Needs, interests, problems

b. Activities for planning

c. Conditions for setting learning climate

3. Developing the curriculum content

*-

a. Goals and behavioral objectives

94

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b. Diagnosis

c. Reading process: skills of perception, wordrecognition, comprehension, and self-selection

d. Integrating communication, mathematics,vocational, and subject-area concepts

4. Using a variety of methods, materials, and techniques

a. Individualized and programmed instruction

b. Selection and development of material ).

5. Guiding the learner

a. Recruitment and retention

b. Evaluation and measurement of progress

6. Considering, other factors

a. Legislation and demographic data

b. Possible learning difficulties

These tapes provide excellent ready-made materials for teacher training,

and the person responsible for inservice training should be familiar with

them. Since these innovative programs were identified, several States have

developed additional training materials. Texas, Virginia, and Florida have

staff development projects with materials available for others to use.

In 1931, the Texas Edudation Agency Division of Adult Programs supportedefforts to investigate the applicability of a competency -based approach to

staff development in ABE. A task force of ABE personnel identified broadcompetency areas for teachers and administrators.

Texas A&M University received funds to deielop a series of learningmodules providing the adult educator with the opportunity to increase his orher competency in teaching adults (Learning Modules for Adult-Educators,

1978). For the purposes of the project, a module was defined as aself-contained set of learning experiences designed to facilitate thelearner's attainment of a stated set of objectives. As a resource, these

modules can offer several advantages that are especially vppropriate topopulations with diverse needs.

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Given the above information, materials reguiredto meet these needs had to L.

be designed. To date, 22 modules have been developed, including packages in

the areas of:

95 9J

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A new teacher series (S titles)Assessing needs and interests (4 titles)Relating to the adult student (4 titles)Administrative topics (3 titles)Instructional preparation (2 titles)Content-specific areas (4 titles: ESL/APL/GED)

./6 addition to the Texas A&M modules, North Texas State Universityreceived funds to develop 10 modules which would,help provide teachers withthe skills needed to teach reading to adults.

Ten videotape simulation modules demonstrating effective teaching methodsand techniques were produced as a result of input from ABE practitioners inVirginia (Anderson, Snowden and Parent, 1980). These videotape simulationcassettes (about 10 minutes each) are based on the five most frequentlyidentified'Critical and effective teaching methods and two appropriateinstructional techniques per method. Each technique is presented on a

videotape, and with accompanying user guides.

Method I -- Teacner-Student Relationship

Technique A:Technique B:

Method II -- .Human

Technique A:Technique B:

Understanding Concepts of Adult LearningDeveloping Interaction/Communication Skills

Development and Identity

Developing Student Self-ConfidenCe (1)Developing Student Self-Confidence (2)

Method III -- Goal Planning

Technique A: Initial Goal-Setting and Placement

Technique B: Diag sis and Mutual Goal-Setting

Method IV -- Presentation Skills

Technique A: Utilizing One-To-One Instructional Strategies

Technique B: Utilizing Group Instructional Strategies

Method V -- Study Habits Acquisition

Technique A: Promoting Questioning SkillsTechnique Bs Assigning Work of Practical Value

Ploridagstaff development activities (Burrichter and Gardner, 1979)focused on the overall goal of enhancing adult curriculum and instruction. As

a result of a model for involving part-time personnel in developing curriculummaterials, several resource materials were produced:

Alternatives for Staff Development of Adult Educators'Adult Educator Self-Assessment Inventory

96

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! 00

Learning Activities for AdultsTeaching Adult LearnersInvolvement: A Creative Process

The unique aspect of this project was the actual involvement of asignificant number of instructors (over 700) in the process. Another 25individuals were specifiCally trained to conduct workshops and will be able to

continue staff development activities in future programs.

971 0 1

IX. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE 1980'S

Projection for the 1980's falls within two broad categories: technicalskills and personal or humanistic skills. The areas cover training involvingboth content and process needs, and training which addresses these needs canbe approached from a program planning and development standpoint.

Inherent in the program planning and development perspective is the needfor a framework or method for providing necessary skills, i.e., identifyingneeded competencies, locating available materiels and/Or resources, andimplementing decisions. These models also can serve as a guide for sharingsuccessful results, materials, programs, etc. Co-operation among differentagencies and groups associated with adult literacy and basic educationprograms can be facilitated by common planning Models, thus preventingduplication and overlap.

Basic training philosophies can be approached within the broad parametersof planning and development. Content, as well as process skills, can beconsidered within a planning model. Since the student -directed philosophy iscritical in meeting the needs of adult learners, identifying humanistic skillscan be accompilished within this broad framework. Narm, enthusiastic, caringteachers are vital to the success of any adult literacy and basic educationprogram. The necessity for sound instructional planning for these teachers isimperative. The 1980's are going to be challenging yearp.for 'individuals inadult education. The expanding social.complexities and information explosionmake it imperative for adult educators to have a common purpose and toapproach training needs from a sound, systematic planning model.

Successful training of adult literacy and basic education instructorsencompasses these elements:

L.

Warm, enthusiastic, caring instructors are essentialto a successful program.

Both humanistic and technical skills need to beemphasized.

A'student,directed philosophy is imperative to meetthe unique needs of adult learners.

Training personnel to work with learners in the wars et.

cited is vital.

w.Some framework, or model, for providing necessary r%:skills is ;necessary. . .- r:

-., i

It is necessary to use effective, available training i"7programs-and materials. KSharing successful results, practices, and materialsis an absolute must. :,-

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Cooperation among different agencies and groupsassociated with adult literacy and basic educationpreigrams,is imperative to prevent dup cation andoverlap.

The concerns raised by Carter's and Kozol's quotes at the beginning ofthis paper recognize many problems associated with adult literacy and basic,education programs. This paper maintains that one key to eliminatingilliteracy rticts with selecting and utilizing

competent,Icaring_instrnctors.Regardless of the setting, instructors must be selected ;and prepared to workwith adults in an atmosphere conducive to learning.

99 103

REFERENCES

Aker, George F. A Guide for COnnetency-Based Teacher Tic/lining in Adult Basic

Education. Washington, D.C.: Rasearch and Technology Corporation, Inc.,. .

1974.

Along°, Jane. The Development of a Teacher Hiring Guide: A Discussion Paper,

undated.

Anderson, Bruce J.,_,Spowden, Petra, and Parent, Gerry. ABE Staff Development

Teaching Methods and Techniques. Norfolk, Vircania: Department ofEducational Leadership and Services, Old Dominion University, 1980.

Burrichter, Arthur,_and Gardner, Daniel. Alternatives for Staff Development

of Adult Educators. Boca Raton, Florida: Florida Atlantic University,

1979.1

. .Chamberlain, Martin N. "The Competencies of the Adult Educator.' Adult

Education, XX/, 2 (1961), 78-83.

Cross, K. Phtricia. Adults as Learners: Increasing Participation andFacilitating Learning. San Francisco: Josuey Bass Publishers, 1981.

Fenn, Norman Edgar, Jr. 'The Identification Of Competencies'' Pertinent to the

Certificate of Teachers in Adult Basic Education.' Unpublished Ph.D.dissertation, .The Florida State University, Tallahassee, 1972.

Final Report: The Adult Performance Level Study. Division of Extension of

the University of Taxis at Austin, 1577.

Grabowski, Stan;ey. Training Teachers of Adults: Models and Innovative

Programs. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University, National Associationfor Public Continuing and Adult and ERIC Clearinghouse in CareerEducation, 1976.

Grigsby, Thomas. "A Study to Develop a Competency-Based Program for thePreparation of Community Education Personnel.", Unpublished Ed.D.dissertation, Oregon State University, Corvallis, 1974.

Hunter, Carman St. John, and Harman, David. Adult Illiteracy in the UnitedStates New York: McGraw -Hill Book Company, 1979.

James, W. B. 'Perceived Utility of Adult Basic Education TeacherCompetencies." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, The University ofTennessee, Knoxville, 1976.

James, W. B., and Kellar, M. "Using Modules for Improving Staff Development."

Lifelong Learnin The Adult Years, January, 1980.

rod.

1041

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A

Kellar, M., and James, W. B. "Informal Assessment as a Tool for AdultEducators." Adult Literacy and Basic Education, Fall, 1979,

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Knowles, M. S. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: rrom Pedagogy toAndragogt. .Chicago: Association Press, 1980.

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