DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 360 197 SO 022 278

TITLE Biennial Report of the United States Institute ofPeace, 1991. Submitted to the Congress and thePresident of the United States.

INSTITUTION United States Inst. of Peace, Washington, DC.REPORT NO ISBN-1-878379-13-5; ISSN-1-047-5915PUB DATE Jan 92NOTE 189p.

AVAILABLE FROM United States Institute of Peace, 1550 M Street,N.W., Suite 700, Wiihinifon, DC 20005.

PUB TYPE Reports Descriptive (141)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC08 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Conflict Resolution; Disarmament; *Foreign Policy;

*Government Role; Higher Education; *InternationalRelations; *Peace; War

IDENTIFIERS *Peace Studies

ABSTRACTThis document is the third in a series of biennial

reports on the United States Institute of Peace. The Institutedevotes itself to matters of international peace based on freedom andjustice. Functioning as a nonideological educational resource forpolicymakers and officials, the Institute does not intervene directlyin the formulation or conduct of U.S. foreign policy. Principalpurposes of the Institute include: (1) expanding knowledge aboutinternational conflict and peace by sponsoring research, analysis,and training; (2) disseminating such knowledge; and (3) promotingunderstanding of the complexities of international conflict and peaceamong the U.S. public. The Institute promotes its goals throughgrants, fellowships, research, education and training, and libraryand information services. As Chapter 1 of the report indicates, theInstitute undertook special initiatives during fiscal years 1990 and1991 concerning the Middle East and Eastern Europe. In additi:m,according to Chapter 2, the Institute continued ongoing efforts insuch areas as international conflict management, arms control,East-West relations, and sources of violence. Chapter 3 describes theInstitute's education and training activities and has sectionsentitled "Helping Educate Secondary and Postsecondary Teachers andStudents" and "Training for Other Professions." Chapter 4 discussesgrants, fellowships, and research programs that the Institutesponsors. Descriptions of management and corporate affairs andbiographies of Institute board members and senior staff compriseChapter 5. A chairman's statement, message from the president, anoverview, and three appendices regarding the United States Instituteof Peace and its enabling legislation are attached. (SG)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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0

Biennial Report of the

UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE

1991

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BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Elspeth Davies Rostow, Chairman

J.A. Baldwin

Dennis L. Bark

Chester A. Crocker

Stephen J. Hadley

Theodore M. Hesburgh

William R. Kintner

Evron M. Kirkpatrick

Ronald F. Lehman, II

Morris I. Leibman

Richard Schifter

Mary Louise Smith

W. Scott Thompson

Allen Weinstein

Samuel W. Lewis (nonvoting)

a

BIENNIAL REPORTOF THEUNITED STATESINSTITUTE OF PEACE

1991

Submitted tothe Congress and the President ofthe United States of America

By Elspeth Davies RostovChairman of the Board of DirectorsJanuary 1992

United States Institute of PeaceWashington, DC

The Biennial Report of the United States Institute of Peace was prepared and trarbmitted tothe President and the Congress of the United States pursuant to Section 1712 of the UnitedStates Institute of Peace Act (Public Law 98-525, as amended).

Photo Credits:All photographs taken by Leslie Everheart unless otherwise noted below.p.vii. House of Representatives, Archivesp.vii. United Nationsp.vii. AP/Wide World Photosp. ix. Daniel Snodderlyp.3. Senate, Archivesp.9. AP/Wide World Photosp.13. AP/Wide World Photosp.15. AP/Wide World Photosp.17. Kenneth Jensenp.21. AP/Wide World Photosp.26. Daniel Snodderlyp.28. Kenneth Jensenp.32. United Nationsp.33. United Nationsp.35. AP/Wide World Photosp.41. AP/Wide World Photosp.47. AP/Wide World Photosp.49. Close Up Foundation, Renee Bouchardp.52. Close Up Foundation, Hillary SchwabP.52. Close Up Foundation, Hillary Schwabp.54. Carl Biggsp.56. Patricia Tryforasp.58. Bob Daemmrichp.60. NBC Newsp.63. Univeristy photographer, Columbia University, Joe Pineirop.64. Raymond Shonholtz

Published by:United States Institute of Peace1550 M Street, N.W., Suite 700Washington, DC 20005

Library of Congress Card Number: 88-659599ISBN 1-878379-13-5ISSN 1-047-5915Printed in the United States of America

Editorial and Production Services:Joseph FooteClaude 0. Norcott

First Printing 1992

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CONTENTS

Chairman's Statement

Message from the President

Overview

Chapter I. Special Initiatives in an Era of Rapid Change

Chapter II. Expanding Knowledge About International Conflictand Peacemaking 1:

Chapter III. Reaching a Multitude of Audiences 40

Chapter IV. The Institute at Work: Grants, Fellowships, andIn-House Research and Studies 7:

Chapter V. Management and Finance 14!

Appendices 15!

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CHAIRMAN'S STATEMENT

As the United States Institute of Peace completes six years of activity, theworld is changing more rapidly, dramatically, and profoundly than atany time since World War II and, perhaps, than at any time in this

century. At such a momentpromising, but unsettling and dangerousthework of the Institute takes on special significance. The United States, althoughnot a hegemonic superpower, is inescapably the world leader in promoting aninternational state system that relies to the greatest extent possible on peacefulmeans and collective security principles to settle international conflicts. It alsoleads the world in demonstrating the values of a free and open democraticapproach to self-governance. It is in this tradition that the Institute strives tostrengthen the efforts of American peacemakers and those in other nations whoshare these purposes.

Today, the Institute undertakes its work in a world in which relationshipsbetween nations are increasingly conditioned by revolutionary advances incommunications technology. No longer, with rare exceptions, can rulers seal offtheir borders to insulate their people from knowledge of the world outside. Theattempted coup in Moscow in August 1991 was foiled partly because interna-tional media and private fax machines informed the Russian people immedi-ately about the actual course of events, thwarting the plotters' attempts to depicta false picture of reality.

The failure of the August coup reinforced an historic lesson: that the attainmentof peace and personal freedom is the dream of most people on this planet. Onevery continent, modern communications technology increasingly holds out thatdream as a realistic possibilityworth risk, struggle, and faith. But technologycan also help would-be aggressors and demagogues entice their peoples tofollow the destructive banners of ethnic, xenophobic, or religious fanaticism.

In this tumultuous environment, where the shape of the next century is at issue,the Institute is well positioned to help both government officials and privatecitizens make sense of a new world yearning for peace, but still unable toachieve it. Building on the excellent framework provided by its legislativemandate from the Congress, the Institute now has a sound and durable struc-ture both as a federal entity and an independent corporation. Its broad purposeis to educate. Its mission is to enlarge the capacities and roles of internationalpeacemakers. How well the Institute is carrying forward that mission is de-scribed in great detail in this third Biennial Report of the United States Institute ofPeace. It is a record of remarkable achievement. One aspect that makes meespecially proud is the evidence of ways the Institute is helping to bridge thewide gap between foreign policy scholars and foreign policy practitionersbetween thinkers and doers. As one who hails from the world of scholarship,can say that this bridge is badly needed by those on both sides of the chasm.The Institute is doing an outstanding job of bringing relevant academic insights

iv

(From left toright) JohnNorton Moore,former Chairman,Board ofDirectors(February 1986June 1991),Elspeth DaviesRostow, Chair-man, Board ofDirectors (electedin July 1991; ViceChairman January1989 July 1991),and InstitutePresident SamuelW. Lewis.

n FIL7 ILL

to those public officials who can best employ them in the search for peace;simultaneously, it is giving the public in general, as well as students and aca-demics, a greater understanding of the peacemaking process.

All of us associated with the Institute are deeply encouraged by the support andencouragement of President Bush, senior officials of his Administration, andthose many Members of Congress from both political parties who havecontin-ued to demonstrate their enthusiasm for the Institute's purposes and direction.

On behalf of the Board of Directors, I want to close with a special tribute to JohnNorton Moore for his dedicated service as Chairman from the first Boardmeeting in February 1986 until he resigned in June 1991. Professor Moorebrought insight, wise guidance, and cheerful optimism to our work, therebyimparting much enduring character to this institution. All of us who servedwith him are greatly in his debt. I also thank other members of the Board whohave left during the past two yearsW. Bruce Weinrod, Richard John Neuhaus,and Sidney Lovettfor their creative service, and I enthusiastically welcomethree additional distinguished colleagues, Mary Louise Smith, Theodore M.Hesburgh, and Chester A. Crocker. The Board of the Institute is a workingboard, having met more than a dozen times for eight to twelve hours on eachoccasion during the period covered in this report. It consists of an active,hardworking, and deeply committed group of Americans who are carrying outan important task for this country. As its Chairman, I am pleased to report thatthe United States Institute of Peace is a worthy expression of our Nation'scommitment to a world of individual freedoms, democratic values, and peace.

This Biennial Report provides the chapter and verse. It merits a wide readershipamong the American taxpayers who sustain this unique national institution.

Elspeth Davies RostowChairman

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MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT

The world is reeling through a period of radical change. About that, few

would disagree. But global trends are highly contradictory. The likelyoutcomes are still obscure to those concerned with peacc making and

peacebuildingwhether they be diplomats, educators, students, civic leaders, orthe hopeful architects of free and democratic societies.

One current runs swiftly in the direction of international peace and greaterfreedom. Around the world, communism and many of its authoritarian spin-offshave fallen; forty-five years of mutual hostility between the United States andthe former Soviet Union have ended, replaced by themes of cooperation andshrinking military arsenals, and more of the potential for the United Nationsenvisioned by its founders now seems attainable. Evidence of this current canbe found in the burgeoning democratic movements in Eastern and CentralEurope, Russia, and other former Soviet republics; in accelerating progresstoward ending apartheid in South Africa; in new possibilities for Arab-Israelipeace; and in significant steps toward resolving long-standing conflicts in suchplaces as Afghanistan, Angola and Namibia, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Cambodia,and El Salvador. Even North and South Korea are negotiating a mutual renun-ciation of nuclear weapons.

At the same time, other powerful currents run in quite opposite directions.Disputes over territory (as in Azerbaijan), religion (as in Sri Lanka), politicalpower (as in Haiti and Somalia), national identity (as in Yugoslavia), and otherissues are generating bitter conflicts that range from terrorism to guerrillawarfare to full-fledged war. As 1991 ends, it is highly unclear whether thenewly independent former Soviet republics will achieve a peaceful, stablecoexistence or slide into bloody conflict as the result of economic hardship,ethnic xenophobia, or political .ensions stemming from efforts to introducedrastic political and economic reforms. Conflicts are unabated or even intensi-fied in many other places, including Peru, Somalia, Zaire, the Middle East,Punjab, and Kashmir; the list goes on. Other worrisome trends involve famine,environmental decay and disaster, refugees, and proliferation of nuclear tech-nologies and chemical and biological weapons, as well as the spread of increas-ingly sophisticated conventional weapons among states and groups ready to usethem.

Some of these threats to peace, long obscured by an overriding preoccupationwith the Cold War, pose wholly new sorts of security challenges that willrequire much creative attention by the United States and like-minded nations.Even the more positive trends toward democracy, international and regionalcooperation, and collective security may be reversed unless many governments,including our own, invest the energy and resources to sustain them. The UnitedStates Institute of Peace is helping to meet these challenges.

vi 9

IIILAU

The UnitedNai ions GeneralAssembly Hall.

Vaclav Havel, President of the Czech and Slovak FederalRepublic, addresses a joint meeting of Congress. Behindarc, Vice President Dan Quayle and Speaker of the HouseThomas Foley.

._11MIL

President Hush and former Soviet PresidentMikhail Gorbachev sign the START Treaty inJuly 1991.

61E-..SJ(i":4'11F3

vii

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1

FULFILLING A MANDATE

This is the third Biennial Report of the United States Institute of Peace. The first, in1987, described how the Institute's Board of Directors and president had initiallyimplemented the United States Institute of Peace Act by establishing the Insti-tute as a nonprofit corporation, hying its administrative foundations, andlaunching initial programs.

The second Biennial Report, in 1989, described the further refinement of keyprinciples and policies; the maturation of full-fledged grant, fellowship, andresearch and studies programs; and the launching of activities in education andtraining, library services, religion, ethics and human rights, publications, andpublic affairs. Still, by the end of fiscal year 1989, many of these activities werein early stages i. `development, and the Institute coild speak mostly aboutpotential and anticipated results.

This third Biennial Report carries messages distinctly different from its predeces-sors. During fiscal years 1990 and 1991the reporting period generally cov-eredthe products of the Institute's first years of research and educationalwork are evident in significant volume. These products include:

Hundreds of manuscripts, books, articles, and reports produced by distin-guished scholars, diplomats, and other experts from many nations;

Expert working groups quickly organized to probe options for peacemakingin the wake of fast-breaking international eventsincluding the Persian Gulf

Or

Milestones 1989-1991

President Bush's nomination and subsequent Senate confirmation of Elspeth DaviesRostow (for a second full term), Mary Louise Smith, the Reverend Theodore Hesburgh,and Chester A. Crocker to terms on the Institute's Board.

Election of Elspeth Davies Rostow to succeed John Norton Moore as Chairman of theBoard.

Establishment of Institute-wide initiatives on Middle East peacemaking and the rule oflaw.

Broadening of working relationships with official and nongovernmental institutions inthe Commonwealth of Independent States and Eastern and Central Europe.

Authorization from the Congress to award the Spark M. Matsunaga Medal of Peaceannually.

Establishment of the United States Institute of Peace Press and publication of its firstbooks.

Issuance of timely special reports on Eastern and Central Europe, the Persian Gulfcrisis, and lessons from ArabIsraeli negotiating history, which were distributed widelyamong key officials in the executive and legislative branches.

Completion of five half-hour segments of "Breaking the Mold: U.S.Soviet Relations1945-1989," an educational video series with teacher guides for use in high schooland university classes.

Broadcast of the first three segments of "Breaking the Mold" on public televisionstations across the country.

viii1

crisis and political change in the former Soviet Union and Eastern and CentralEuropethat resulted in rapidly produced and widely disseminated reports;Education materials for classroom and curriculum enrichment, teachertraining workshops, and video packages for classroom use and educationaltelevision;

Technical assistance and training for persons directly involved in draftingnew constitutions; teaching mediation techniques, and negotiating peaceagreements; andDevelopment of a national specialized library network, databases, andservices linking libraries across the country.

A UNIQUE INSTITUTION

These products are only some of the most tangible results of almost six years ofinstitution building and program development. Less visible are several devel-opments that stem in part from the Institute's unique, independent governmentstatus.

Fir:t, the broadening reach of Institute activities has created a large network ofcurrent and former diplomats, policymakers, outstanding policy analysts andscholars, leading conflict-resolution experts, and top educators at all levels, onwhom the Institute can now draw in fulfilling its mandate. This network makesit easier for the Institute to perform the crucial "bridging function" between theworlds of "thinkers and doers" to which Chairman Rostow alludes.

Second, the Institute has developed productive informal relationships with theNational Security Council staff, the Departments of State and Defense, the ArmsControl and Disarmament Agency, the United States Information Agency, thelibrary of Congress, and, of course, many key Members and staff experts in theCongress. These relationships facilitate collaborative activities with thoseagencies, with U.S. embassies overseas, and with congressional organizationssuch as the Helsinki Commission. Equally important, those contacts help theInstitute target part of its activity on relevant, current policy issues high on theU.S. government's agenda, without infringing on the prerogatives of otherinstitutions or ceding any control over its own priorities and agenda.

11.4.. I 41.

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12

Board member Mary Louise Smith(left) and executive vice presidentCharles E. Nelson (center) conversewith National Security Advisor BrentScowcroft (right) after his presenta-tion to the Board.

Third, the Institute's dual capacitiesboth to award grants and fellowships andto conduct its own research proje, Lsallow maximum complementarity in itsresearch portfolio. That flexibility permits the Institute to devote substantialresources to long-range, basic questions, without ignoring the need for "appliedresearch" addressed to the current peacemaking agenda.

Fourth, the Institute's research dimension strengthens its overall educationalimpact. Knowledge produced through grant projects or from Institute-directedresearch can then be conveyed in a variety of educational formats for students,teachers, civic leaders, and foreign affairs professionals.

Fifth, the Institute's unique character as an official public institution, insulatedfrom political and ideological pressures and separate from the executive branchof government, lends it additional credibility among those who bring diverseviews and experiences to the common goal of promoting international peaceand also facilitates cooperation with both official and private organizations inother countries.

PRIORITIES-PAST AND FUTURE

During the past two years, the Institute's Board assigned a high priority to newinitiatives developed in response to the Persian Gulf crisis and its aftermath andto new opportunities for promoting the rule of law and democratic pluralism,especially in areas formerly under Soviet domination. Other areas of specialattention have included religious and ethnic conflict; multilateral organizations,particularly the United Nations and regional institutions; and arms control.

These years .vere also marked by expansion of the Institute's education andpublic information programs, which have targeted teachers and students in highschools, colleges, and universities as primary audiences. Augmentedgrantmaldng in curriculum and materials development, teacher training, andpublic education programs has reflected this emphasis. In coming years, thisarea warrants even more attention and an increasing share of resources.

In sum, I believe that the United States Institute of Peace has now put downsturdy roots and is fulfilling many of the hopes of those in the Congress whodesigned this national resource for promoting international peace. With contin-ued confidence and support from the American people, and with adequatefinancial resources from the federal government, the Institute can continueproviding essential concepts and tools for all those committed to achieving amore peaceful world.

Samuel W. LewisPresident

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OVERVIEW

AN INDEPENDENTFEDERAL ENTITY

The United States Institute of Peace Act, passedby the Congress and signed into law in 1984,established the Institute as a publicly fundednational institution that would devote itself tomatters of international peace based on free-dom and justice. The Congress insulated theInstitute from political pressures by granting itindependent status as a federal institution andnonprofit corporate form with a bipartisangoverning Board of Directors appointed by thePresident and confirmed by the Senate.

Since its first meeting in February 1986, theBoard has considered that independenceessential in building the Institute's identity andearning confidence in its work. As intended byits enabling legislation, the Institute functionsas a nonideological educational resource forpolicymakers and officials and does not inter-vene directly in the formulation or conduct ofU.S. foreign policy.

The law directs the Institute to serve the Ameri-can people and the federal government through"the widest possible range of education andtraining, basic and applied research opportuni-ties, and peace information services on themeans to promote international peace and theresolution of conflicts among the nations andpeoples of the world without recourse toviolence." To implement the broad mandate ofits enabling legislation, the Institute has identi-fied three principal purposes:

Expand basic and applied knowledge aboutinternational conflict and peace by sponsor-ing research, analysis, and training on thebroad range of issues that affect internationalpeace;

Disseminate such knowledge to those whocan best use it in policymaking, diplomacy,journalism, research, and teaching; and

Promote greater understanciing among theAmerican public of the con plex nature ofinternational conflict and peacemakingthrough educational and informationalactivities.

As both a research and an educational organiza-tion, the Institute is unusually well positionedto support the efforts of diplomats, officials,and other professionals working in conflictmanagement and resolution, and to make theresults of work by the Institute and othersavailable to students, scholars, and the generalpublic.

PROGRAMS AND INITIATIVES

The Institute carries out these functions throughfive core program areas:

Grants. The Institute encourages research,education and training projects, and dissemi-nation of information through financialsupport to nonprofit organizations (includ-ing colleges and universities), official publicinstitutions, and individuals.

Fellowships. The Institute also invests inpeopleoutstanding scholars, statesmen,diplomats, other professionals, and univer-sity doctoral studentsmany of whomconduct their projects at the Institute andparticipate in its daily life. The JenningsRandolph Fellowship Program is namedafter the former senator from West Virginiawho was a long-time sponsor of legislation tocreate the Institute.

Re3earch and Studies. The Institute designsand conducts studies on issues of currentinterest to practitioners, decisionmakers,scholars, and the interested public by bring-ing together experts from the United Statesand abroad and by publishing the results oftheir deliberations.

Education and Training. A national peaceessay contest engages high school studentsdirectly, while both high school andpostsecondary students are reached throughgrants that train teachers and developcurriculum materials. Students and thegeneral public are also reached througheducational video products and outreachprograms. Conflict resolution trainingprograms conducted by diverse institutionsreceive Institute support as well.

Library and Information Services. TheJeannette Rankin Library Program, namedfor the Montana peace activist who was thefirst woman elected to Congress, promotesstate-of-the-art information retrieval andbibliographic projects through a nationalnetwork coordinated from the Institute. Theprogram is also developing a specializedcore collection at the Institute.

The Institute also has special initiatives in thefollowing areas:

Middle East Peacemaking and ConflictResolution. Grantees, fellows, study groups,and staff are working on an array of projectsconcerned with various aspects of U.S. andinternational efforts to help achieve greaterpeace and stability in the volatile MiddleEast.

Rule of Law. Projects are under way in theUnited States, Eastern and Central Europe,Russia, and Africa to encourage democraticgovernance and the institution of the rule oflaw.

Religion, Ethics, and Human Rights. AnInstitute senior scholar is conducting aworking group on religion and nationalismand cooperates with individuals and organi-zations in educational settings and otheroutreach activities related to these subjects.

All the programs and initiatives describedabove are supported by three departments:

Publications and Marketing, which pub-lishes and disseminates the Institute's Journaland Iii Brief series and, through the United

States Institute of Peace Press, the Dialoguesfrom Public Workshops series, special reports,and books generated by Institute activities.

Public Affairs and Information, whichrelays information to mass audiencesthrough media services, a speakers bureau,and other outreach activities.Administration, which provides the Institutewith financial, personnel, and procurementservices.

ORGANIZATION OF THISREPORT

This third Biennial Report of the United StatesInstitute of Peace covers Institute activitiesduring fiscal years 1990 and 1991. In somecases, to cover subjects more thoroughly, thereport mentions activities from previous fiscalyears or work being initiated as fiscal year 1991ended.

Two special program initiatives begun duringthis reporting period are covered in Chapter 1.A more comprehensive look at Institute re-search programs appears in Chapter II, whichillustrates in detail how the Institute marshalsits resources to focus on particular topics. TheInstitute's education and training activities,mentioned throughout the report, receivedetailed attention in Chapter III, which alsoreports on the Jeannette Rankin Library Pro-gram, public affairs, and publications. Compre-hensive lists and descriptions of grants, fellow-ships, and research and studies activities arecontained in Chapter IV.

The Institute's management and corporateaffairs are discussed in Chapter V, whichincludes data on congressional authorizationsand appropriations. Chapter V also containsbrief biographies of Board and senior staffmembers. The Appendix includes the currenttexts of the United States Institute of Peace Act,the Bylaws of the United States Institute ofPeace, and the Articles of Incorporation ofEndowment of the United States Institute ofPeace, Incorporated.

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Spark M. Matsunaga Medal of Peace

Many are remembered for their valor in combat; feware remembered for what they have done for peace.Spark M. Matsunaga should be remembered for both.In late 1990, the Congress autho-rized the Institute to award annuallythe Spark M. Matsunaga Medal ofPeace in memory of the Senator'slove of peace and his determinedsupport of peace education andpeacemaking. The authorizationwas the only amendment to theInstitute's authorization during thecurrent biennial reporting period.

A decorated combat veteran of theU.S. Army's all-Nisei 100th InfantryBattalion and the 442nd RegimentalCombat Team in World War II,Spark Matsunaga served the peopleof Hawaii as a Member of the U.S.House of Representatives from 1963to 1977 and as a U.S. Senator from1977 to his death on April 15, 1990.Believing from early youth that peacemaking is asmuch an art to be learned as war, he introducedlegislation calling for the establishment of a "nationalacademy of peace." In 1979, Senator Matsunaga wasnamed chairman of the Commission on Proposals forthe National Academy of Peace and Conflict Resolu-tion. The U.S. Institute of Peace Act of 19F t wasbased on the commission's findings and recommen-dations, which included the creation of a prestigiousnational peace medal.

After the institute's founding, the Senator's supportwas tireless; he was an invaluable guide, friend, ammentor to the Board of Directors and staff. His acti

concern for the future was evi-denced every year in the welcomehe gave the students participating ithe annual National Peace EssayContest awards program. "To go tthe Capitol to meet SenatorMatsunaga, to hear him speak abothis service to his country and hisdream of a peaceful future was anexperience they won't forget," saidone observer of those sessions.

Honorable Spark M. Matsunaga(1916-1990).

In 1992, upon the advice of adistinguished board of advisors, theInstitute will award the medal to ofor more individuals or organizatiorwho have contributed in extraordi-nary ways to peace among nationsand peoples of the world, givingspecial attention to contributions

that advance society's knowledge and skill in peace-making and conflict resolution. A $25,000 cashaward will accompany the medal, which wasdesigned by the Department of the Treasury inconsultation with the Institute and the CommissionFine Arts. The medal will be bestowed in publicceremonies that will emphasize its importance andprominence and to honor the work of the recipient(and Senator Matsunaga.

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CHAPTER ISPECIAL INITIATIVES IN AN ERA OF RAPID CHANGE

MAKING PEACE

AMONG

ARABS AND ISRAELIS

Lessons fromFifty Years of

Negotiating Experience

UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF r EACC

DEMOCRACY'S

1

A DIRECTORY OF

AMERICAN INITIATIVES

ON CONSI I UTIONALISM,

DEMOCRACY, AND

THE RULE OF LAW

IN CENTRAL AND

EASTERN EUROPE

A. E. DICK HOWARD

Issuance of timely publications is an important aspect of the Institute's special initiatives on Middle East peace-making and conflict resolution, and the rule of law.

CONTENTS

Peacemaking in the Middle Eastand Persian Gulf 6

Crisis in the Gulf 7

Addressing Challenges in thePost-Gulf War Middle East 7

A Look Ahead 1 1

5

Promoting the Rule of Law and Democracy in

the Former Soviet Republics and Eastern andCentral Europe 12

U.S.-Soviet Seminar on the Rule of Law _13Inventory of American Initiatives in Easternand Central Europe 13

Rule of Law and Ethnic ConflictResolution 14

Reviewing the Russian Constitution 15

Grantees and Fellows 16

A Look Ahead 16

PEACEMAKING IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND PERSIAN GULF

The Persian Gulf war and its aftermath funda-mentally altered conventional wisdom aboutopportunities to contribute to a more peacefuland durable order in the Middle East. Helpingthe U.S. government respond to these opportu-nities was a major Institute priority in 1991. Inearly spring 1991, the Institute established aSpecial Middle East Program in Peacemakingand Conflict Resolution to encompass severalnew activities and to relate them coherently toother projects already included in the Institute'spermanent programs of grants, fellowships,and in-house research.

This initiative illustrates the Institute's specialcapacity to address a key issue by means ofseveral different, yet complementary, ap-proaches that draw on an expanding networkof current and former grantees, fellows, andother affiliated experts. The Institute's dualnature as an independent government institu-tion and a research organization grounded inacademic and practical scholarship also enablesthe Institute to conceive, develop, and conductprojects that engage both policymakers whoneed timely analysis and scholars whose in-depth, relevant knowledge often escapes theattention of policymakers. Dialogue betweenthese wo communities plays a major part in theInstitute's Middle East initiative, and theirinteraction enriches project results.

In 1991, the Institute established three studygroups to feed ideas and analysis informally tothe executive branch, the Congress, and thepublic and to generate special reports to informthe national debate. These study groups areaddressing the Middle East arms race, Arab-Israeli peacemaking, and the role of the UnitedNations in postwar security arrangements inthe Gulf.

The Institute also designated Middle Eastpeacemaking and arms limitation issues forspecial priority attention through its 1992

WI` Richard Haass (right),senior NationalSecurity Council staffmember, and Alan

r. Platt (left), president,Henry L. StimsonCenter, at seminar onMiddle East armscontrol conducted bythe Stimson Centerwith Institute grantsupport.

solicited grants competition and chose several1991-92 fellows whose projects bear directly onthis region. Moreover, in 1991, the Instituteorganized a three-day conference on peace andsecurity in the Middle East and a novel simula-tion exercise on Arab-Israeli negotiations.These projects and others with broader,nonregional focusessuch as conflict resolu-tion and humanitarian issuesthat can beapplied to the Middle East peacemaking taskare also receiving priority Institute attention. Inaddition, dozens of grantees and fellows arecompleting projects relating to the Middle Eastbegun before the Gulf crisis.

The Institute also seeks to enhance publicunderstanding of the complex nature of conflictand peacemaking in the Middle East. Itsreports and other printed materials are madeavailable to civic organizations, libraries, andmembers of the public. In addition, Instituteexperts speak to audiences across the countryand participate in print and broadcast mediainterviews.

The special Middle East program was largelydesigned by Institute president Samuel Lewis, aformer U.S. ambassador to Israel. In its earlystages, it was directed by Hume Horan, a careerForeign Service Arabist who served as U.S.ambassador to Saudi Arabia, Sudan, andCameroon. In October 1991, Ambassador

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Horan was succeeded as senior Middle Eastcoordinator by another experienced formerdiplomat. Robert Oakley, former specialassistant to the President and senior staffmember on the National Security Council forthe Near East and South Asia and U.S. ambas-sador to Zaire, Somalia, and, most recently,Pakistan.

CRISIS IN THE GULF

When President Bush announced in August1990 that the United States would send troopsto the Gulf in response to the Iraqi invasion ofKuwait, the United States Institute of Peaceresponded promptly to provide timely informa-tion and assistance to the government and theAmerican people on ways to promote peacefulresolution of the conflict.

In early October, at an Institute conference onConflict Resolution in the Post-Cold War ThirdWorld, a special panel session was conductedon "The Gulf Crisis: Finding a Peaceful Solu-tion." Seven experts on diplomacy, conflictresolution, negotiations, international law, theUnited Nations, the Middle East, and thepersonalities of political leaders discussedvarious peaceful approaches to resolving thecrisis. A brief report was quickly printed andwidely distributed to officials in the executivebranch, Congress, and interested members ofthe general public. In addition, the session wasbroadcast nationwide several times on C-SPANtelevision.

As the Gull crisis unfolded, the Institutebecame a locus of information for governmentofficials, the media, and the general public.Board members, fellows, and staff testifiedbefore House and Senate committees on topicsranging from the role of international law torelations among Middle Eastern states. Theyalso briefed officials at the National SecurityCouncil and the Department of State on anumber of issues, including the likely effective-ness of sanctions and diplomatic ultimatums.The Institute's public affairs office receivedmore than 200 requests from print and broad-cast media for information relating to the crisis.

Fellows, grantees, and staff members were onmany radio and television talk shows andprovided information and analysis to newspa-per reporters around the country. The InstitutEalso undertook to collect historical records ofthe Gulf crisis in a special library collection.(For details on the collection, see Chapter III.)

ADDRESSING CHALLENGESIN THE POST-GULF WARMIDDLE EAST

Regional Arms Control

An Institute study group focusing on RegionalArms Control Arrangements and Prospects inthe Post-War Middle East met four times in1991. Its premise was that the aftermath of theGulf war created a new climate in whichprogress on regional arms control might finallybegin even though this region has experiencedonly arms races, not arms limitation. Specifictopics included how to halt proliferation ofballistic missiles and chemical, biological, andnuclear capabilities; how to begin buildingmutual confidence and create negotiatingopportunities among Middle East countries onthe linkages between arms control initiativesand other aspects of the peace process; and hosnto transfer lessons from the history of EastWest arms control negotiations to the multipo-

Helena Cobban speaks during a meeting of theInstitute study group on regional arms control.

7

9

Excerpts from the Interim Report onMiddle East Arms Control after the GulfWar

"Arms control measures should be pursued inparallel with the 'peace process' and negotiation ofregional security arrangements and should notawait progress toward a general political settlementin the region."

"Measures involving interaction should also bepursued, including confidence building measures,such as 'hotline agreements' and prior notificationof military maneuvers; weapons deploymentlimitations; and establishment of 'keep-out zones'to restrict deployments to certain geographicregions."

lar Middle East. The group's agenda will beexpanded to include ramifications of thefindings of UN inspection teams about Iraq'snuclear weapons capability.

Among the study group members are armscontrol and regional experts, as well as officialsfrom several government agencies. (SeeChapter IV for a full list of members.) Aninterim report from the group was issued inMay 1991, shortly before President Bushannounced the administration's Middle.Eastarms control initiative.

Peacemaking among Arabs andIsraelis Dos and Don'tsAnother study group on Lessons from Peace-making Efforts in the Middle East: Approachesand Diplomatic Processes examined the mostand the least effective aspects of the ArabIsraeli negotiation processes over the past fiftyyears. The group placed particular emphasison successes and failures since the 1967 war,including how to create an effective negotiatingprocess involving Israel, key Arab states, andrepresentative Palestinians, and how to makethe lessons of past multilateral diplomacy in theMiddle East relevant and useful to today'snegotiations.

Study group members included a wide range ofAmerican diplomatic practitioners and expertson Middle East negotiations, including severalformer ambassadors to Middle East countries;former special presidential envoys; formersenior Department of State and Natioil-,1Security Council officials; and several currentU.S. officials. Altogether, participants pos-sessed 300 years of diplomatic experienceunder six Presidents.

During its four sessions in 1991, the groupconcentrated on the lessons from successful andunsuccessful negotiations that might bearlessons for current or future negotiations,especially those cases in which U.S. mediationplayed a central role. A preliminary report wasreleased in May and distributed immediately tokey U.S. officials then engaged in attempting tolaunch new ArabIsraeli peace negotiations. Afinal report, Making Peace Among Arabs andIsraelis: Less ms from Fifty Years of NegotiatingExperience, was published in October 1991, justbefore the beginning of the Madrid Middle EastPeace Conference. A subsequent press briefingon the report was aired on C-SPAN television.

This study group typified the Institute's abilityto mesh historical analysis with contemporaryissues to produce a useful resource for govern-ment officials and other diplomatic practitio-ners concerned with Middle East peacemaking.

Excerpts from Making Peace AmongArabs and Israelis: Lessons from FiftyYears of Negotiating Experience

"Base the mediating process on already acceptednegotiating guidelines. Avoid creating broad newframeworks with untested and unfamiliar elementsor terminology."

"Leverage or 'pressure' is of little or no value untiltie negotiating process is well advanced andparties can 'smell' agreement."

"Negotiators must think ahead in drafting a docu-ment to choose language that will withstanddomestic political pressure, and the mediator need!to be sympathetic to this requirement."

8

2 0

Prime Minister YitzhakShamir (left, facingcamera) representsIsraeli delegation atMadrid peace confer-ence. To his right isthe Lebanese delega-tion. In foreground attable are leaders ofJordanian Palestiniandelcfption, JordanianForeign Minister KamelAbu Jaber (left) andHaider Abdul Shafi(right).

1; 11 I ' t I t t t 1!t, T

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# 11IilliagMISAL

JOINDAIWI

Lessons from Peacemaking Efforts in the Middle EastStudy Group Participants

(with selected diplomatic and Middle East-related affiliations)

Alfred Leroy Atherton, Jr., former U.S. ambassador -at-large for Middle East negotiations, assistant secretaryof state for Near Eastern and South Asian affairs, andU.S. ambassador to Egypt

Graeme Bannerman, former member, Policy PlanningStaff Department of State, and staff director, SenateForeign Relations Committee

Chester A. Crocker, former assistant secretary of statefor African affairs

Morris Draper, former consul general in Jerusalem anddeputy assistant secretary of state for Near Easternand South Asian affairs

Charles Hill, former director of the Office of Israel andArabIsraeli Affairs and deputy assistant secretary ofstate for Near Eastern and South Asian affairs

Hume Horan, former U.S. ambassador to Saudi ArabiaMartin Indyk, historian, executive director, Washing-

ton Institute for Near East PolicyWilliam A. Kirby, former deputy assistant secretary of

state for Near Eastern and South Asian affairs andmember, Policy Planning Staff, Department of State

David A. Korn, former director, Office of Israeli andArabIsraeli Affairs, Department of State

Alan J. Kreczko, deputy legal advisor, Department ofState

Daniel C. Kurtzer, deputy assistant secretary of statefor Near Eastern and South Asian affairs

Samuel W. Lewis, president, United States Institute ofPeace, former U.S. ambassador to Israel (cochair-man)

Sol M. Linowitz, former personal representative ofPresident Carter for Middle East negotiations

Aaron David Miller, Policy Planning Staff, Departmentof State

Richard W. Murphy, former U.S. ambassador to Syriaand to Saudi Arabia and assistant secretary of statefor Near Eastern and South Asian affairs

William B. Quandt, former National Security Councilsenior staff member

Peter W. Rodman, former director, Policy PlanningStaff, Department of State, and National SecurityCouncil senior staff member

Eugene V. Rostow, Distinguished Fellow, UnitedStates Institute of Peace, and former undersecretaryof state for political affairs

Harold H. Saunders, former assistant secretary of statefor Near Eastern and South Asian affairs

Harvey Sicherman, former assistant to the secretary ofstate and member, Policy Planning Staff Depart-ment of State

Joseph J. Sisco, former under secretary of state forpolitical affairs

Janice Stein, historian, University of TorontoKenneth W. Stein, historian, Emory University, advisor

to former President Carter (cochairman)

9

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-.7.

Simulating ArabIsraeliNegotiations

As the result of a U.S. initiative and persistentpersonal mediation by the secretary of state, acomprehensive Middle East Peace Conferencewas finally convened in Madrid, Spain inOctober 1991. It launched a complex negotiat-ing process during which Israel would negoti-ate separately with Syrian, Lebanese, andcombined Palestinian-Jordanian delegations.There being no precedent for any formalSyrian-Israeli negotiations and little if anyhistory of secret contact or "prenegotiation"between these two bitter enemies, ways tostimulate a fruitful negotiating process preoccu-pied U.S. officials.

With quiet encouragement from the Depart-ment of State, the Institute mounted a unique,nonofficial simulation exercise modeled on thefirst actual sessions of the Syrian-Israeli work-ing group. Teams of scholars and formerdiplomats from Israel, Syria, the United States,and the Soviet Union took roles as members ofsimulated diplomatic delegations, guided by a"control group" of Institute officials andadvisers. The atmosphere was surprisinglyrealistic and the "negotiations" that ensuedwere carefully monitored.

The exercise produced a number of importantand, in some cases, surprising insights intolikely negotiating dynamics. These insightswere then fed informally into the real diplo-matic process.

UN Role in Constructing RegionalStability

How the United Nations and the internationalsystem can respond to future instances ofaggression and, in particular, what sort of rolethe UN might play in promoting long-termstability in the Gulf region are subjects ofanother study group on Lessons from the GulfCrisis for Strengthening the United NationsCollective Security System Against Aggression.Other issues addressed include the principles of

sovereignty and nonintervention; humanitar-ian concerns; utility of UN military and civilianobserver and peacekeeping missions; ways tostrengthen the office of the UN secretarygeneral; and UN support for peacekeepingefforts by regional organizations. Participantsinclude former UN officials, many with directexperience in peacekeeping efforts, and seniordiplomats from several UN missions. (SeeChapter IV for a full list of participants.)

Grants, Fellows, and Conferences

In addition to these special study groups,elements in the Instit'ite's core programs areimportant components of the special MiddleEast program. For example, the 1992 solicitedgrant competition sought proposals dealingwith several areas of Middle East peacemaking:the future course of political and social dynam-ics in the Arab world; ways to enhance pros-pects for a peaceful settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict; the prospects for increasedTurkish involvement in Middle East affairs;long-range security requirements in the PersianGulf region; and possible ways to limit thebuildup of conventional and nonconventionalweapons in this area.

Meanwhile, several grantees have completedimportant Middle East projects begun beforethe Gulf war. For example, through Institutesupport to the Carnegie Endowment on Inter-national Peace, Geoffrey Kemp completed aground-breaking book, The Control of the MiddleEast Arms Race, which dissects all aspects of theproliferation of high-technology weapons in theregion. Kemp focuses new attention on thethreat perception of individual states in theregion and geographic factors of security andways they can be addressed through confi-dence-building measures, supplier controlregimes, and other arms control and peacemak-ing efforts. In addition, under a grant to theInstitute on Global Conflict and Cooperation atthe University of California at San Diego, theInstitute has been supporting a unique coopera-tive project involving American, Soviet, Arab,and Israeli scholars. In two internationalconferences, they have debated differing

10 22

approaches to ArabIsraeli peacemakingreflected in a book manuscript by StephenSpeigel entitled Conflict Management in theMiddle East: A View from Four Sides.

Several fellows selected in 1991 have projectswith a Middle East focus. Professor ShimonShamir, former Israeli ambassador to Egypt, iswriting on the role of unofficial contacts be-tween Arabs and Israelis in promoting broaderreconciliation. Muhammad Faour, a Lebanesedemographer, is examining long-term socialand political changes in the Arab world.Professor Don Peretz is analyzing the effects onPalestinian refugees of possible political solu-tions in the West Bank and Gaza. Sudaneselegal scholar Mohamed Khalil is examining thecompatibility of traditional Islamic law withcontemporary concepts of democracy andhuman rights.

In June 1991, to lend a regional perspective toits larger working group project on Peace,Security, and Deterrence, the Institute conveneda special three-day conference of American,Israeli, and Arab scholars and other experts todiscuss Peace and Security Arrangements in theMiddle East. The conference addressed severalquestions relating to the Gulf crisis, includingthe reasons various diplomatic and militarymeasures failed to deter Iraq from invadingKuwait and evacuating peacefully, and factors

11

that might have deterred Iraq from usingchemical or biological weapons and thusescalating war. Participants also examinedIsraeli, Syrian, Saudi Arabian, and Iraqi viewsof deterrence and possible security arrange-ments for the Eastern Mediterranean, the Gulf,and the Middle East as a whole. The conferemproceedings will be published by the Institutein 1992.

A LOOK AHEAD

During fiscal years 1992 and 1993, the Institutewill continue this broad approach Fo MiddleEast peacemaking, concentrating on publicatioof prior conference and study group reportsand on new activities that are selected afterconsultation with key officials directly involve,in Middle East peacemaking. Additional areasof activity will include further Institute-conducted simulations of various aspects ofArabIsraeli negotiations and a new studygroup to address the impact of revolutionaryupheavals in the republics of former SovietCentral Asia on Turkey, Iran, and other nearbyIslamic nations of Southwest Asia. Priority wilgo to topics of immediate timeliness and policyrelevance, as well as to certain longer-termtrends that will likely become important factorin peace and stability for the region.

PROMOTING THE RULE OF LAW AND DEMOCRACYIN THE FORMER SOVIET REPUBLICS

AND EASTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE

Since its inception, the Institute has devotedattention to issues affecting democratic gover-nance, including the rule of law. In 1990,however, in full appreciation of the historicopportunities posed by democratic changes inthe then Soviet Union and Eastern and CentralEurope and the potential of the rule of law inpromoting peace, the Institute's Board created aRule of Law Initiative under which specialprojects would be undertaken and etistingprograms directed --particularly grants,fellowships, and in-house research and stud-iesto devote increased attention to this area.

Originally, the Institute emphasized the need toexamine a perceived correlation between thedemocratic or totalitarian nature of a govern-ment and its international behavior. Manyresearch findings suggested that a societygoverned by the rule of law and democraticprocess is more likely to contribute to interna-tional peace than one under an authoritarian ortotalitarian regime. This view was affirmed at ahistoric meeting in Copenhagen in 1990, whenthe thirty-five nations of the Conference onSecurity and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)unanimously declared that "the development ofsocieties based on . . . the rule of law" is a"prerequisite . . . for progress in setting up thelasting order of peace, security, justice andcooperation."

By the end of 1991, much of the Institute'semphasis had shifted to practical issues andproblems confronting people in the formerSoviet republics and Eastern and CentralEurope as they implement democratic reforms.To some in these emerging democracies, manyfundamental propositions of the rule of lawarticulated in the CSCE Copenhagen documentare unfamiliar in practice: governmentalauthority and legitimacy based on the consent

of the governed expressed through free elec-tions; government subservience to a con-stitution and laws created through a publicprocedure; individual protection and redressagainst government wrongdoing; independenceof the judiciary; equal protection under the law;political parties separate from the state; guaran-tee of basic freedoms of expression, conscience,religion, peaceful assembly and association, andproperty. These are among the tenets thatmany of these countries now struggle to codifyand adopt.

Rule of law principles can serve as guidepostsfor people experiencing political and socialtrauma in the course of state transformationfrom authoritarian political systems andcentrally planned economies to liberal democra-cies and market economies. In some instances,they could be the basis for managing long-suppressed ethnic and religious animosities inthese societies. Although these problems mustbe addressed and ultimately solved in thecontext of domestic politics, it is unquestionablethat they can have broader internationalsignificance. It is this linkage, including thebasic notion that democratic regimes are moreinclined toward peaceful international behav-ior, that is of particular interest to the Institute.For example, in Eastern and Central Europe,one country's progress toward pluralism anddemocratic reform may provide positiveimpetus for its neighbors to adopt the samepatterns and solve problems in a similar way.The threat of international spillover is especiallyacute when members of an ethnic communityare split among two or more states or whenmultiethnic states, such as Yugoslavia, begin tobreak apart.

Selected highlights of the Institute's rule of lawactivities during 1990 and 1991 follow.

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I

Berliners celebrate the opening of the Berlin Wall.

U.S.-SOVIET SEMINARON THE RULE OF LAW

In March 1990, the Institute, working with theDepartments of State and Justice, the UnitedStates Information Agency (USIA), the USSRMinistry of Foreign Affairs, and the Institute ofState and Law of the USSR Academy of Sci-ences, organized seminars on the rule of law inMoscow and Leningrad. John Norton Moore,then chairman of the Institute's Board, co-chaired the American delegation along withthen Associate Attorney General Donald Ayers.Fifteen leading American and Soviet legalscholars and practitioners delivered formalremarks in their respective areas of expertise;over the five days of the seminar, severalhundred people attended the sessions andparticipated in the lively exchanges and discus-sions that ensued. To permit wide dissemina-

13

tion of the information presented, the Institutecommissioned the translation of the Americanpapers and their publication in a singleRussian-language volume. With the assistanceof USIA, the first copies are scheduled fordistribution by Progress Press of Moscow inearly 1992.

INVENTORY OF AMERICANINITIATIVES IN EASTERN ANDCENTRAL EUROPE

The 1989 revolutions in Eastern and CentralEurope evoked many dynamic responses fromAmerican organizations eager to support theregion's political renaissance, but many of thesepotential resources were not well known in theregion. To address this problem, the Institutecommissioned A.E. Dick Howard, an expert on

rty! r,1 plf,L04:4

constitutionalism from the University ofVirgin :1 School of Law, to compile an inventoryof Amt., ican public and private institutionsengaged in supporting political and legalreforms in Central and Eastern Europe. In early1991, under contract from the Institute, theUniversity Press of Virginia published Profes-sor Howard's work as Democracy's Dawn: ADirectory of American Initiatives on Constitutional-ism, Democracy, and the Rule of Law in Central andEastern Europe.

This volume provides information on morethan 120 American organizations, includingprivate associations and foundations, legal andacademic groups, government agencies, libraryservices, university centers, and interest groupsfocused on single countries. These organiza-tions offer various forms of technical assistance,exchange programs, conferences, publications,reference services, grants, and expertise. Thedirectory's alphabetical index is supplementedby country and program-area indexes.

The Institute distributed 2,000 free copies ofDemocracy's Dawn in the United States and,with USIA assistance, gave copies to govern-ment officials and citizens in Eastern andCentral Europe, where it was enthusiasticallyreceived. In late 1991, the Institute beganworking on a similar survey of Americanprograms and resources on the rule of law forthe republics of the former Soviet Union andthe Baltic states.

RULE OF LAW AND ETHNICCONFLICT RESOLUTION

What do ethnic and cultural rivalries mean fornations now seeking democratic forms and howcan they be managed within such a spirit? Towhat extent can the rule of culture vitiate therule of law?

These questions gain special immediacy inCentral and Eastern Europe, where deep-seatedhostilities long dampened by a succession oftotalitarian administrations were released bythe revolutions of 1989. The resurgence of age-old and seemingly intractable ethnic conflict is

Charles Smith (right), Institute general counsel anddirector of the Rule of Law Initiative, confers withWallace Warfield (left), professor, Institute for ConflictAnalysis and Resolution, George Mason University, atInstitute conference.

.4.411 -

LAI If:iI\1511.11. E 1 r

Nadine Strossen, professor, New York Law School, andnational president, American Civil Liberties Union, atconference on ethnic conflict resolution.

clearly affecting the ability of these newlyliberalizing states to ensure their citizens' rightsand freedoms and also endangers peace andstability in the region.

In June 1991, the Institute convened a three-dayconference to expand dialogue among Ameri-cans and Europeans concerned with ethnicconflict and innovative solutions based on therule of law. More than fifty members ofparliament, scholars, and civic leaders fromevery state in Eastern and Central Europeand several ethnic groups were joined by morethan 140 experts on the region and the rule oflaw, along with observers from fifteen CSCEmember states.

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28

"We in the United States have made a great dealof headway in recent decades in reducing racialand ethnic intolerance. This change in publicattitude came about because moral leadershipasserted itself. The tone was set, in manyinstances, by religious leaders .... In EasternEurope ... if any group is to come forward tolead the effort toward better interethnic under-standing, it will have to be the clergy."

"The goal is clear. It is indeed to teach childrento love the people their relatives hate."

Excerpts from the keynote address at conference onEthnic Conflict Resolution Under the Rule of Law,delivered by Richard Schifter, assistant secretary ofstate for human rights and humanitarian affairs andInstitute Board member .

Panel Topics of Conference onEthnic Conflict Resolution Under theRule of Law

Self-DeterminationFederalism and Territorial DevolutionVoting Across Ethnic LinesGovernmental StructuresMediation and NegotiationPolicies on Language, Education, Religion, andCultureConstitutionalismThe Role of Religion in Mediating Ethnic ConflictAffirmative RightsJudicial Review and an Independent JudiciaryElectoral Systems and Voting RightsThe Lawmaking Process and ParliamentsExecutive Powers and AdministrationLimits on Government

The conference presentations and discussionsconfirmed that no one measure will be a wholeanswer to the complex web of problems in thearea of ethnic conflict, but suggested that somepartial solution may be built into the structureof political processes.

15

\.,

Russian President Boris Yeltsin at a protest during theAugust 1991 coup attempt.

REVIEWING THE RUSSIANCONSTITUTION

The nature of the government established in theRussian republic will have profound effects onboth international and regional stability anddomestic freedom and order. Among BorisYeltsin's many tasks in 1991 was chairmanshipof the Constitutional Commission of theRussian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic,created by the Supreme Soviet in 1990. Longbefore the cataclysmic events that followed theattempted Soviet coup of August 1991 and thedissolution of the Soviet Union; the Commis-sion was hard at work. In the spring of 1991, arequest came from the Commission's secretary,Oleg R. Rumyantsev: Would the United StatesInstitute of Peace arrange a review of the draftconstitution by American experts?

The institute quickly arranged a translation ofthe draft and invited an interdisciplinary groupof seventeen American legal scholars, attorneys,

constitutional experts, and political scientists toreview the draft and recommend revisions asthey saw fit. The reviewers' comments weresent to the Commission in August 1991 in a 285page volume, entitled Comments and Recommen-dations on the Draft Constitution of the RussianFederation. That volume has since been usedand discussed extensively by members of theConstitutional Commission in their effort toproduce the fundamental document that willshape the nature of the newly independentRussian state.

GRANTEES AND FELLOWS

Institute grantees and fellows are also conduct-ing projects on the rule of law. One studyconducted with Institute grant support beganwith the premise that Poland's relativelyadvanced stage in developing local democracywill likely bear significant lessons for othernations emerging from totalitarian regimes.The project is part of a cooperative effortbetween Rutgers University and the Founda-tion in Support of Local Democracy, a Polishnonprofit group. It pays special attention to therelation of democratic forms to history andculture; pluralism and the development ofpluralist institutions in support of democracy;the nature, role, and functioning of democraticdecision making in local government; conflictresolution in democratic local government; andthe participation of women in the developmentof democratic local government.

The Institute's treatment of the rule of law inRussia and Eastern and Central Europe wascomplemented by the work of economists anddiplomats from the region. Two Peace Fel-lowsYuri Maltsev, a Soviet economist, andMilan Svec, a Czechoslovakian diploma texamined prospects for economic and politicalreforms in Moscow and Eastern and CentralEurope. Before coming to the United States,Maltsev was senior researcher at the Institute ofEconomics of the Academy of Sciences of theUSSR, where he worked with a team of leadingSoviet economists on President Gorbachev'sreforms package. Before receiving political

asylum in the United States, Svec was deputychief of the Czechoslovakian embassy andsenior adviser to the minister of foreign affairs.Their insights and firsthand experience inadvocating reforms within their former coun-tries were in demand by congressional commit-tees, the media, and civic groups nationwide.

A LOOK AHEAD

In 1992, the Rule of Law Initiative will bebroadened to include countries in Africa andelsewhere in the developing world. Individualcountry reports surveying institutions involvedin activities related to the rule of law will assessthe need for political and judicial reform andthe probable success of any given reform inlight of the country's culture and history. Thesereports will be written by teams of two to threeexpertsincluding a scholar in legal systemsand an expert on the country concerned. Inlate 1991, the first team had returned fromEthiopia and another was preparing to departfor Bulgaria. Plans are under way for a thirdproject on changes in the Russian republic.

Another area for future attention is thetreatment of former officials of ousted regimes.Issues including the prosecution of formerofficials under legal rules adopted after allegedillegal acts were committed, judicial indepen-dence in a tense and ever-vengeful atmosphere,evidenciary problems and possible limits ondue process, and future political participationof these persons have become highly charged inEastern and Central Europe and the formerSoviet Union, as well as in other regions.

At the general level, the Institute will also beidentifying how the elements that make up therule of law are expressed through variousinternational instruments and other sources ofinternational law. This inquiry will be used toestablish common points of reference on theconcept and content of the rule of law amonggovernment officials, other practitioners,philosophers, and scholars reconstructing theirsocieties after years of totalitarianism.

CHAPTER IIEXPANDING KNOWLEDGE ABOUT

INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT AND PEACEMAKING

a

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American and Soviet participants in the Origins of the Cold War conference meet with Soviet Foreign Minister.Eduard Shevardnadze (top row, fourth from left).

CONTENTS

Introduction 18

International Conflict Management 20

Arms Control and Deterrence 24

EastWest Relations 27

International Organizationsand International Law 32

17

Democracy and Domestic Governance

Religion, Human Rights, and Nonviolence

Regional and National Conflictsand Regional Security

Sources of Violence

. ir,

BET C P AVAILAB

INTRODUCTION

Much is already known about conflict andpeacemaking; much is not. One primarymission of the Institute is the expansion ofreliable knowledge about these fields. Toperform it, the Institute supports the research ofindividual grantees and fellows, but it alsobrings together experienced diplomatic practi-tioners, other officials, policy analysts, scholars,and experts from many disciplines to examinecurrent or medium-term issues and contributecollectively to a more profound understandingof the processes of war and peace.

Chapter II illustrates how Institute resourcesare applied under various programs and specialinitiatives to address particular subjects. Agiven topic may be the focus of complementarywork by grantees, fellows and consultants, andalso by groups of experts participating inInstitute-organized conferences, workinggroups, study groups, or seminars. This workgenerally fans into eight broad categories, asillustrated in this chapter:

International Conflict Management

Arms Control and Deterrence

EastWest RelationsInternational Organizations and InternationalLaw

Democracy and Domestic Governance

Religion, Human Rights, and Nonviolence

Regional and National Conflicts and RegionalSecurity

Sources of Violence

Chapter II draws on a small sampling ofInstitute activities that took place during fiscalyears 1990 and 1991.

MAPPING THE TERRAIN OFPEACE

The subject matter of peace is vast; peacemak-ing and peacekeeping, conflict resolution, ruleof law, humanitarian issues, deterrence, andmany more topics fall within this area. TheInstitute's Board of Directors decided early thatone of the Institute's first formal projects shouldbe a study of salient approaches to internationalpeace and conflict management. The Boardbelieved that information and insights gatheredfrom a large variety of scholars and prac-titioners afforded the most reliable way toacquire the guidance necessary to set upInstitute programs. Another outcome would beto provide citizens, diplomats, policymakers,and scholars with a better understanding of thevarious approaches to peacemaking.

The ensuing Intellectual Map Project uncoveredboth the rich diversity in the field and evidenceof confusion and competition among variousapproaches to peacemaking and lack of com-munication among schools of thought. Mostnotably, it highlighted missed opportunitiesand a communications gap between scholarsand practitioners. Diplomats, negotiators, andpolicymakers sometimes find little utility in thetheoretical and historical work of scholars;scholars often denigrate or ignore practitioners'experiences. These findings led the Board toview the project as a means to improvemutually beneficial sharing among practitionersand scholars.

318

In 1986-88, the Institute organized severalcolloquia designed to promote discussion anddebate about the various schools of thought,

which were concluded by a three-day confer-ence. The final resultApproaches to Peace: AnIntellectual Map, a volume of papers deliveredand discussions held at the conference, editedby Board member W. Scott Thompson anddirector of research and studies Kenneth M.Jensenwas published by the Institute in 1991.The contents, which draw heavily on observa-tions from people with widely diverse experi-ences and opinions, are organized in fourmajor areas:

Traditional approaches, including collectivesecurity and deterrence, diplomacy andnegotiation, and arms control;

International law approaches, includinginterstate organizations and third-partyinvolvement;

Newer approaches, such as transnationalism,behaviorism, and conflict resolution; and

Political system approaches.

APPROACHES

P CE-%

19 1

AN INTELLECTUAL MAP

edited hy. tics At Thompson and Kenneth M.,lenNcti

with Richard N. Smith and Kimber Schmi)

INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Armed conflicts, whether between countries oramong factions within individual states, killtens or even hundreds of thousands of peopleeach year. The whys and wherefores of theseconflicts are as varied as the cultural, economic,and geographical climates in which they occur.

The Institute is probing the spectrum of ways tolimit, resolve, and, in the best of circumstances,prevent violent international conflict. Theseprojects, which involve grants, fellowships, andinternally directed studies, are exploring formaldiplomacy and negotiations, unofficial diplo-macy, mediation, arbitration, interactivedialogues, legal and other institutional mecha-nisms, and a variety of social and psychologicalreconciliation processes. Some projects usehistory as the textbook for today. Others arebroader examinations of processes, while stillothers are distinctly regional in focus.

When Conflicts Are "Ripe"for De-escalation

A critical element in diplomacy relating to theresolution of international conflict is the determina-tion of when crises are "ripe" for de-escalation.Institute grantees Louis Kriesberg and Stuart J.Thorson of Syracuse University have edited a bookentitled Timing the De-Escalation of InternationalConflicts, published by Syracuse University Press in1991, that focuses on methods to promote de-escalation of conflicts and thus create situationsconducive to negotiations on longer term settlements.Kriesberg says the chances for successful de-escala-tion are not as great for conflicts that have rapidlyescalated to widespread violence, compared withconflicts that have been stalemated at a high level ofantagonism for an extended period producing somegradual acceptance of the status quo. The study alsoexamines strategies to promote "ripeness" and theconsequences of efforts to de-escalate conflicts whensupportive conditions are not present.

1

Grantee Jay Rothman speaks on negotiations duringan Institute panel on the Gulf crisis.

NEGOTIATIONS

Prenegotiation

With the support of Institute grants, professorsJay Rothman and Gabriel Sheffer of the LeonardDavis Institute of Hebrew University led aproject to develop new concepts and trainingmethods in "prenegotiation" techniques. Ifnegotiations commence with the agendas as thetopic for discussion, they may never proceedbeyond that point, warns Rothman. In hismonograph, A Pre-Negotiation Model: Theory andTraining, he stresses the importance of informalexchanges before formal talks begin: "Based onsubstantive discoveries about parties' needsand interests derived during conflict-framingefforts... the parties can then attempt to specifywhat will be on and off the agenda of upcomingnegotiations." Rothman's work also focuses onpromoting "win-win" rather than "win-lose"mind sets prior to actual negotiations.

20

Angolan President JoseEduardo dos Santos(left) and rebel leaderJonas Savimbi (right)sign peace accords toend the Angolan civilwar as PortuguesePremier Anibal CavacoSilva (center), whohosted the meeting inLisbon, looks on.

Overcoming Cultural Differences

Raymond Cohen, a senior lecturer in politicalscience at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem,has spent more than a decade studying the roleof culture in international relations. As anInstitute Peace Fellow, he wrote a book oncultural differences that affected U.S. negotia-tions with Japan, China, Egypt, India, andMexico on various issues. Cohen found twoquite different models of negotiation: "lowcontext," a predominantly verbal and explicitstyle typical of the United States and othersocieties that stress individualism, and "highcontext," a nonverbal and implicit style moretypical of non-Western, more interdependentsocieties. Based on these findings, Cohendeveloped ten specific recommendations forovercoming cultural barriers in negotiations.The recommendations highlight the importanceof verbal and nonverbal messages, the dynam-ics of personal relationships, matters of statusand face, and an appreciation of interlocutors'bargaining and bureaucratic requirements. Hisbook, Negotiating Across Cultures: Communica-tion Obstacles in International Diplomacy, waspublished by the United States Institute ofPeace Press. The book has practical value fordiplomats and others involved in internationalnegotiations and has been adopted for use incollege courses.

THIRD-PARTY MEDIATION

Different types of conflicts require differentmediation techniques. Hugh Miall of theOxford Research Group used an Institute grant

21

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to analyze the methods used to resolve eightyone cases of intrastate or international armedconflict that occurred between 1945 and 1985.Miall found that international disputes weremore often resolved peacefully than intrastateconflicts, and that territorial and resource issuwere more easily solved than conflicts involv-ing ethnic issues, minorities, ideology, orstruggles for political control. The followingsuggestions for maximizing chances of peacefsettlements are taken from Miall's monograpl-How Conflicts Were Resolved, 1945-1985:

When issues are separated and agreement ireached first on the less contentious issues,momentum is generated toward a settle-ment.

A peaceful settlement is more likely if thedisputants can agree on a procedure forresolving the dispute before they confrontthe issues.

Sometimes it is conducive to a settlement tclet the conflict proceed to a point where thehigh costs of the conflict become clear.

Often, intervention by a third-party is mosthelpful early in a conflict situation.

Costa Rica's role in the settlement of the CentiAmerican disputes during the 1980s is thesubject of Institute Peace Scholar JairoHernandez's doctoral dissertation. Focusing cthe peace proposal initiated by former CostaRican President Oscar Arias, he is examiningthe tools used in negotiation and third-partymediation, as well as methods of disputesettlement based on public international law.

Basing his work at the Fletcher School of Lawand Diplomacy at Tufts University, Hernandezis conducting field trips to Costa Rica and otherCentral American countries for interviews andother research. His dissertation will assesslessons learned about mediation from theCentral American peace process and how theymight be applied in future peacemaking effortsin the region.

UNOFFICIAL DIPLOMACY

The Many Tracks of Diplomacy

Negotiations that affect international conflictsoften go on outside the formal channels ofcommunication between governments and theirofficial diplomatic representatives. The IowaPeace Institute, in an Institute-supportedproject directed by its then president, formerU.S. ambassador John McDonald, and consult-ant Louise Diamond, explored the range ofunofficial diplomacy applied to internationalconflict resolution, both as a supplement toformal diplomacy and as a primary peacemak-ing tool. In a book still in production, Multi-track Diplomacy: A Systems Guide and Analysis,they identify and analyze nine tracks of diplo-macy, including commerce, interaction amongprivate citizens, civic activism, and educationand training. The importance of this inquiryarises from the growing public involvement ininternational conflict resolution and efforts tocomplement conventional diplomacy throughinternational understanding and exchangebeyond the government-to-governmentdimension.

Unofficial Contacts betweenArabs and Israelis

Almost every morning around dawn, Israeliand Jordanian intelligence officers convergenear the Allenby Bridge over the Jordan toexchange newspapers; obviously, it is cheaperand faster for both parties to cooperate in thisfashion than to go to Athens or Rome to buy thepapers there.

The focus of most research on Arabs andIsraelis centers on conflict, but such stories ofcooperation and positive interaction should alsobe told. Supported by an Institute grant, AdamGarfinkle of the Foreign Policy ResearchInstitute examined functional contacts andcooperative interaction between Israelis andJordanians. Garfinkle reports that "extensiveinformal arrangements between Jordan andIsrael have evolved over the years despite theabsence of a formal peace. As a result, the twocountries have developed a workable, albeitstrained, modus vivendi. Some of these arrange-ments have been sanctioned and negotiated atthe highest level; others have emerged from theneeds of the day-to-day relations betweenpeople living in a small area. High level andlow level contacts generally have been mutuallyreinforcing, the former sanctioning the latterand the latter advancing the former." Contactand cooperation are evident on a wide range ofissues, including agriculture, pest control, waterconservation, intelligence, navigation, air trafficcontrol, mining, information policy, utilities,banking, and commerce. Garfinkle concludedthat these forms of cooperation providegrounds for optimism that personal contactscan contribute to peace on the political level.

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One of Israel'sforemost experts onthe Arab world andMiddle East history,Shimon Shamir, isusing his position asan Institute Distin-guished Fellow toexamine the develop-,-

ment of people-to-people relationshipsbetween Israelis andEgyptians after the

Camp David Accords. A professor of MiddleEastern history at Tel Aviv University, Shamirwas founding director of the Israeli AcademicCenter in Cairo in 1982-84 and Israel's ambas-sador to Egypt in 1988-90. He is well-knownfor his efforts to promote unofficial linkagesbetween Egyptian and Israeli intellectuals,political leaders, scholars, g,nd other profession-

m____

Distinguished FellowShimon Shamir

als that have endured for years. During hisfellowship year, Shamir is studying how theserelationships develop, how they strengthenformal peace agreements, and how similarlinkages might promote political reconciliationbetween Israel and its other Arab neighbors.

DIPLOMATIC PERSUASION

Progress toward peaceful outcomes oftenrequires a mix of both "carrots" and "sticks."One of America's leading scholars of interna-tional relations and American foreign policy,Alexander George, is building on his long-timework in diplomacy, crisis management, andpolicymaking as a Distinguished Fellow at theInstitute. George is Graham H. Stuart ProfessorEmeritus of International Relations at StanfordUniversity. He is expanding his earlier work in"coercive diplomacy" and the application ofrelated case studies to contemporary issues.

George sees coercive diplomacy as "a strategyfor dealing with someone who's alreadystepped on your toes, not with someone whothreatens to do so. The objective is to get youropponent to desist through persuasion, offeringhim an opportunity to cease his aggressionbefore you're compelled to use force." Georgespeaks of four variants of coercive diplomacy:

Classic ultimatum: The strongest variant, itdemands a specific response from theopponent, within a stipulated period of time,and threatens serious consequences fornoncompliance.

Tacit or implicit ultimatum: When a timelimit is not stated but a sense of urgency forcompliance is otherwise conveyed, it allowsa slightly more adaptable position.

Try-and-see: It conveys a clear demand, butleaves open the time limit and the exactnature of the consequences.

Gradual tightening of the screw: Thisapproach threatens that pressure will begradually stepped up.

George's new monograph, Forceful Persuasion:Coercive Diplomacy as an Alternative to War, isscheduled for publication by the United States

Institute of Peace Press in early 1992. It drawsconclusions for contemporary diplomacy fromsix instances of coercive diplomacy: pre-WorldWar II U.S.Japanese relations; the Laos crisis I1961-62; the Cuban missile crisis; the bombingof Hanoi in 1965; U.S.Nicaragua relations inthe 1980s; and U.S. measures against Libya in1985-86.

Fellow Applies Social EconomicsTheory to Peacemaking

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In awarding a fellowship to renowned economistMancur Olson, professor at the University of Mary-land, the Institute made possible an unusual examination of how to apply principles of economics topromoting peace, a subject not usually in theforefront of economic analyses. Olson has writtentwo seminal books, The Logic of Collective Action:Public Goods and the Theory of Groups and The Rimand Decline of Nations: Economic Growth,Stagflation, and Social Rigidities, and numerous otheworks on topics as diverse as collective security andagriculture. His analyses of societal problems applyunique mixture of thinking on sociology, politicalscience, mathematics, and economics. His work hasbeen translated into at least eleven languages.

The Logic of Collective Action espouses the theorythat members of large groups often have littlemotivation to work for the group's common goodbecause of the relatively minor personal benefit andthe tendency to take advantage of others' efforts by"free-riding." Its publication in 1965 placed Olson ithe forefront of a new field integrating politicalscience and economics, one facet of which is nowknown as "public choice." His reputation led to asubsequent appointment as assistant secretary forsocial indicators in the Department of. Health,Education, and Welfare.

Building upon his earlier work on group formationand evolution, as a Distinguished Fellow Olsonapplied his economic concepts and reasoning to thesources of conflict avoidance and cooperation amonnations. During the Gulf crisis, his expertise on soci,group behavior and economic performance wassought during the national debate on the likelyefficacy of economic sanctions and military actionsagainst Iraq. He was consulted by officials in theexecutive and legislative branches, and his opinionpieces concerning American and internationaloptions in coping with post-war Iraq were publishedin The Wall Street journal, The New York Times, ThiWashington Post, and Newsday.

ARMS CONTROL AND DETERRENCE

The end of the Cold War and subsequent U.S.proposals for significant reduction in tacticalnuclear weapons have virtually eliminated thethreat of a global nuclear exchange involvingthe United States. Yet, there are alarmingtrendsincreasing expenditures on sophisti-cated arms by developing countries, the prolif-eration of chemical and biological weapons,and evidence that several countries haverecently acquired or have the capability todevelop nuclear weapons. Thus, regional armscontrol remains a critical area, to which theInstitute is devoting attention.

ARMS RACES AND ESCALATION

Naval arms control, an important, yet oftenoverlooked, aspect of international securitysystems, is the subject of a project undertakenby Herve Coutau-Bergarie with an Institutegrant to the Center for Comparative PoliticalAnalysis at the University of Bordeaux. Theproject will assess past naval disarmamentnegotiations and the impact of subsequentagreements reached by the parties involved.The merits of negotiating geographic, quantita-tive, and qualitative limits as binding commit-ments will be judged against the treaties'respective verification and enforcement records.The conclusions of the study will be publishedin book form in both English and French andwill contain insights and recommendations forapproaching naval arms control talks inthe future.

aduel Geller of the University of Mississippiused an Institute grant to study the relationshipbetween the possession of nuclear weapons andcrisis escalation. His research results, whichwere published in the June 1990 issue of theJournal of Conflict Resolution, were based on astatistical analysis of 393 militarized disputesthat occurred between 1946 and 1976. Geller'sdata indicate that "in conflicts between nuclearand non-nuclear states the possession of

nuclear weapons has no evident inhibitoryeffect on the escalation propensities of the non-nuclear opponent." In mixed conflict situationsbetween nuclear and non-nuclear powers, thenon-nuclear power tends to act much moreaggressively than does its nuclear rival.

Controlling Arms Proliferation in theThird World

What effects do unchecked acquisitions of arms andmilitary expenditures have on security and stability inThird World countries and regions? What newsecurity risks have arisen in various regions andcountries as a result of the end of the Cold War?What new approaches and strategies might bedeveloped to address the problem? In May 1991Institute Distinguished Fellow Bradford Morseconvened an all-day meeting of a small group ofspecialists on these issues.

Morse has extensive experience in domestic andforeign affairs as a former Member of the U.S. Houseof Representatives, under secretary general of theUnited Nations, and administrator of the UN Devel-opment Program. He is resolved to increase atten-tion to the problem of burgeoning military expendi-tures by developing nations and convened thismeeting to provide the basis for a policy-orientedreport tentatively entitled New Approaches to ArmsControl in the Developing WorldProblems andOpportunities.

One participant in the meeting, Michael Klare,director of the Five College Program in Peace andWorld Security Studies, examined several promisingapproaches to controlling arms proliferation, includ-ing increasing public information about arms tradingthrough voluntary and mandatory reporting ofweapons imports and exports; specifying a technologsupplier cartel to control sales of particular types ofweapons; establishing a regional supplier cartel tocontrol transfers to or within a particular region;negotiating joint agreements between countries in aparticular region to limit their weapons imports:imposing export controls by governments ormultigovernmental bodies; and applying measures tecontrol the international narcotics trade and blackmarket arms sales.

24

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Distinguished Fellow Bradford Morse (fifth around clockwise) leads a seminar on arms control in the ThirdWorld.

BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICALWEAPONS CONTROLS

Vivid pictures of the mass deaths caused bychemical weapons during the Iran Iraq warand the constant threat of their use during the'Gulf crisis put the fear of such unconventionalweapons into the minds of the public world-wide. In 1990, Mark L. Wheelis, of the Depart-ment of Microbiology, University of Californiaat Davi:-, received an Institute grant to analyzepast outbreaks of infective and disease produc-ing agents among humans, animals, and cropssuspected or alleged to be the result of covertchemical or biological weapons use or produc-tion. Wheelis' work also details a proposal for aglobal epidemiological surveillance programundertaken under multinational supervisionthat would identify the source and location ofpotential agents of major outbreaks of biologi-cal and chemical agents as a means to detertheir development for possible use in conflictsituations or terrorist acts.

NUCLEAR NONPROLIFERATION

How can peaceful uses of nuclear energy bepromoted, while its use for weaponry is pre-vented? A global approach to nuclear floe-proliferation emerged with the 1968 N1 ;;,-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and the associatedsystems of .,afeguards administered b" theInternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).With extension of the NPT coming up forreview at a conference in March 1995, and thepossibility that a number of near-nuclearweapon states will not agree to its conditions,the examination of regional alternatives condu-cive to maintaining nonproliferatior is increas-ingly important.

Tariq Rauf, of the Canadian Centre for ArmsControl and Disarmament, is using an Institutegrant to examine regional deterrence dynamics,arms control, and confidence- and security-building measures as they apply to South Asia,the Middle East, Latin America, and South

25

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Ambassador Paul Nitze delivers the keynote addressat a session of the Institute working group on Peaceand Deterrence after the INF Agreement.

Africafour regions with near-nuclear statesthat are unlikely to adhere to the NPT. Theproject involves Canada's principal specialistson nuclear nonproliferation and a number ofother leading strategists. It focuses on thepolicies of the threshold states under study andindicates the types of regional efforts thatwould encourage them to adhere to the NPTand otherwise bolster nonproliferation efforts.

In a similar vein, Jack Barkenbus of the Univer-sity of Tennessee used an Institute grant tocomplete an article entitled "Arms ControlVerification: A Role for the IAEA," in which heconcludes that "the choice is not verification ortrust, but verification to create trust." liebelieves that multilateral treaties should bemonitored or verified by multilateral institu-tions, most logically the IAEA, "which pos-sesses both the legitimacy and the tools toexpand its role from nonproliferation to arms

control verification." The best match of IAEAcapabilities and verification needs would be themonitoring of a fossil fuel production ban.According to Barkenbus, however, the IAEAcould not assume that expanded responsibilitywithout additional financial resources; theagency would also need to dispense with itsother mandate of technical assistance and focusexclusively on the safeguarding function.

DETERRENCE

Military deterrence of inter -state conflict cameunder scrutiny with the agreement onintermediate-range nuclear forces, the STARTTreaty, the prospect of deep reductions ofconventional forces in Europe, the breakup ofthe Soviet Union, and the aggressive interna-tional behavior of some Third World regimes.

An Institute working group on Peace andDeterrence after the Intermediate NuclearForces (INF) Agreement brought togetherleading experts and former officials to addresssuch topics as the assumptions and definitionsof deterrence as a theory, questions about itsconventional and low-intensity applications,the status of nuclear deterrence between theUnited States and the Soviet Union, the role ofdeterrence in preventing regional conflicts andpromoting security, and the legal and ni iralramifications of and possible alternatives todeterrence. The working group held five two-day sessions in I. (:)() and 1991.

To complement the working group's treatmentof longer term doctrinal issues, three sessionsaddressed timely issues raised by rapid changesin perceptions on peace, deterrence, andsecurity in Europe, the Pacific Basin, and theMiddle East.

26

EAST-WEST RELATIONS

The events of 1990 and 1991 have thrown long-standing assumptions about East-West rela-tions into turmoil and cast doubt on the furtherutility of "East-West" as a geographical andpolitical demarcation. The Institute movedrapidly during these two years to apply to thisarea of critical change analysis, research,discussion-generating conferences, and timelypublications. Some activities were highlytopical, such as work en the new Europeansecurity structures, especially. the Conferenceon Cooperation and Security in Europe, andthe fundamental changes in the republics of theformer Soviet Union and Eastern and CentralEurope. Others looked to the past, such as anInstitute-sponsored conference that broughttogether more than two dozen American andSoviet historians to exchange views on lessonsfrom diplomacy, personalities, and publicperceptions of the early Cold War era.

ADAPTING TO NEW EUROPEANSECURITY NEEDS

A promising aspect of the new dynamic ofEuropean security is the growing interest in therelationship between security systems andhuman rightsan interest that has a naturalhome in a heretofore low-visibility institution,the Conference on Security and Cooperation inEurope (CSCE), which came into being with thesigning of the Helsinki Accords in 1975. Signa-tory countries, including all North AtlanticTreaty Organization (NATO) and formerWarsaw Pact members, agreed to honor specificstandards of human rights for people withintheir borders.

The breakup of the Soviet Union and thecollapse of communism in Eastern and CentralEurope have resulted in new roles and chal-lenges for CSCE and its thirty-eight memberstates. Beyond a more vigorous assertion of itshuman rights mandates, it is now being called

upon to provide a framework to addressEuropean security issues. How this organiza-tion can play a positive role in shaping thefuture of Europe's social, political, and securityenvironments is of great interest to the Institute.

One promising project has been undertaken byVojtech Mastny, at the Bologna Center of theJohns Hopkins University (Bologna, Italy), whoused an Institute grant to analyze and docu-ment CSCE's history and its role in the recentchanges in Europe from the period of the 1986Helsinki follow-up conference in Vienna,Austria. His book, The Helsinki Process andReintegration of Europe: Analysis and Documenta-1 ion, 1986-1990, should be completed by early1992.

27

A broader examination of Europe's futureoccurred in a February 1990 seminar led bythree Institute fellows, who, along with otherspecialists, debated a range of alternativesecurity architectures for Europe. Distin-guished Fellow Ambassador Max van derStoelformer minister for foreign affairs andpermanent representative to the United Nationsfor the Netherlandswas examining possiblefuture roles for NATO. Peace Fellow MilanSvec, who had served earlier as deputy chief ofthe Czechoslovakian embassy in Washingtonand as a foreign policy adviser in Prague, wasstudying the decline of Marxist-Leninistideology and related changes in foreign policiesof the Soviet Union and several Eastern Euro-pean countries. Peace Fellow Lily GardnerFeldman, a professor from Tufts University,focused on the European Community (EC) andthe dynamics of European unification.

Van der Stoel addressed the issue of reformingNATO to meet the needs of the "new Europe,"while Svec and Gardner Feldman spoke on thepossibility of expanded security roles for the theEC and CSCE to complement NATO and othersecurity structures. The fellows' presentations

1

Vasil Tupurkovski, Macedonian member of thePresidency of Yugoslavia, speaks about peace andstability in his country at an Institute gathering onthat subject.

"The Current Soviet Crisis"

In anticipation of dramatic, sometimes fast-breakingevents such as the August 1991 attempted coup in theSoviet Union, the Institute convened public work-shops on "The Current Soviet Crisis" to assess theturn of events in the Soviet Union stemming from theupheaval created by the decline of communism andthe breakup of the Soviet empire. One workshop inFebruary 1990 focused on whether the Soviet Unionitself would be the next Communist "domino" to fallto liberalization and democracy. A consensus that itsurely would was articulated by the panelists, severalof whose opinions on the coming character of Sovietdecline were sought after in the months ahead.

A February 1991 workshop was held just after Sovietrepression of Baltic separatism and just before thepopular vote on Gorbachev's resolution to retain theunion. Participants were again in consensus inasserting that the repression of Latvia, Estonia, andLithuania was half-hearted, though sporadicallybrutal, and a sign of the growing weakness ratherthan revived strength of Soviet conservatives. Theyalso held that the resolution, even if widely supported(as it turned out to be), would be the first of a seriesof insufficient initiatives on the part of the center topreserve the union. Participants recognized a trendthat culminated in August 1991 of increasingly futileattempts to revive "the union that failed."

at the seminarrevised to consider the currentconflict in Yugoslavia and the August 1991Soviet coupwill be published by the Institutein a volume tentatively entitled Promoting Peacein Post-Cold War Europe: European Views on theRoles of NATO, CSCE, and the EC.

Study Group on Prospects forConflict or Peace in Eastern andCentral Europe

As the countries of Eastern and Central Europeregained their independence from Soviethegemony, the specter of instability hung overthese emerging democracies. If the Westwould welcome the adoption of democraticpractices and market economics, it must do soactively. The national values of the UnitedStatesfreedom and justice, equality andeconomic opportunityand its unexpectedinfluence in the region confer particular respon-sibilities upon it. These were some of theconclusions from the Institute's report on a1989-90 study group on Eastern and CentralEurope conducted by the Institute in coopera-tion with the U.S. Department of State, compris-ing more than fifty American scholars, diplo-mats and policymakers, and other experts, aswell as people from the region with intimateknowledge of the changing political situationthere. The group met half a dozen times fromOctober 1989 to January 1990 to assess condi-tions, as they stood then, well enough to foreseepossible conflicts over the next three to fiveyears, and to draw implications for U.S. policyoptions.

40 28

Identifying Yugoslavia as the country mostendangered by internal ethnic strife, membersof the study group cautioned against expectingthat stability there could be quickly or easilyachievedas events in Yugoslavia and else-where have subsequently demonstrated. Thestudy group's final report said it was importantfor the United States to urge these societies toimplement change and majority rule with anequal enthusiasm for the rule of law, govern-ment accountability to citizens, constitutional-ism, individual rights, pluralism, and represen-

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Soviet and American participants in the Origins of the Cold War conference at a National Press Club session.

tative institutions. Where ethnic hatreds andnationalism resurge, the United States must beprepared to help by acknowledging the deep-seated nature of these old enmities, supportingmultilateral mediation efforts where it cannotact directly, and continuing to link humanrights performance to policy decisions.

EARLY LINKAGES WITH "NEWTHINKERS" IN THE SOVIETUNION

In 1992, the world may already be accustomedto open and honest dealings with officials inMoscow and other former Soviet republics. In1989, however, when the Institute began arelationship with the Research CoordinationCenter of the Soviet Foreign Ministry, there wasonly a glimmer of the fundamental changes thatwould transform the Soviet Union two yearslater. Then Foreign Affairs Minister EduardShevardnadze had established the Center toinject "new thinking" into Soviet foreign policythrough, among other things, a more accuratc,and honest interpretation of Soviet foreign

policy history and informal and formal dia-logues among Soviet diplomats, scholars, andinternational experts in similar areas.

Conference on the Origins of theCold War

Through the good offices of Institute Boardmember and assistant secretary of state forhuman rights and humanitarian affairs RichardSchifter, officials at the Center expressedinterest in cooperating with the Institute inseveral areas. One proposal was for a jointexamination of the early Cold War perioddesigned to dispel historical misperceptionsabout the crucial period of 1945-50 alld to buildmore open and frank relationships amongAmerican and Soviet scholars and institutionsconcerned with the general questions of EastWest relations. The result was conferences inJune and July of 1990 in Moscow and Washing-ton, sponsored by the Institute and the Center,at which more than two dozen American andSoviet scholars and senior officials exchangeddiffering interpretations of lessons from diplo-

29 4Arrii C Y ii.VAILABLE

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Origins of the Cold War conference participants (from left to right), Konstantin Pleshakov, Igor Orlik, CaddisSmith, and Vladimir Sokolov.

macy, personalities, and public perceptions ofthe early Cold War period. It was one of thefirst joint efforts to see the origins of the ColdWar in a clear light. (See Chapter IV for a fulllist of participants.)

Discussions were lively, and areas of consensusemerged. For example, there was an agreementof sorts that some type of conflict between theUnited States and the Soviet Union might havebeen inevitable in the postwar years. Althoughthe delegations offered multicausal explana-tions of the shape that the conflict finally took,most conceded Stalin's central role in shapingthe confrontation. The debate was, however,sometimes sharp on specific issuesthediplomacy of Yalta and Potsdam, the policyimplications of President Franklin D.Roosevelt's death, the Soviet imposition ofpliant regimes throughout Eastern and CentralEurope, the Marshall Plan, the postwar Stalinistpurges, and McCarthyism among them.

Interest in the conferences was high amongofficials in both governments. In Moscow,Foreign Minister Shevardnadze was briefed on

Highlights from Origins of the Cold WarConference

MoscowThree days of discussions among participantsMeeting with Foreign Minister EduardShevardnadzeMeeting with Presidential Counselor EvgeniiPrimakovPress conferences at the Novosti Press Agency andthe U.S. Embassy

30

WashingtonTwo days of discussions among participantsMeeting with Acting Secretary of State LawrenceEaglebururBriefing at the National Archives hosted byArchivist of the United States Donald WilsonVisit to the Library of Congress hosted by Librarianof Congress James BillingtonPress conference at the National Press Club(broadcast on C-SPAN television)Luncheon on Capitol Hill hosted by The Center forDemocracyAddresses by Ambassador Paul H. Nitze and formerSecretary of Defense Clark Clifford

42

The Novikov Telegram

Among the most interesting Soviet Foreign Ministrydocuments to be released is the so-called "NovikovTelegram" of 1946. Written by Niko lai Novikov, thenambassador to the United States, and transmitted toMoscow in September 1946, the cable has beencompared with the well-known "long telegram" sentby U.S. Ambassador George F. Kennan to Washingtonin February of that year.

When, in the course of the Origins of the Cold Warconferences, Soviet officials first disclosed theexistence of the Novikov telegram, it was obviousthat, although comparable in length and timing, itotherwise differed substantially from the Kennantelegram. The latter is a personal analysis of the basiccharacter of a regime, while the Novikov document isan assessment of U.S. policy in the postwar periodwritten as if it were going to be passed directly toSoviet propagandists for immediate use.

The Novikov telegram was later published by theSoviet Foreign Ministry in its journal Vestnik, inwhose historical section the secret NaziSovietdocuments of 1939 were revealed. The Institutepublished the first translation into English, along withthe Kennan telegram and a cable sent from FrankRoberts, chargé d'affaires of the British embassy inMoscow, to the Foreign Office in London, in avolume entitled, Origins of the Cold War: TheKennan, Novikov, and Roberts 'Long Telegrams' of1946.

The collection of all three telegrams in one volumeprovides a useful reference piece for historians,students, and others interested in the evolution ofU.S.Soviet relations after World War II, a relation-ship that dominated virtually every aspect of interna-tional affairs for forty years. The publication hasbeen adopted for use in courses at colleges anduniversities across the country.

the conference by both delegations and praisedthe exercise as an essential step in the evolutionof a new Soviet view of history and the rest ofthe world. Acting Secretary of State LawrenceEagleburger had a similar meeting with bothdelegations in Washington.

Another major purpose of the project was togenerate new U.S. and Soviet scholarship on thedecisive events from 1945 to 1950 that trans-formed the relationship from wartime allies tosuperpower antagonists. The conferences wereconducted at the same time as a debate amongSoviet officials about instituting open andformal procedures for declassifying and releas-ing documents in the Soviet Foreign Ministry

archives. Access to even innocuous Sovietrecords was virtually closed, and there was nolegal basis for the release of governmentrecords. The ground-breaking nature of theconferences was apparent when Soviet partici-pants were granted special access to materialsin the files of the Foreign Ministry. Subse-quently, the Soviet parliament, with MinisterShevardnadze's strong support, passed aliberalization decree that promised increasedaccess to other Soviet scholars and to Americanscholars. Perhaps this is the end of whatconference participant Gaddis Smith, LamedProfessor of History at Yale University, called"diplomatic history of the most parochial sort,the history of one hand clapping."

31 A 1

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONSAND INTERNATIONAL LAW

The rejuvenation of the United Nation's poten-tial to contribute to international peace andcooperation was an important by-product of theend of the Cold War. With the major powersagreeing more than disagreeing about regionalconflicts and the UN Security Council assumingmore of a leadership role, as evidenced by itscommitment to reverse the Iraqi occupation ofKuwait and to support the dispatch of peace-keeping forces to conflict areas around theworld, multinational efforts in peacemakingwill likely continue to grow in importance.Such efforts must be grounded in legal preceptsand processes of an international systemthat does not tolerate aggression and thatprovides states with recourse to settle conflictswithout violence.

aUN peacekeeping forces on duty in Cyprus.

AL

Institute projects are addressing several impor-tant areas, including ways to expand the overalleffectiveness of the UN, especially its peace-making and peacekeeping functions, and howto strenghten the international legal system torespond to the challenges of increasinglycomplex relationships and potential conflictsamong peoples and states.

STRENGTHENING THE UNITEDNATIONS

Increased effectiveness of the UN role inpeacekeeping, arbitration, and human rightsprotection was the subject of a grant to theCenter for UN Reform Education and the

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UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold conferswith military advisor Indar Rikhye in 1960.

World Federalist Association. The author of asubsequent monograph, Joseph Preston Baratta,concluded that UN troops should engage otherforces only in exceptional circumstances, suchas self-defense, and should continue to prevailby relying on their political and legal standingand international endorsement of their pres-ence. The monograph also argues that apermanent standby peacekeeping force isimpractical, but that provisions should be madefor the development of peacekeeping reservesin national armed forces of UN members. Thedeployment of a UN peacekeeping force shouldbe accompanied by mandatory negotiationsbetween the disputing parties, under thesponsorship of the secretary general, accordingto Baratta. He adds that peacekeeping forcescan also be used effectively for more than theirtraditional role of supervising cease-fires,including reestablishment of law and orderafter cessation of conflicts and supervision ofelections and referenda.

The United Nations Association USA used anInstitute grant to convene a conference ofJapanese and American scholars and officials todiscuss the current and future role of Japan in

An Expert Speaks on Peacekeeping

Few persons know more about UN peacekeepingthan Maj. Gen. (Ret.) Indar lit Rikhye, a VisitingDistinguished Fellow at the Institute. General Rikhywas military adviser to Secretaries-General DagHammarskjold and U Thant and participated in UNpeacekeeping missions in the Congo, Cuba, theDominican Republic, Gaza, Egypt, West Iran, Cypru,Yemen, and IsraelJordan. His fellowship was aimetat distilling his extensive experience in writing andthrough participation in several Institute study groutand conferences.

During an interview by the Institute's Journal in Jun1991, General Rikhye was asked what major lessonshe had learned from his own experience. Heresponded:

The major problems in my experience comedown to two. First, the command andcontrol situation must be properly empow-ered, very strong, and under tough control.In the Congo something like forty countrieswere involved, and, as a member of the highcommand, I'd be the first to say that thesituation was never satisfactory. In a sense,we were still moving from the "observer"concept toward the peacekeeping concept,and the typical senior UN military officerused for observer missions was not alwaysqualified for operational command oftroops.

The second lesson comes out of the first."Maintaining law and order" can becomesomething not easily distinguishable fromcombat, as it did in the Congo when all sortsof groups factionalized and went after oneanother. UN peacekeeping troops must beprepared, in civil war situations, to carry outpolicing responsibilitiesthat is a polite wayof saying they must be willing to use forcewhen necessary....

As a fellow, General Rikhye continued work on abook delineating ways to make the role of theSecurity Council in UN peacekeeping operationsmore effective, drawing largely on his firsthandexperience. He also directed a study group onpeacekeeping lessons from the Persian Gulf, acomponent of the Institute's special Middle Eastinitiative, and participated in a pilot training progranfor leaders of peacekeeping contingents and inseveral negotiation simulations.

33

)

the UN. Participants concluded that, givenJapan's emerging domestic consensus for amore visible international political role, theinternational community should be preparedfor Japan to play a broader leadership role inthe UN, short of a permanent seat on theSecurity Council. The conferees agreed that ifthe UN does not recognize Japan's role as amajor economic and political player, it risksTokyo's seeking alternate fora and mechanismsfor asserting itself and addressing internationalissues. Given that Japan's principal interest isin economic and social issues, Japan has anopportunity to play a leadership role in mitigat-ing the economic sources of regional conflictsthrough increased financial support for UNeconomic and social development activities.

INTERNATIONAL LAW

During his year as a Peace Fellow at the Insti-tute, Ibrahim Wani produced the main portionsof a book addressing the question of recoursE. tothe International Court of Justice in resolvinginternational disputes. A former legal officerfor the Uganda Mission to the UN, Wani is anassistant professor of international law at theSchool of Law of the University of Missouri,Kansas City. Among other things, his studyfound that Third World nations are using thecourt more frequently than before, especially tosettle disputes among themselves. Wani's bookis one of the first to look closely at the renewedviability of the court as a key venue for disputeresolution in the post-Cold War era. While

noting that some international disputes are bestaddressed through international politicalprocesses, Wani is also identifying the sorts ofissues for which the court could be particularlyeffective.

Professor Michael Reisman of Yale Law School,drawing on material from his work with theInstitute's working group on Low-IntensityConflict, prepared a 206-page paper on "CovertUses of Coercion Abroad: Practices, Contexts,and Policies in International and AmericanLaw." Reisman offered several suggestions forthe U.S. government's conduct of covertoperations. Among them are the following:

Try to accomplish overtly what subordinatespropose to do covertly.

Never say the government will never dothings covertly.

An act accomplished covertly should beovertly lawful.When the educative or informative functionof a strategy is important, the ultimateimplementation of the strategy should not becovert.In contemplating any covert operation,assume that it will become public knowledgemuch sooner than the government wouldlike.

34

Reisman's views were presented orally and indraft form to the Institute's working group andhave since been expanded. His work will bepublished by Yale University Press.

4

MIL

DEMOCRACY AND DOMESTIC GOVERNANCE

4

*by

An activist in the Chinese democracy movement faces army tanks during demonstrations in Beijing in 1989.

At few times in modern history has the notionof the rule of law and participatory self-governance been more timely. Consequently,never has the need been greater to understandthe relationship between the nature of coun-tries' political systems and their internationalbehavior and what lessons history offers theUnited States and other nations seeking topromote democracy around the world.

Some of the Institute's activities in the area ofrule of law and democracy building are ex-plained in Chapter I. Following are a numberof other research projects that have explored,among many things, the correlation betweendemocracies and peace on the one hand and theuse of aggressive force on the other; the transi-tion from authoritarian to democratic regimes;

35

the interrelationships of peace, democracy, andeconomic development; and the prospects fordemocracy as a factor in peaceful outcomes ofmodern conflicts.

DEMOCRACY AND PEACE

The Institute's work in this area examines thenexus between democratic governance andpeace, focusing on practical ways to applydemocracy in key problem areas around theworld.

One example is the work of Robert Rothstein,professor of political science at Colgate Univer-sity. With an Institute grant to study democra-tization in the Third World, he wrote a paper

a.souigiLVC

",

41.

Institute grantee Diane E. Davis is examining politicalchange in Mexico.

entitled "Weak Democracy and the Prospectsfor Peace and Prosperity in the Third World,"which he presented at an Institute conferenceon Conflict Resolution in the Post-Cold WarThird World. He argues that the relationshipbetween democracy and peace is not alwaysobvious:

It is perhaps equally probable ... thatweak democracies in a difficult envi-ronment may generate more domesticand international conflict, that theymay not produce greater prosperity orgreater equity or greater support forU.S. values or interests, and that theymay or may not be stable .... A gooddeal of the uncertainty about likelyresults has to do with the obvious factthat regime-type is only one factoramong many that affect behavior.Nevertheless, it is worth reemphasizingthat the failures of (most) authoritarianregimes have become so apparent thatsupport for weak democracies thatproduce uncertain outcomes may stillbe justified or preferableif donecautiously with a sense of the risks andthe responsibilities.

Rothstein was later selected as a Peace Fellow towork on a book about why democracies havesurvived and stabilized in certain developingcountries, such as Costa Rica, India, andJamaica, but not in others.

The struggle between the middle class and theruling party over the character of democraticinstitutions has also brough politiccu change toMexico. A study undertaken by Diane E. Daviswith an Institute grant to the New School forSocial Research in New York explores theMexican middle class as the pivotal group thatmay well determine the country's politicalfuture in terms of its maturing democracy, ruleof law, and international policies.

If democratic regimes are more likely to actwithin the boundaries of accepted internationalbehavior than those whose power is derivedfrom intimidation and fear, the same can besaid of their domestic behavior. One Institutegrantee, Rudolph J. Rummel of the Universityof Hawaii, has carried out extensive research onviolence used by regimes against their owncitizens, including a systematic analysis ofcauses and conditions and a wide-rangingsurvey of genocide and mass killings. In thiscentury, according to Rummel, three times asmany people have been killed in government-ordered killings as in international, revolution-ary, and guerrilla wars. The first book pro-duced as part of Rummel's research is LethalPolitics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since1917, in which Rummel estimates that61,911,000 people died at the hands of totalitar-ian regimes in the former Soviet Union.

DEMOCRACY AND ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT

The Institute recognizes that economic growthand development, including the aftermath ofdevastating conflicts and the outcome oftransitions from centrally planned to freemarket economies, can be essential componentsin developing democratic political systems anda more peaceful international system.

36

In the interest of promoting the reconstructionof countries torn by wars, the Overseas Devel-opment Council used an Institute grant toproduce a book, edited by Anthony Lake,entitled After the Wars: Reconstruction in Afghani-stan, Indochina, Central America, Southern Africa,and the Horn of Africa. The book warns the

4u

Peace Fellow Studies Group AutonomyWithin Larger State Entities

How to meet demands by ethnic and regional groutfor a greater degree of self-determination andpolitical control without formal secession has becorone of the critical issues of the post-Cold War era;however, there has been little analysis of actual caseon the topic. The Institute supported a study of botthe potential and the limits of autonomy by PeaceFellow Ruth Lapidoth, professor of law at the HebreUniversity of Jerusalem. Lapidoth's work covers themeaning of autonomy for certain groups or regionswithin a state; the history of autonomy in imperialand colonial territories; modern-day experiences wiforms of autonomy in Eritrea, Sudan, Puerto Rico,Corsica, Spain, Greenland, and Iraq; and the partialar issue of Palestinian autonomy in the West Bank.Her work probes the factors that gave birth toautonomy in the cases studied and possible applica-tions to other conflicts.

Peace Fellows Hurst Hannum and Ruth Lapidoth atsession on self-determination.

superpowers against losing interest in countriesafter conflicts wind down and, in some cases,their military assistance ends. Given that inmany cases countries have had limited eco-nomic development and experience in popularpolitical participation, the authors argue thatthe principal problem is often one of construc-tion rather than reconstruction, and of buildingrather than rebuilding, both politically andeconomically. This requires heavy investmentsin training, transportation systems, resettlementof refugees, agricultural development, and ruralpublic health. The authors recommend that theWorld Bank and the International Monetary

37

Fund push their economic stabilization pro-grams with caution and sensitivity. Theyfurther advocate that funds from scaled-dowrmilitary assistance by the superpowers be usefor economic assistance in war-devastatedregions. In addition, a broader aid effort coulcbe organized in the form of an InternationalFund for Reconstruction, which could becombined with debt relief. Receipt of such aidcould reasonably be conditioned on continue(adherence to peace agreements, the observantof human rights, and maintenance of certainstandards of fiscal integrity.

RELIGION, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND NONVIOLENCE

Pluralistic societies, even those firmly rooted indemocratic traditions, face great challenges inprotecting individual and collective libertiesamong populations with different ethnicidentities, religious beliefs, and political orienta-tion. Regimes that aeny broad political partici-pation often suppress such liberties and useother forms of intimidation to maintain theirposition of power. No examination of ways tocreate a peaceful world is complete withoutconsidering religion, protection and denial ofhuman rights, and nonviolent thought.

RELIGIOUS ATTITUDESTOWARD WAR AND PEACE

In order to compare Western and Islamicreligious and legal attitudes toward war andpeace, James Turner Johnson of Rutgers Univer-sity and John Kelsay of Florida State Universityconvened a series of seminars with Institutegrant support. The seminar participants focusedon the relation of religious ideology to interna-tional conflict and on the possibilities forlimiting armed conflict provided by the "justwar" tradition in the West and by Islamicreligious and legal thought. In an editedvolume of the proceedings, Turner and Kelsayfound that "the traditions of the Islamic worldand those of Western culture share concernsthat can be classified within the categories ofjust war [doctrine]." They discovered strikingparallels in thinking on who may legitimatelyinitiate hostilities and how they may be con-tained and controlled. There is even similarthinking developed during the formative stagesof each tradition, such as favoring the use offorce for extending the faith. Both traditions,with time, came to limit resort to arms todefensive purposes, but only in the Westwas force eventually disassociated from pro-moting religion.

RELIGION AND NATIONALISM

In 1990, as its first major effort to examine therole of religion in international conflict, theInstitute initiated a study of religious or otherforms of intolerance as sources of social andpolitical conflict. The initiative is entitled theworking group on Religion, Ideology, andPeace. The twenty-member working group ofacademics, international legal and human rightsexperts, and religious practitioners and repre-sentatives are contributing to the study, whichis based on conferences focusing on religionand nationalism in Ukraine, Sri Lanka, Leba-non, Sudan, Nigeria, Tibet, and Israel. Theworking group, together with invited speakers,special guests, area experts, and interestedmembers of the public, participate in thesessions, providing informed comment anddiscussion for each of the cases studied. (Formembers of the working group and otherparticipants, see Chapter IV.)

The United Nation's "Declaration on theElimination of All Forms of Intolerance and ofDiscrimination Based on Religion or Belief"adopted by the UN General Assembly inNovember 1981provides the basis for thestudy. In its preamble, the UN declarationstates that "the disregard and infringement ofhuman rights and fundamental freedoms ofthought, conscience, religion or whatever belief,have brought.. .wars and great suffering tomankind." It further declares that the GeneralAssembly is "convinced that freedom ofreligion and belief should... contribute to theattainment of the goals of world peace, socialjustice and friendship among peoples." Thedeclaration clearly states that all forms of basicbelief, not just religious belief, should beexplicitly protected, and that people should notbe punished or discriminated against on thebasis of their beliefs--whether or not thosebeliefs have their basis in religion.

38 5 1")

r

- I I 'Cu

Participants in the Institute working group on religionand nationalism (from left to right) Elliot Sperling, MarkJuergensmeyer, and John Kelsay.

With the UN document as its guide, the work-ing group is examining:

How and why certain religious and similarbeliefs create or contribute to hostility andconflict; and

How and why they cause discriminationand persecution.

In addition, the study will address the pros-pects and techniques for modifying and amelio-rating conflicts that involve religious andsimilar loyalties and commitments, asking:

How stable arrangements of mutual respectand forbearance occur; and

What resourceswithin and outside oftraditions of beliefencourage "peacefulpluralism," thereby preventing differences inbasic outlook from leading to mistreatment,abuse, and violence.

By the close of fiscal year 1991, individualconferences on Ukraine, Sri Lanka, and Leba-non had been conducted. Treatment of Nigeria,Sudan, Tibet, and Israel is scheduled in fiscalyear 1992. Each event will result in a report onthe country or area covered. The first report,Ukraine: Legacy of Intolerance, by Institute SeniorScholar David Little, was published by theInstitute in December 1991. It concluded thatage-old religious and ethnic divisions inUkraine threaten to undermine public aspira-tions for a pluralistic society. The report arguesthat ameliorating the hostility among theadherents of three prominent faithsRussianOrthodox, Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox,

and Ukrainian Catholicis essential for anorderly transition to an independent anddemocratic society. Nevertheless, whileentrenched prejudices and hostilities poseserious obstacles, encouraging efforts on thepart of religious and political leaders givepromise of creating a new Ukrainian politicalsystem that respects religious diversity.

HUMAN RIGHTS/HUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS

After World War II, migrant workers fromSouthern Europe and Northern Africa came ingreat numbers to Belgium, the Federal Republicof Germany, France, The Netherlands, Sweden,and Switzerland. The degree to which migrantgroups were successfully assimilated affectedgreatly the political stability of these coun-triesthen and now. Supported by an Institutegrant, Rosemarie Rogers of Tufts University isstudying the patterns and extent of the assimi-lation of migrants and refugees in these six hostcountries as a prelude to analyzing the currentpotential for ethnic conflict in each. Attentionwill also be given to strategies for conflictresolution, enhancing migrants' integration intothe host countries, and voluntary returns.

Nonviolence and Society

A veteran of the civil rights movement, anti-VietnamWar activities, disarmament efforts, and the anti-apartheid movement, Peace Fellow Walter Wink hasbeen a member of the faculty of Auburn TheologicalSeminary since 1975. His work as a Biblical scholarhas focused on the relationship between traditionalreligious concerns and contemporary social, political,and economic issues.

As a Peace Fellow, Wink has considered the Biblicalfoundations of a nonviolent philosophy, the effective-ness of nonviolent methods in social change, religiouscommunities' contributions to social change, and thespiritual disciplines necessary to become a nonviolentperson. This work will be incorporated into the thirdvolume of a trilogy entitled Engaging the Powers:Discernment and Resistance in a World of Domina-tion. Wink has returned to teaching and continues toconduct workshops with ministers on the scripturalroots of nonviolence.

39

5

REGIONAL AND NATIONAL CONFLICTSAND REGIONAL SECURITY

The study of conflict in the contemporary worldposes daunting tasks to the policymaker andanalyst alike: How does one categorize conflictin a manageable way that lends itself to effec-tive analysis?

One way is to use many different approaches toexamine conflicts, and that is what the Institutedid in convening a conference on ConflictResolution in the Post-Cold War Third World,held in 1990 in Washington, D.C. More thanninety experts on various aspects of regionalconflicts, most of whom were grantees, fellows,or research project participants, and more than200 audience participants gathered for the threeday conference. Some of the presentationsmade at the event will appear in a forthcomingInstitute volume. (For a schedule of the confer-ence, see Chapter IV.)

Another, far more common, way is to examinespecific conflicts in various regions of theworld, while acknowledging that such conflictsare often intertwined. The Institute's MiddleEast-related activities are highlighted in Chap-ter I. Brief descriptions of representativeInstitute activities in four other regionsAfrica,South and East Asia, and Latin Americafollow in this chapter. During the periodunder review, the Institute's ongoing interest inthe role that regional organizations can play increating more stability and peace receivedincreasing attention.

AFRICA

The evolution of change in southern Africasends messages of both great hope and caution.The political transition that occurred a decadeago in Zimbabwe has parallels and dissimilari-ties to that currently under way in South Africa.With Institute grant support, Professor JamesKamusikiri of California State PolytechnicUniversity at Pomona is writing a book on whatlessons learned from the Zimbabwe experience

, ;.

3

0,1)Ofr itt\

Representative Stephen Solarz delivers the keynoteaddress, "Cambodia: Peace at Last?," at conference onConflict Resolution in the Post-Cold War Third World.

can be applied to the broadening politicalparticipation in South Africa. Of particularinterest to Kamusikiri is the role of externalmediators in the Zimbabwe case andconsideration of the potential value of externalinvolvement of a similar kind in South Africanegotiations.

Armed conflict has plagued the Horn of Af-ricaEthiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, and Sudanfor a longer period and in a more devastatingfashion than any other part of Africa. ProfessorChristopher Mitchell of George Mason Univer-sity used an Institute grant to analyze theconflict resolution initiatives undertaken inconflicts involving the peoples of Ethiopia,Eritrea, Somalia, and Sudan from 1960 to 1989.In an article entitled "Intra-National Mediation:Person or Process? Alternative Models of ThirdParty Involvement in Protracted InternalConflicts," he assesses mediation processes andthen applies his analysis to two Sudanese cases.

Mitchell concludes that the notion that somemediation efforts are successful and othersunsuccessful is misleading, as many so-calledfailed efforts often make important contribu-tions to the total process. The "successful"

405 2

effort is usually a culmination of the process towhich several actors have contributed, includ-ing those involved in apparent "failures."Mitchell observes that, generally, mediationprocesses have proceeded on "an almost totallyad hoc basis" depending more on chance thanon careful planning by an actor orchestratingthe total process. He concludes that this lack ofplanning and coordination, what he calls"randomness," helps explain the low successrate of most mediation initiatives in the Hornof Africa.

In writing a book entitled The Horn of Africa:From War to Peace (MacMillan 1991), PaulHenze, a former U.S. diplomat, used an Insti-tute grant to focus on ingredients to bring peaceto the Horn. "It is clear from the history of thepast decade that no government in Khartoumcan impose its will on southern Sudan; nogovernment in Addis Ababa can subdue Eritreaor Tigre by force; no government in Mogadishucan compel the inhabitants of northern Somaliato follow its dictates." New leaders in the Hornmust try to convince alienated regions andethnic groups that they can benefit fromremaining part of the larger country. To do so,leaders may have to concede de facto autonomyto disaffected regions and adopt principles offederalism as the basis for national survival.

Thomas Akhijbe Imobighe, commissioner of theNational Boundary Commission in his nativeNigeria, has significant firsthand knowledge of

Rebel forces capture a government tank duringfighting in Mogadishu, Somalia.

conflicts in Africa, having devoted his effortsthe Commission to managing conflicts amongcommunities in Nigeria and teaching politicalscience at Bendal State University. As anInstitute Peace Fellow, he is comparing theOrganization of African Unity (OAU) with theOrganization of American States (OAS) asregional actors that might be more assertive aluseful in resolving intractable regional dis-putes. Although both organizations haveunique histories and structures, the experienc(of each should provide useful insights forregional peacemaking in other parts of theworld.

SOUTH ASIA

Vernon Mendis was Sri Lanka's high commis-sioner to Canada and later to the UnitedKingdom, ambassador to France, and directorgeneral of the Ministry of External Affairs. Asan Institute Peace Fellow, he studied the SoutlAsian Association for Regional Conflict(SAARC), one of the newest and least knownregional organizations. Mendis believes thatwith maturation and an enhanced reputationthat only comes with time, SAARC can be auseful forum to promote cooperation amongIndia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, SiLanka, and the Maldive Islands. Cooperationon environmental, scientific, health, andeconomic matters, says Mendis, can pave theway for successes on the political front, including easing of serious political tensions andpotential military flash points among memberUnder his fellowship, Mendis completed amonograph, SAARC: Origins, Organisation, mic,Prospects, which was published by the IndianOcean Centre for Peace Studies in Australia.

EAST ASIA

The Pacific Forum of the Center for Strategicand International Studies used an Institutegrant to convene a workshop of scholars andpolicy analysts from twenty research institutesin the Asia-Pacific region to assess the emerg-ing social, economic, security, and politicaltrends in the region and to develop an agendafor collaborative research. Economics was

41 r-.) it)

Experts Gather for Sessionson Capitol Hill

Security issues in Northeast Asia, particularly the newbalance created by diminished Soviet influence, is thesubject of a grant project conducted by the NationalBureau of Asian and Soviet Research in Seattle. Theproject's results were brought directly to members ofCongress and their staffs, and other experts in thefield in a presentation held in the Dirksen SenateOffice Building in September 1991. In the aftermathof the attempted August coup in Moscow, HerbertEllison and Donald Hellmann of the National Bureauaddressed JapaneseSoviet relations and concludedthat

Management of SovietAsian relations is rapidlypassing to Russia and the Central Asian republicsbordering that region.

The Russian republic will emerge as Japan'sinterlocutor and will assign much higher priorityto Asian policy than did the former Soviet Union.

The new leadership in Moscow has demonstrateda willingness to settle with Japan on the NorthernIslands issue.

Russian leaders look to Japan as the mostimportant source of foreign investment capitalfor their future development programs

The test for both the United States and Japan will bein finding ways to use their combined resources andpower to help stabilize Russian democracy and toenhance security and prospects for an expandedmarket economy throughout the region.

identified as a priority topic, especially policiesfor securing economic development and growthin the region, with particular attention tocountries such as the Philippines that have hadrelatively limited economic growth. Thisproject demonstrates the Institute's interest inpromoting dialogue and cooperation andminimizing programmatic overlap amonginstitutions with similar interests but differentstrengths.

The Institute also sponsored a two-day confer-ence on Regional Security in the Pacific Basin inMay 1991, just two weeks after PresidentMikhail Gorbachev's visit to Tokyo. Themeeting was part of the Institute's working

group examining deterrence and securityarrangements on a global and regional basis.Speaking at the session were, among others,Richard Solomon, assistant secretary of state forEast Asian and Pacific affairs; TakayukiKimura, deputy chief of mission of the Embassyof Japan in Washington; and Yevheniy V.Afanasyev, chargé d'affaires of the SovietEmbassy in Washington.

While the meeting addressed such centralquestions as the role of China in the new worldorder, Korean unification, and the prospects forcontinued progress toward peace in Indochina,an interesting debate ensued on general secu-rity arrangements in East Asia. The discussionpitted those in favor of regional securitystructures against those who favored broaderinternational involvement. It became clear thatthe states of East Asia are torn between weakerbut more flexible bilateral and regional actionsto enhance security (i.e., providing greaterfreedom and less entangling relationships forindividual states) and stronger but less flexiblearrangements that involve major powers fromoutside the region, such as the United States.

LATIN AMERICA

In parts of Latin America during the pastseveral years, the level of violent conflict hasdeclined and many countries have movedaway from military and authoritarian systems

Elizabeth Shelton, Bureau of East Asian and PacificAffairs, Department of State, and Takayuki Kimura,deputy chief of mission, Embassy of Japan, at confer-ence on Regional Security in the Pacific Basin.

42 54

laextE30k0 CLE"AB eASNASONRES

(From left to right) OAS Secretary General Joao Baena-Soares, Institute Board member Allen Weinstein, andAssistant Secretary General Christopher Thomas participate in a meeting on peacemaking in Latin America andthe Caribbean.

of governance toward democratic rule. TheInstitute sponsored solicited grant competitionson Latin America in both 1990 and 1991 and hasemphasized projects investigating patterns ofconflict resolution and the movement of societ-ies from violence to negotiations, to demobiliza-tion of military forces, and to a combination ofeffective democratic government and social andeconomic development. The Institute's con-cerns also "iclude the role of the military indemocratic societies, general patterns of conflictresolution and particularly those involving theOrganization of American States (OAS) and theUN, and the meaning of regional security forLatin America in a post-Cold War world.

Four countries that confront sustained civilviolenceColombia and Peru in South Americaand El Salvador and Guatemala in CentralAmericahave been of special interest. In oneproject supported by the Institute, the Inter-American Dialogue of the Aspen Institute iscollaborating with the Institute of LatinAmerica and Iberian Studies at ColumbiaUniversity to examine problems of consolidat-ing democratic governance in these fourcountries while combating insurgencies, drugtrafficking, and other violence.

A10

Peru's problems with the violent revolutionaryMaoist movement, Sendero Luminoso, and ElSalvador's prolonged and bitter internal war attimes have seemed insoluble. Peace FellowCynthia McClintock, a professor of politicalscience at George Washington University, iscomparing the experience of these two coun-tries to determine how a government can meetsuch an internal threat and still maintain apolitical system that functions through demo-cratic processes.

McClintock is reviewing the impact of militaryand police actions, health care delivery, andagrarian reform on popular attitudes as well asthe government's effectiveness in winningsupport from critical social groups. She also isconsidering the role of drug trafficking inproviding support for the guerrilla movementin Peru, as well as the effectiveness of govern-ment measures aimed at weakening the revolu-tionary movement, including civilian defense,intelligence gathering, the administration ofjustice, and military training programs.

Efforts at conflict resolution at times do notsucceed, as was the case in Panama followingGeneral Noriega's refusal to accept the results

435 F.;

Institute Session on the OAS andPeacemaking

Given the end of the Cold War and other develop-ments in the Western Hemisphere, how can theOrganization of American States (OAS) strengthen itspeacekeeping role? In March 1990, the Instituteconvened an informal meeting to explore thatquestion. Participants included the secretary-generaland a group of permanent representatives and stafffrom the OAS, U.S. officials, and other experts onLatin America and conflict resolution. The meetingfocused on the OAS' work in Nicaragua in assistingthe demobilization and reintegration of the contras asan example that may be useful in modeling the futurerole of the OAS in conflict resolution.

As explained by OAS Secretary General Joao Baena-Soares and his representative in Managua, SantiagoMurray, the OAS and the UN jointly established the

International Commission of Support and Verificationto oversee the disarming and resettlement of formercontra combatants following the Central AmericanPresidents' peace accords for settlement of conflict inCentral America. The OAS group assumed responsi-bility for providing these returnees with documents,food, shelter, and health care. As the first deadlinefor disarmament passed, only one former combatanthad agreed to hand in his rifle, but after months ofmediation efforts, approximately 20,000 fighters hadcomplied. Returning ex-combatants and other exilesfrom Honduras and Costa Rica, plus their families(both from within and outside Nicaragua), totaled95,000 people. Later, a number of former combat-ants returned to the hills and were ready to resumetheir opposition to the central government. TheNicaraguan government has requested the OAS tomediate between the ex-Contras and itself.

of the Panamanian election in 1989. The Centerfor Strategic and International Studies is usingan Institute grant to determine why efforts ofthe OAS and other third parties, as well asdomestic forces within Panama, to settle theconflict were unsuccessful before the U.S.

44

intervention in December 1989. The Center isalso examining the impact of American militaryactions on the emerging democratizationprocess in Panama and the lessons learned forU.S. policy in support of political transition anddemocratization efforts elsewhere in the world.

SOURCES OF VIOLENCE

What makes the difference between a contest ofinterests that is resolved without violence, andone that is not? Is the difference inherent inethnic or nationalist sentiment? In environmei,-tal or sociological factors? Or is a violentexpression of conflict a choice often dependenton the deliberate manipulation of the emotionsof a people? All these possibilities, and more,may have been at work in one case or anotherin recent years. To advance understanding ofthe factors that foster violence, the Institute hasbeen supporting a variety of investigations.

PSYCHOLOGY AND CONFLICT

Many armed conflicts take place among na-tional and subnational groups striving toestablish political sovereignty in disputedterritories. Powerful psychological and spiri-tual forces often underlie these conflicts.Institute-sponsored research seeks to under-stand how individual emotions are linked togroup processes, a phenomenon not oftenconsidered in general literature.

For example, John Mack, academic director ofthe Center for Psychological Studies in theNuclear Age, professor of psychiatry atHarvard University, and author of a PulitzerPrize-winning biography of T.E. Lawrence, isusing Institute grant support to investigate thepsychological and spiritual roots of national-ism. His work examines how the universalhuman needs of security, self-worth, belonging,and a sense of personal power are shaped anddirected in the political arena; how powerfulemotional forces drive international conflict;and how it is possible to improve people'sability to think for themselves instead of readilyyielding to the manipulations of politicalleaders and the mass media. The main productof the study will be a book, but Dr. Mack'sfindings will also be disseminated throughjournal articles and conference presentations.

45

ETHNIC CONFLICT

Although ethnic conflict is a serious problem inmany places, few areas can match the formerSoviet republics in terms of ethnic rivalries.The implications for peace are considerable,and the need to expand understanding ofconditions in the area is urgent. The Institutehas responded by funding a number ofinquiries.

Supported by an Institute grant, Uri Ra'ananand others at the Institute for the Study ofConflict, Ideology, and Policy at Boston Univer-sity are studying the international and domesticimplications of ethnic conflict and the crisiswithin the former Soviet system. Issues ofnational sovereignty and ethnic autonomy, longsuppressed by imperial or Soviet domination,are urgently complicating the state of affairs inEast Europe and the former Soviet Union. Thestudy's products include simulations, articles,and two books: Soviet Empire: The Challenge of

A Psychologist Looks at Enemy Imaging

At times of national crisis, elites mobilize publicsupport through the sometimes subtle, sometimescrude use of exaggerated national self-images anddemonizing images of the enemy. The images chosenare specific to a given culture, and they conveyvaluable information about that culture's values,attitudes, and belief systems. Peace Scholar NoraFemenia, a practicing clinical psychologist and adoctoral candidate in the conflict resolution programof the Maxwell School of Citizenship and PublicAffairs at Syracuse University, has been studying theimages of self and others propounded by the leadersof Argentina and the United Kingdom during theFalklandsMalvinas War in 1982. Among her areasof concentration are imaging patterns that engenderunreasonable enmity toward the enemy, thusexacerbating conflicts and setting up psychologicalobstacles that must be overcome before seriousefforts at settlements can be concluded.

National and Democratic Movements, and State

and Nation in Multi-Ethnic Societies. In the latterwork, distinguished scholars and practitionersreevaluated the pioneering approaches of KarlRenner and Otto Bauer to the resolution of the"nationalities problem" in the multinationalAustroHungarian Empire for possible applica-tions to contemporary arenas of ethnic conflictin both the developed and developing world.The RennerBauer model was based on the so-called "personality principle, according towhich national rights should be accorded toindividual persons rather thar. exclusively toterritorial groupings." The essential idea isthat, under certain circumstances, nationalitymay be divorced from territorial possession.This, of course, presents a challenge to the"axiom of modern nationalism that everynation must have sovereignty over a specificpiece of real estate." But the authors concludethat the personality principle may present acreative and plausible option for areas wherenational or ethnic groups are too interspersedgeographically to make neat territorialdivisions.

,

The views of twenty-eight experts are found ina book entitled Conflict and Peacemaking inMultiethnic Societies (Lexington Books, 1990),edited by Joseph V. Montville of the ForeignService Institute with support from the Insti-tute. In a chapter entitled "Making ModerationPay," Professor Donald Horowitz of DukeUniversity sets out some constitutional andpolitical options to promote interethnic accom-modation. Building on experiences in Malaysiaand Nigeria, he states that the most importantfeature of democratic elections is to makepoliticians "reciprocally dependent on the votesof members of groups other than their own,"thus creating heterogeneous political constitu-encies. In Nigeria, he notes, the constitutionrequires that successful presidential candidatesreceive minimum proportions of votes in thevarious states. In order to promote morepositive interethnic behavior among groupsseparated territorially, arrangements fordevolution and the creation of one or anotherform of federalism are worth considering,concludes Horowitz.

Ethnic conflict in Yugoslavia was a major topic of a seminar conducted at the Woodrow Wilson InternationalCenter for Scholars and cosponsored by the Institute.

46

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Sri Lankan army troops advance on Tamil rebelpositions.

Violence and Political Systems

Why do some active paramilitary organizationsinvolve themselves in the elective process whileothers shun the arena? Why does any organizationengaged in violence turn to electoral politics?Wrestling with these issues, Institute Peace ScholarCynthia Irvin is examining antisystem organizationstheir structural variations and their effects oninstitutionalized politics. A pivotal experience thatled to her current focus of study was Irvin's witness-ing of a car bomb explosion while in Belfast as afreelance journalist, which motivated her to return tograduate school to explore the politics of ethnicallydivided societies.

Based at the Department of Political Science at DukeUniversity, where she is pursuing her doctorate, Irvinis examining the interactions of antisystem paramili-tary organizations and institutionalized politics in theBasque region in Spain and in Northern Ireland forher dissertation, "Parties Against the State: Paramili-tary Politics in Severely Divided Societies."

POLITICAL VIOLENCE

Although a good deal of work has been doneon the origins of civil wars, little has beendirected at how they endon how people whohave been killing each other in civil war canstop and create a common political system. RoyLicklider, professor of political science atRutgers University, organized a conference onthe topic in March 1990 under an Institutegrant. A revised and edited version of theconference discussions will appear in a forth-coming book, When the Killing Stops: TheAftermath of Civil Wars, to be published by NewYork University Press. The primary purpose ofthe volume is to shed light on factors thatcontribute to the cessation of civil wars and thepossible resulting political outcomes.

The role of the control and exchange of territoryin the causation and settlement of internationaldisputes is the subject of a book by ProfessorGary Goertz of the University of Florida andProfessor Paul F. Diehl of the University ofIllinois entitled Territorial Changes and Interna-tional Conflict. Based upon the analysis of 770cases of territorial changes dating from 1816,the authors assert the importance of territoryquestions and their influence on decisionsregarding the use of military force and thewillingness of states to use such force. Ofparticular interest to the authors are the causesof recurring military conflict. They concludethat the transfer of territory, through peacefulmeans or otherwise, does not necessarily"signal the end of claims over the territoryinvolved, nor does it necessarily mean thatconflict between the two parties to the exchangeis over." They add, "preventing future conflictmay necessitate not acquiring the territory tobegin with, as the benefits of acquiring theterritory may be outweighed by future costs ofconflict in defense of the territory."

CHAPTER IIIREACHING A MULTITUDE OF AUDIENCES

Students in Close Up Foundation activities were reached through Institute-funded programs, as well as presenta-tions by staff and fellows during visits to the Institute.

CONTENTS

Introduction 50 Training for Other Professionals 63Teaching Practitioners 63

Helping Educate Secondary and Postsecondary Expanding Conflict Resolution Skills 64

Teachers and Students 51

National Peace Essay Contest 51Library and Information Services 66

Core Library Collection 66Pioneering Video Series: "BreakingDevelopment of a National System 66the Mold" 53

Grantmaking 54 Publications and Bibliographic Controlof the Literature 67

Reaching the Broader Public 58Oral History Program 68

Outreach 58 Publications 69Media Relations 60 Institute Press 69Educational Film and Video 60 Periodicals 70Civic Education 62 First Books Find Success 70

49

6t)

INTRODUCTION

Every activity of the Institute is an educationalendeavor designed to reach a number ofaudiences. In addition to policymakers andgovernment officials, these targeted audiencesinclude high school teachers and students,college and graduate school students andfaculty, leaders of professional and civic groupsand other nonprofit organizations, journalists,and other foreign affairs practitioners, observ-ers, and scholars.

Projects described in Chapters I and II aredesigned with these audiences in mind.Research-oriented grants, fellowships, and in-house projects are conceived and executed withan array of dissemination devices, includingpublic eventslectures, briefings, seminars,and conferences; publicationsspecial reports,articles, monographs, and books; and otherforms of communication and dissemination.

This chapter focuses on educational activitiesspecifically aimed at several of these keyaudiencesstudents, teachers, other profes-sionals, and the general public.

Teachers and students benefit from grantssupporting in-service teacher training, curricu-lum and materials development, and Institute-

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directed projects, including the National PeaceEssay Contest and Breaking the Molda five-part educational video project. Civic educationreceives a boost from grants supporting devel-opment of printed materials and video projects,as well as an array of outi,-?ach activities.Journalists and electronic media come to theInstitute for information and assistance. Con-flict-resolution experts use Institute support toinstruct others on the "front line" in the skills ofpeacemaking and resolving conflicts withoutviolence.

All these audiences are served by the Institute'spublications program, which was advanced in1991 by the inauguration of the United StatesInstitute of Peace Press. In addition, theInstitute's library program serves visitors aswell as patrons in other libraries across thecountry through state-of-the-art computerlinkages and bibliographic services.

Maximizing resources and collaborativeprojects with a great multiplier potential areamong the many means by which the Institutewill undertake its mission to help the Americanpeople understand the increasingly complexnature of peacemaking and peacebuilding.

HELPING EDUCATE SECONDARY AND POSTSECONDARYTEACHERS AND STUDENTS

Before teachers can teach others about subjectsas complex as peace and conflict resolution,they must have the necessary tools at theirdisposal. First, they must have the academictraining required to present a clear, comprehen-sive picture of the historical, political, andsocioeconomic issues underlying conflict andthe search for peace. Second, they must havethe educational resources and technologiesrequired to enhance their students' learningand reinforce opportunities for learning outsidethe classroom. Third, they must be skilled atpresenting subject matter in ways that piqueinterest and encourage participation by theirstudents. In deciding on projects it wouldsupport or undertake, the Institute has soughtto meet these educational requirements.

NATIONAL PEACE ESSAYCONTEST

On June 27, 1991, Nomi Seltzer, a senior fromBrooklyn Technical High School in Brooklyn,New York, became the fourth national winnerof the Institute's annual National Peace EssayContest. Her essay, "Peace of Portsmouth,"focused on President Theodore Roosevelt'ssuccessful efforts in mediating an end to theRussoJapanese War in 1905.

Ms. Seltzer was a student at one of the hun-dreds of high schools that participated in the1990-91 contest. Asked to write about anexample of a significant contribution by theUnited States to prevent or to resolve a violentinternational conflict, and the lessons for futurepeacemaking efforts, students explored suchtopics as the Cuban Missile Crisis, the CampDavid Accords, the Marshall Plan, the Koreanand Vietnam wars, and the 1990-91 PersianGulf crisis.

The National Peace Essay Contest was one ofthe Institute's first public education initiatives,and interest and participation in the contesthave grown significantly since it was launchedin 1987. The contest is designed to:

Promote serious discussion among high schoostudents, their teachers, and national leaderabout international peace;

Complement existing curricula and othescholastic activities; and

Strengthen students' overall writing and analytical skills.

The contest is open to public and private highschool students in the United States and theU.S. Territories and to U.S. citizens attendinghigh schools in other countries. A faculty

Highlights of the 1989-90 Essay Contest Awards ProgramJune 1990Tour of the White House and meeting with FirstLady Barbara Bush.

Discussions with Senator Nancy LandonKassebaum and Representative Dan Glickman.

Briefing at the Legation of Lithuania.

Visit to the United States Institute of Peace andmeeting with Institute officials.

Two-day simulation exercise in which studentsassumed the roles of U.S., Soviet, and Europeanofficials to discuss and negotiate such issues asGerman reunification.

Opportunity to pose questions about changes inEastern Europe to Senator Claiborne Pell, SenateForeign Relations Committee chairman, during thetaping of Current Issuesa talk show on C-SPAN.

51 f`2

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First Lady Barbara Bush greets Institute president Samuel Lewis before speaking to essay contest winners.

4

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Activities of the 1989-90 National Peace Essay Contest awards program. Students meet with Senator NancyLandon Kassebaum (left) and participate in a two-day negotiation simulation exercise (right).

member at most schools normally serves ascoordinator, disseminating information aboutthe contest and encouraging students to partici-pate. All essays submitted must be publishedin an official school publicationa schoolnewspaper or literary magazine, for example.

Submitted essays are judged on their depth ofunderstanding, originality, intellectual andanalytical quality, and style. Students firstcompete at the state levelwhere their work is

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judged by teachers, community, and other civicleaders, and then at the national levelwherefirst-, second-, and third-place national winnersare selected by the Institute's Board of Direc-tors. First-, second-, and third-place state-levelwinners receive college scholarships of $500,$250, and $100, respectively. National winnersreceive a $10,000 college scholarship for firstplace, $5,000 for second, and $3,500 for third.First-place state-level winners also travel toWashington, D.C., for an expense-paid, week-

long program of meetings, seminars, andworkshops designed to enhance students'understanding of issues affectinginternational peace.

The Essay Contest has been applauded byGovernors, Members of Congress, and educa-tors at all levels throughout the country. Now,as the contest enters its fifth year, students arebeing asked to address the 1991-92 essay topic:

Under what circumstances should the UnitedStates use military force in its dealings withother nations? Discuss your views in relationto the Gulf War and to one other conflict ofyour choosing in which the United States hasbeen involved. Use current events and historyto illustrate your answer.

PIONEERING VIDEO SERIES:"BREAKING THE MOLD"

The Institute's Board of Directors recognizes thepower of television in supplementing instruc-tion in high schools, colleges, and communityfora. This recognition was demonstrated by itsdecision to develop a video series on the historyof the Cold War.

In fiscal year 1991, the Board's vision becamereality as production was completed on the fivesegments of a pioneering series, "Breaking theMold: U.S.SovietRelations 1945-1989."Drawing on archivalphotographs, motionpictures and videos,documents, andcontemporaryinterviews, the seriesdescribes in fivedramatic episodes theevents that broughtthe United States andthe Soviet Union intomore than fourdecades of varyingdegrees of belliger-ency. The series then

Profile of a Peace Essay Contest Winner

An eighteen-year old highschool senior fromFairfield, Montana, wonfirst place in his statecompetition and thirdnationally in the 1989-90National Peace EssayContest. He says growingup near missile silos firstsparked his interest ininternational affairs andpeace.

11.Chad P. Lee

"Writing the peace essayand attending the awardsprogram broadened myunderstanding of what

peace really is," says Chad P. Lee, "and helped me toappreciate how complicated the search for peace canbe. But I believe that the benefits of peace are so far-reaching that, whatever I do and wherever I am, I amaffected."

Lee grew up on a 600-acre farm where his family hasraised barley, cattle, and hay for four generations.He is a sophomore in geological engineering atMontana College of Mineral Science and Technology.

"As a citizen of the United States and of the world,"Lee adds, "I plan to continue thinking hard about howpeople like me can be up-to-date about internationalpeace issues and what my role should be." Leeintends to live and work in Montana after graduatingfrom college.

probes the forces that led to the thaw in rela-tions and eventually to the end of the Cold War.The final episode focuses on recent events inEastern Europe.

The five parts of the series are:

"Setting the Mold: 1945-1953," whichexplores how the wartime allies becamepeacetime adversaries as the shadow ofSoviet domination darkened Eastern Europe.

"Cracking the Mold: 1953-1960," whichdescribes the cycle of summit meetingsbetween President Dwight D. Eisenhowerand Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in1955-1959 and their effect on the superpow-ers' relationship.

53 .,F,

Participants in a summer seminar at Alderson-Broaddus College: James Thompson of TennesseeWesleyan College (left), Norman Dann of SUNY-Morrisville (center), and W. Christian Sizemore,president, Alderson-Broaddus College (right).

"Recasting the Mold: 1959-1975," which fo-cuses on two critical junctures in U.S.Sovietrelations: the Cuban missile crisis and theVietnam War.

"Breaking the Mold," which illustrateschanges in U.S.Soviet relations between1977 and 1988, reflecting in part the policiesand leadership styles of Presidents JimmyCarter and Ronald Reagan and Soviet leadersLeonid Brezhnev and Mikhail Gorbachev.

"The Mold Broken," which reports on move-ments toward democracy and freedom inEastern Europe and the end of Soviet domi-nation.

Each video segment contains a prologue andtwo fourteen-minute modules, which can beused together or separately, at the teacher'sdiscretion. A resource materials package forinstructors comes with each video. Thispackage contains a synopsis, suggested discus-sion questions, a recommended reading list,maps, annotated timelines of events, biographi-cal notes, and a user's guide.

The news-like documentaries are aimed atstudents in junior and senior high schools andin college, and they serve as a stimulus forstudents to study the subject further on theirown. The Institute chose the EncyclopaediaBritannica Educational Corporation to promote

and market the series. The first three segmentswere also offered to public television stationsacross the country. (See "Reaching the BroaderPublic.")

GRANTMAKING

Grantmaking plays an important role in theInstitute's education mandate. Following aredescriptions of several grant projects thatillustrate the diversity of the Institute's ap-proach to strengthening classroom instruction.

Educating UnderservedPopulations

In the city of Camden, New Jersey, twenty-three county high schools serve a predomi-nantly black and Hispanic population of 19,460high school-aged students from families with amedian annual income of less than $12,000. In1991, the Foreign Policy Research Institute andCamden County College teamed together withInstitute support to improve the county's highschool instruction in peace and conflict manage-ment through teacher training and curriculumenrichment in the fields of world history,politics, and geography.

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To undertake this project, fellowships are beingawarded to thirty-five teachers in CamdenCounty who will attend nine monthly, one-hour seminars conducted by leading foreignpolicy and regional specialists. Ninety-minuteworkshops, led by Camden County Collegefaculty and interspersed between the seminars,provide background information on the areas ofthe world discussed in the seminars; demon-strate instructional techniques; and helpteachers develop curriculum materials. At theclose of the project, all teachers will havegenerated curriculum modules, and selectedseminars and workshops will have beenvideotaped. The curriculum modules andvideotapes will then be disseminated for use intraining other teachers within the CamdenCounty schools and made available to otherteachers in New Jersey.

6 5

A grant to Alderson- Broaddus College inPhilippi, West Virginia, offers another illustra-tion of how the Institute helps to educatestudents and teachers in areas that do not haveaccess to the kinds of resources found in largemetropolitan areas. With Institute support, thecollege held a two-week summer seminar forforty West Virginia and regional secondary andcollege instructors in 1990 on teaching aboutchallenges to peace posed by conventional,nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. Theseminar also produced an anthology scheduledfor publication in late 1991. A follow-on granthas enabled the college to undertake a newproject on the Arabs and Israelis.

Preparing Teachers to TeachAbout Arms Control

For the nonspecialist, arms control is one of themost complex issues affecting internationalpeace. For those teaching about arms control, itis difficult, and perhaps impossible, to under-stand the complexity of the issues withoutexpert help. Through an Institute grant, theStrom Thurmond Institute of Government andPublic Affairs at Clemson University, in SouthCarolina, designed and conducted a two-weeksummer seminar, Arms Control in a ChangingInternational Environment, to provide preciselythe kind of high-level instruction needed byhigh school social science teachers. The goals ofthe program were to help the teachers becomefamiliar with:

The history of arms control efforts;

The relationships among arms control,deterrence, and national security policy;

Existing arms control agreements andcurrent negotiations to assess the impact ofthese and possible future agreements oninternational peace and conflict manage-ment; and

Future trends in arms control in a changinginternational environment.

The program for teachers began at ClemsonUniversity with a week's study of arms controland deterrence theory. Participants then

traveled to Washington, D.C., to speak withofficials from the Institute, the Department ofDefense (including the On-site InspectionAgency), the Department of State, and the ArnControl and Disarmament Agency, and Mem-bers of Congress. Other highlights of their visiincluded briefings on monitoring and destruc-tion of banned systems, the status of currentarms control negotiations, and the operation athe National Military Command Centercomplete with a demonstration of the World-wide Military Communications Systemanddiscussion on arms control with officials at theSoviet embassy.

An element of the program was participants'preparation of instructional units on interna-tional security and arms control for use in theijclasses and for sharing with other teachers inSouth Carolina.

Adding to Teacher ResourceMaterials

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Early on, the Institute determined that efforts tprovide teachers with instruction and firsthanceducational experiences must be augmented b]high-quality resource materials. The followingdescription of a grant project illustrates theInstitute's efforts in this area.

According to a recent Close Up Foundationsurvey of teachers, there is an acute gap inmaterials for high school-level courses on peacand security issues. At the time of the survey,91 percent of the respondents reported that theacademic inadequacy and one-sidedness ofmost supplemental materials left them withlittle to draw from other than magazines andnewspaper articles. What the teachers wantedwere balanced, high-quality materials featuringa wide variety of activities from which theycould make selections to meet their specificneeds.

With an Institute grant, the Close Up Founda-tion took a three-pronged approach to improv-ing teaching of peace and related issues in highschool classrooms: a one-week summer insti-tute for teachers to develop classroom curricula

"Perspectives on Peace" TelevisionPrograms

Perspectives on Peace

Eye on the Soviet Union

The Human Condition: Poverty and Peace

The Weapons of War

Love Thy Neighbor: Religious and CulturalConflicts

Democracy: The Road to Peace?

The Global Environment

The World Economy

Statecraft: The Art of Peace

People to People

a ten-part educational television series; and ateacher resource book. Details about the videoand resource book components follow.

The Close Up Foundation's television series,"Perspectives on Peace," consists of ten pro-grams that were aired on C-SPAN television.Each program features a panel of experts whogive brief presentations on a selected topic andthen answer questions from a studio audienceof approximately 100 secondary school educa-tors from across the country. Because pro-grams were aired on C-SPAN, they were alsoavailable in millions of homes in the UnitedStates and its territories, as well as schools in allfifty states.

Close Up also produced a teacher resource bookbuilding on the ideas presented in the "Perspec-tives on Peace" series, with chapters and topicsorganized to correspond with the programs. Itincludes student handouts; Gorbachev'sstatement, How We See the World Today; a quizon hunger; a statement about aid to developingnations; and an article on pollution in theDanube. Other elements include instructionalstrategies to motivate students and lists ofperiodicals, journals, books, and organizatic.nsthrough which teachers can locate additionalinformation. The videos and resource book areavailable for purchase from Close Up.

Computer-Simulated NegotiationTraining for High School Students

The real-world challenges of internationalnegotiations and intercultural communicationsbecome evident to participants in the Interna-tional Thmmunications and NegotiationSimul,Itions (ICONS) program developed byeducators at the University of Maryland. Issuessuch as arms control and disarmament, nuclearproliferation, international trade, Third Worlddebt and development, the environment, andregional conflicts are the concerns of partici-pants in this interactive educational format.

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Whittier College's International NegotiationProject (INP) implemented ICONS in itsundergraduate curriculum in 1987 and receivedan Institute grant in 1989 for a pilot programbringing ICONS to nine nearby high schools.With follow-on support from the Institute, theINP was expanded to include additional highschools in California, Arizona, and Oregon.With another Institute grant, the University ofMaryland will establish additional regionalcenters for ICONS across the country.

r

Professor Joyce Kaufman directs Whittier College'sInternational Negotiation Project.

High schools in the Whittier program act asindividual countries, negotiating with eachother through a central computer that processesthe exchange of messages and communiquesvia on-line conferences. To add a measure ofauthenticity and to stress the importance ofculture and language in negotiations, thecountry-teams are required to convey somecommunications in the appropriate foreignlanguage, which, in turn must be translated byteams on the receiving end. Like real negotia-tors, participants must cope with ambivalence,frustration, and irresolution in the simulation.

ICONS' virtues are multifacetedinteractivedialogue with students from other schools;foreign language usage in professional situa-tions; preparation in civics, history, economics,and foreign cultures; and development ofcomputer skills through situations akin to thereal world of contemporary diplomacy andcommerce. The INP provides firsthand knowl-edge of the real-life challenges posed by cross-cultural communications, linguistic differences,the need to relay information in clear andconcise form, and even society's increasingreliance on sophisticated communicationstechnologies, a fact that became painfullyevident when the program computer equip-ment malfunctioned and the simulation wastemporarily halted.

Multistate University ConsortiumDevelops a Core PeaceCurriculum

In 1990, three state universities began a uniquecoordinated effort to develop a core curriculumin applied peace studies.

The Alabama-Arkansas-Mississippi Consor-tium for Peace, Conflict Resolution, and Inter-national Security Studies is composed of the

Capstone International Program at the Univer-sity of Alabama, the International and Interdis-ciplinary Program at the University of Arkansasat Little Rock, and the Center for InternationalSecurity and Strategic Studies at MississippiState University. Their program is designed onthe premise that achieving and maintainingworld peace and stability will be attained byformulating and implementing well-reasonedpolicies. Within the program, students exam-ine a variety of policies and policy areas todetermine their impact on peace and security.

The Consortium's core course presents the mostcurrent and decisive changes facing the worldtoday, including the dramatic 1989 Eastern andCentral European political transformation, theunification of Germany, the political disintegra-tion of the Soviet Union, and the Gulf War. Inaddition, it introduces students to the historicalbackground and theoretical analyses underly-ing peace and security studies and the processof conflict resolution. Students in a pilot coursecommented that it increased their understand-ing of how and why countries interact andprovided greater understanding of how U.S.policy is formulated and implemented.

This effort illustrates how the Institute canexpand a project's impact regionally. In thisinstance, an initial start-up grant to MississippiState University and two follow-on grantsdeveloped into an ongoing, multi-institutionproject serving students and teachers in threestates.

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V on

REACHING THE BROADER PUBLIC

An attendee poses question to Institute speaker at the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library in Austin, Texas.

Learning about peace and conflict is not only asubject for high school and university students,but also an important civic duty for the generalpublic. Reaching a geographically and educa-tionally diverse public requires a wide range ofproducts and programs.

Grantees and fellows are working on an arrayof projects designed to reach public audiencesaround the country through publications,television and radio programming, andgrassroots educational programming. TheInstitute also supports public education directlythrough the dissemination of its own writtenmaterials and video products and the conductof workshops, seminars, and conferences, andindirectly through media services and otheroutreach activities.

5l

OUTREACH

The Public Affairs and Information Office isfrequently the first point of contact for peopleseeking information about the Institute or peaceand conflict resolution issues. It disseminatesinformation on Institute programs and re-sources to the media, subject specialists, and thegeneral public through a speakers bureau,educational programming, media services, andother functions.

Each week, the Public Affairs and InformationOffice fulfills an average of more than onehundred requests from the general public forpublications, documents, and other informationon international peace and conflict issues.Many of those requests arc the result of articles

and announcements in newspapers, profes-sional newsletters, and publications, includingthe Chronicle of Higher Education, CommerceBusiness Daily, and the Federal Register. Manyrequests also come from librarians who learnabout documents that are available from theInstitute through the Vertical File Index service.The Institute regularly communicates withmore than 300 international affairs organiza-tions, professional associations, and informa-tion clearinghouses, providing them withinformation at, ut grants, fellowships, in-houseprojects, publications, and events related totheir areas of interest.

Another outreach effort involves staff participa-tion in professional conferences and meetings,where they disseminate information on pro-grams, publications, and video products.During the reporting period, organizationswhose meetings staff members attendedinclude the American Political Science Associa-tion, the International Political Science Associa-tion, the American Library Association, theUnited Nations Association, the AmericanForum, the International Studies Association,the Peace Studies Association, and the Consor-tium on Peace Research Education and Devel-opment. In 1991, the Institute also staged twoexhibits on the Mall in Washington, D.C., inconjunction with Public Service RecognitionWeek and activities marking the thirtiethanniversary of the founding of the Peace Corps.

The Institute also receives numerous requestsfrom organizations arounu -le country forspeakers on topics pertaining to international

peace and on the Institute's work in general.During fiscal years 1990 and 1991, Boardmembers, staff, and fellows visited twenty-twostates, speaking to a variety of grassrootsaudiences. These types of engagements fre-quently include lectures at colleges and univer-sities, speeches before civic organizations suchas Rotary Clubs and world affairs councils,meetings with newspar er editors and reportenand television and radio interviews.

To maximize the impact of outreach efforts, theInstitute has also conducted intensive two-dayprograms in medium- to large-sized metropoli-tan areas. These programs consist of special-ized workshops, information on grants andfellowships, and meetings with librarians,information specialists, scholars, educators, amcivic organizations. In addition, each programincludes at least six speeches and educationalseminars on timely issues designed for thegeneral public. During the reporting period,such programs were undertaken in Honolulu,Hawaii, and Austin, Texas.

The Public Affairs and Information Office alsoarranges briefings and other presentations forvariety of groups that visit the Institute. Durina typical visit, a staff member makes a briefpresentation about the Instituteits history,mandate, functions, and programsafter whitone or more fellows or other staff speak aboutthe topic of special interest to the visitors.Visitors have included hundreds of studentsfrom dozens of high schools, colleges, anduniversities, senior citizen groups, U.S. andforeign military officers from the Army War

Institute Speakers

In addition to presentations at dozens of colleges anduniversities, staff and fellows have spoken to audi-ences of civic organizations around the country.Examples include

Sarasota Institute of Lifelong Learning

United Nations Association of Kansas City

Houston Committee on Foreign Relations

Society of Professionals in Dispute Resolution,D.C. Chapter

American Association of University WomenCalifornia State Division

Businessmen for Peace (Des Moines)

National College Model United Nations

Huntington, West Virginia Rotary Club

World Affairs Council of Oregon

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Institute president Samuel Lewis with visitors fromAfghanistan during their USIA-sponsored tour of theUnited States.

College, and dozens of individuals participat-ing in United States Information Agency-sponsored visits to the United States.

MEDIA RELATIONS

The Institute's reputation has continued togrow as a reliable source for expert informationon a wide range of issues and events affectingparticular conflicts as well as on overall ques-tions about international peace. During thePersian Gulf crisis, for instance, better than 200requests from print and broadcast media forinterviews and other information were re-ceived. Institute fellows, staff, and otheraffiliated experts appeared on national televi-sion and radio and were quoted in majornational wire services, national newspapers,and other dailies. This experience was repeatedlater in 1991 as the political and ethnic turmoilin the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in-creased. As a reflection of the diversity of theInstitute's approach to peacemaking, occasion-ally two or more Institute experts with differentpoints of view were featured within similarformats.

During the reporting period, the Institutepublished its first Guide to Specialists, whichserves as the Institute's primary means forrelaying information to the media and othersabout the work of current and former Institutefellows and their areas of expertise. The Guide

V a

r.

Staff member Robert Oakley appears on NBC. News.

The Institute on the Air

Some of the national programs on which Instituteexperts have been seen and heard include:

NBC NewsABC NewsCNNC-SPAN"MacNeil-Lehrer News Hour""David Brinkley Show""Off the Record"National Public RadioMonitor Radio

60

is augmented by special occasional "mediaalerts" highlighting fellows' and staff expertiserelating to events of the day, such as MiddleEast security, the political/economic crisis inthe Soviet Union, and elections overseas. Whenappropriate, callers are also directed to granteesand other Institute-affiliated experts working inthese areas.

EDUCATIONAL FILMAND VIDEO

During the past twenty years, the electronicmedia have played an ever-expanding role inalmost every facet of the American educationprocess. Recognizing this fact, the Institute has

7

supported others' work in this area and under-taken its own major video project, "Breaking theMold," which was described earlier in thischapter. Although the project is designedprimarily for classroom use, the Institutearranged through the Southern EducationalCommunications Association (SECA), a consor-tium of public television stations, to offer thefirst three programs to local stations on thenational Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)satellite on three consecutive Sundays in April1991. A survey in May indicated that 91 of 175stations had recorded the program for possibleairing, meaning that it was potentially availableto at least 31.6 million households. SECA hasexpressed interest in offering the remaining twosegments to PBS stations.

"Blue Helmets"

An Institute grant to Pacific Street Film Projects,Inc., supported development of the ninety-minute documentary, "Blue Helmets: The Storyof United Nations Peacekeeping." The programfocuses on the efforts of the UN to maintainpeace in areas of conflict through dispatch offorces drawn from military organizations ofmember nations under UN command. Throughinterviews with UN personnel, diplomats,political leaders, scholars, and military experts,the film examines the history of UN opera-tionssuccesses and failuresand takes acritical look at ongoing operations. Throughthe use of rare archival footage, the film pro-vides a unique firsthand perspective on theevolution and implementation of peacekeepingoperations. "Blue Helmets" was first broadcaston PBS in October 1990.

"The Rise and Fall of Communism"

The history of the worldwide Communistmovement is certainly one of the most impor-tant and dramatic political stories of the twenti-eth century. An Institute fellow is executiveproducer of a television history of communismcombining American, British, and Russiantelevision resources.

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"World Revolution: The Rise and Fall ofCommunism" will have five segments that lookat communism as an international revolution-ary movement. The producers have takenadvantage of access to archival material inMoscowincluding filmsto describe in detailthe rise of communism and the expansion of themodern Russian empire; the years of party rulethere and in other Communist countries; andthe disintegration of Communist authority as aphilosophy, a political force, and an economicsystem. For a segment focusing on the SinoSoviet conflict, producers interviewed knowl-edgeable sources in China and compared theirperspectives with those of the Soviets and witharchival documents in Moscow.

Eugene Shirley, a Peace Fellow from 1989 to1991, is well equipped to merge the dynamics ofinternational relations and broadcast journal-ism. He is founder and president of LosAngeles-based Pacem Productions, Inc., the firstindependent American television productioncompany permitted to film in the Soviet Union.He previously produced "Candle in the Wind,"an award-winning film on religion in the SovietUnion that was aired over PBS. He has pro-duced other documentaries on science, technol-ogy, human rights, and communism.

The host of "World Revolution" will be WilliamLuers, president of the Metropolitan Museumof Art and former U.S. ambassador to Czecho-slovakia, and the chair of the production'sadvisory committee is former Secretary of StateHenry Kissinger.

The series is being coproduced with PBS, theBritish Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), andRussian television. The Institute providedShirley with the opportunity to develop hisprogramming ideas, to make and renewvaluable contacts in the community of diplo-mats and international scholars, and to beginproduction. Additional funds for filming andproduction will be provided by PBS and theBBC, other international broadcasters, theNational Endowment for the Humanities, andother U.S. grantmakers. The series is scheduledfor distribution by PBS in 1993.

CIVIC EDUCATION

The Institute awards grants that supportactivities by civic organizations to educate thegeneral public about international affairs andpeacemaking processes. Examples of two suchgrants follow.

Teaching InternationalHumanitarian Law

The Institute's desire to educate the publicabout international humanitarian law foundvoice in a grant to the American Red Cross.The idea was to focus on the Geneva conven-tion of August 12, 1949, and the two Protocolsadopted in 1977, which form the core of interna-tional humanitarian law. These internationaltreaties on the law are designed to protectvictims of war, including wounded and sickmilitary personnel, and civilians in areas ofconflict.

The Red Cross, with its long record of humani-tarian service and its vast national grassrootsnetwork of 2,700 local chapters, is uniquelyequipped to educate the American public aboutthe Conventions and the law of war, whathumanitarian protection means, and how it isaccomplished.

By mid-1991, some highlights of the RedCross's activities were:

A twenty-six-minute documentary film;

Printed material, including a presenter'spackage for the film plus additional materi-als for more in-depth understanding;

A design for dissemination and use of theseeducational materials around the UnitedStates; and

62

Formal designation by its Board of Gover-nors of international law information as aprimary organizational objective of itstwenty-first century plan.

Regional and Local Programming

While the Red Cross effort is nationwide, othergrantees have a localized focus. With Institutesupport, the World Affairs Council of NorthernCalifornia sponsored an educational programfor residents of the San Francisco Bay area.

An Institute grant supported a series of lectureson resolution of regional conflicts for thegeneral public and study groups composed ofbusiness, philanthropic, and educationalleaders. The lectures were edited and pub-lished in a volume entitled International ConflictResolution: Seven Perspectives, which was madeavailable to the Council's members. The sevenspeakers were Chester Crocker, ThomasGraham, Philip Habib, Richard Murphy,Harold Saunders, Michael Smith, and BrianUrquhart. Six of these individuals have heldsenior foreign policy positions in the U.S.government; one is a recently retired seniorinternational civil servant. Study group discus-sions centered on policy formulation more thanon details of particular conflicts. Speakers werenot asked to explain or defend policies, butrather to share perspectives on how thesepolicies were developed and how successfulthey were in resolving conflicts. In the end,much of the discussion centered on give andtake in the policymaking process as a prelude topeacemaking. The Council has received asecond grant for additional public programs onregional conflicts, which will be taped for radiobroadcast in the Bay Area.

7

TRAINING FOR OTHER PROFESSIONALS

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4"1)Le .-1111&Diplomats from more than twenty countries attehd classes conducted by the Harvard Negotiation Project withInstitute grant support.

The Institute also supports instruction andeducation activities outside the traditionalmechanisms of high school and universityclasses, mass media, and other public forums.Through several grants, the Institute has aidedefforts by international relations and conflictresolution experts to provide instruction andtraining to persons on the "front line" ofpromoting democratic governance and nonvio-lent resolution of conflicts.

Much of the Institute's efforts in this area havebeen directed to societies in the Soviet Unionand Eastern and Ce tral Europe that facechallenges of introducingor reintroducingdemocratic processes and individual andcollective liberties as well as cultural and ethnicpluralism. With Institute grant support,American organizations have conductedprograms in Russia, I lungary, and Poland totrain public officials, civic leaders, labor and

business leaders, and educators about media-tion of political, ethnic, and socioeconomicstrife; labor-management negotiations; envi-ronmental disputes; and civilian oversight ofarmed forces.

A number of these emerging democracies lackcadres of professionals with technical know-how and depth of experience in these areas.Until recently, the capacities of these societies tccope with conflict either existed under verystrict government controlmeaning that therewas little public or civic experienceor wereunderdeveloped.

TEACHING PRACTITIONERS

In describing the recent upheavals in the Sovietrepublics and Eastern Europe, Soviet Ambassa-dor Victor Issraelyn, who spent the better part

6'3

Officials from the Soviet Ministry of Nuclear Powerand instructors at Institute-funded training programconducted by Partners (or Democratic Change.

of twenty years negotiating with the West,observed, "We are now being asked by ourgovernment to deal with the United States as apartner, but we don't know how. We've neverdone it in the past. At the negotiating table, wehave always seen each other :n the image of theenemy." An Institute grant to the HarvardNegotiation Project led by Professor RogerFisher has begun the process of training Euro-peans and officials from the now independentformer Soviet republics, including Issraelyn, inthis new relationship.

Fisher's project brought together sixty-fourdiplomats from the UN missions of NATO andWarsaw Pact countries for a joint negotiationtraining workshop and preparation of a follow-up report on the training for others in theirgovernments. The objectives of the trainingwere:

To address problems that have arisen duringnegotiations between diplomats fromgovernments with democratic andnondemocratic traditions;

To develop participants' skills in conflictresolution and raise awareness of alterna-tives to a confrontational approach tonegotiation;

To develop curricula for teaching conflictresolution skills to diplomats and to increaseavailability of training in these techniques inWest and East European governments; and

To transfer negotiation teaching technologyto help develop these governments' ownnegotiation training programs.

This training, which included presentations onnegotiation theory, negotiation simulations, andgroup debriefings, represented the first jointnegotiation project of its kind. It not onlyprovided participants with the opportunity tosee how diplomats from different culturesapproach problems, but also allowed them toexplore their differing perspectives firsthand, ina nonthreatening environment.

4

EXPANDING CONFLICTRESOLUTION SKILLS

While the Harvard program brought partici-pants to the United States, Search for CommonGround, a Washington-based organization,brought conflict resolution training to theSoviet Union with a series of five-day sessionsled by Raymond Shonholtz. These sessionsintroduced eighty Soviets to conflict resolutiontechniques. Ten labor leaders of the Soviet coalmine strike committees and ten union leaders inlabor negotiation and collective bargaininglearned about American experiences in collec-tive bargaining. Twenty teachers and adminis-trators from Moscow city schools and peda-gogical institutions studied programs that havereduced conflict and violence in Americanschool systems. Twenty psychologists respon-sible for the well-being of workers in nuclearpower plants, together with officials from theMinistry of Nuclear Power, were trained inorganizational development and conflictresolution. And a diverse group of sociologists,psychologists, and methodologists were taughtabout both the theoretical and practical aspectsof conflict management and resolution.

The Institute has also made grant awards fortraining programs for Eastern Europeans onmanaging democratic governments. A grant tothe Atlantic Council of the United States madeit possible for officials from Czechoslovakia,I lungary, and Poland to participate in briefingsand seminars on executive and legislativeoversight mechanisms for budgetary and

e( ;

defense policy formulation. Other groups ofprofessionals involved in Institute-supportedtraining programs include Israeli diplomats andArab and Israeli teachers and civic leaders.

These activities underscore the Institute'songoing interest in the connection betweendemocracy and the rule of law and interna-tional peace, as well as its interest in promotingpeaceful resolution of domestic or factionalconflicts overseas that could provoke broaderconflict or otherwise adversely affect the "newworld order."

65

Knowledge about conflict resolution techniqueand negotiations skills is also disseminated byother Institute grantees, fellows, and researchproject participants whose work contributes tothese areas. In addition, instructors in Institut(supported training sessions and workshopsoften share their newly acquired insights andpedagogical experiences with colleagues in theUnited States and overseas, who can then bettEunderstand the dynamics of teaching conflictresolution skills.

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SERVICES

History contains many lessons for those whowill heed them. Whether presenting primarysource accounts or secondary analyses based onthe perspective of time or new and currentinformation that illuminates the past, librariesprovide resources for history's lessons. Accessis crucial to any resource; although nationaland international holdings of peace and conflictresolution literature are the products of years ofacquisition, they are dispersed in collectionsthat have been organized along the lines oftraditional disciplines. A primary goal of theJeannette Rankin Library Program is to meetthe critical need of providing easier access toinformation in all parts of this field.

CORE LIBRARY COLLECTION

The working research library housed at theInstitute represents the beginning of a plannedworldwide network of international conflictmanagement resources. The core collection ofapproximately 3,500 books and 140 periodicaltitles continues to expand. The library acquirestitles not only through specifically budgetedpurchases, but also through the Gifts andExchange Program of the Library of Congress.The library has the task of building a compre-hensive collection while avoiding unnecessaryredundancy. Participation in library networksand reciprocal relationships with comparablecollections facilitate the balance betweencomprehensiveness and practicality.

The library serves a varied clientele. On a dailybasis, it provides standard services for research-ers and scholars, including up-to-the-hourinformation from wire services, interlibraryloans, creation of subject bibliographies, docu-ment retrieval, and citation verification. Com-puterization extends the library's reach farbeyond its walls through an in-house, on-linepublic catalog, as well as on-line bibliographiccomputer networks that facilitate interlibraryloans and information sharing with other

66

collections. In addition, the library has on-lineaccess to many commercial and nonprofitdatabases offsite.

The Institute's holdings also include furtherspecialized collections. The Persian Gulf crisisprovided the impetus for a special collection ofrelated books, periodical literature, U.S. govern-ment and United Nations documents, and otherreports.

Jeannette Rankin LibraryProgram Profile

FY 1990 FY 1991

Books 2,400 3,500

PeriodicalsSubscriptions 125 135

Vertical Files

Drawers of pamphlets, etc. 7 11

Oral History DatabaseRecords 1,125 1,200Abstracts 625 800

DEVELOPMENT OF ANATIONAL SYSTEM

Following are brief descriptions of the centralelements of the Institute's efforts to develop anational network of peace- and security-relatedlibrary activities.

Grant awards play an important role in devel-opment of the Institute's national library systemby supporting collection expansion and biblio-graphic development. Such grant projects alsoaid the Institute, because the terms of a grantprovide for the Institute's access to subsequentproducts. One award was made for the acquisi-

tion of library materials for a collection to beused throughout the Intermountain West. AnInstitute grant to the Institute of Peace Studies,which is affiliated with the Montana Associa-tion of Churches and Rocky Mountain College,supported acquisition of basic library materialson international peace for use throughout thelibrary's service region.

An award to California State University at LosAngeles underwrote creation of a comprehen-sive up-to-date bibliography that permitsresearchers to identify literature on contempo-rary and historical events in arms control anddisarmament. The comprehensive bibliographywill be available electronically at the universityand at the Institute, and a published version ofselected entries will be available for sale tolibraries, researchers, and others.

Beyond grantmaking, building a nationalsystem requires development of relationshipswith librarians across the country who areinterested in the international peace andsecurity fields and related literature. Membersof this informal network receive announce-ments of events and Institute publicationsrelevant to this specialty. A second method ofoutreach and development of a national systemtakes place on a more personal level, includingparticipation in conferences and visits tolibraries by Institute staff. A session entitled"Arms Control, Disarmament, and PeaceResearch: Gaining Access to the Sources" at the

Capturing Uncataloged Material

Gray literature(uncataloged material). Theproblem of access to this materialshort reports,studies, proceedings, and issue briefs produced byresearch centers and organizations working oninternational conflict issuesis very acute. Oftenthese documents provide the most complete andcurrent information on issues, but much of thisliterature escapes any library system. The Instituteawarded a grant to ACCESS, a Washington-basedinformation clearinghouse, for a feasibility study of abibliographic control system. The project is animportant first step in maximizing the utility andavailability of gray literature.

67

American Library Association annual confer-ence featured a presentation by the libraryprogram director. This and other similaroccasions are the cornerstones of relationshipsthat grow into solidly beneficial ties.

As a next step, the Institute plans to conduct astudy of the needs to be addressed by a moreformal electronic network, including suchfactors as subject areas to be covered, variousformats of materials, geographic needs, types ofaudiences, speed and method of delivery, andmeans of communications.

PUBLICATIONS ANDBIBLIOGRAPHIC CONTROLOF THE LITERATURE

The recurring challenge of information retrievaland availability ranks high on the list of priori-ties for the Library Program. Access is often themost difficult aspect of research. The Institutehas already taken several steps towards orga-nizing and classifying the extensive resourcesavailable.

One Institute activity in this area was itspublication of Guides to Library of CongressSubject Headings and Classification on Peace andInternational Conflict Resolution, a volume thatincorporates Library of Congress classification,the standard organization system of mostacademic and research libraries in the UnitedStates. The Guides are topic-based compilationsof subject headings that relate to the Institute'sfocus areas. Amassing more than 2,000 entriesin a single volume, they facilitate research usingpreviously overlooked areas of library materi-als. The Guides range widely in their necessar-ily interdisciplinary scope and include twodistinct sections. The first is a listing of theLibrary of Congress subject headings drawnfrom such topics as philosophy, religion, ethics,economics, psychology, sociology, internationallaw, history, and political science as well asmilitary and naval science. This listing isdivided into three parts: topics and events,place names, and wars and other conflicts. Thesecond section contains the Library of Congress

'AP

Library patron receives assistance from referencelibrarian Denise Dowdell.

classification schedules for materials on peaceand international conflict resolution, againdrawing on materials from many disciplines.Also included in this part is a Cutter list forregions and countries and an index to theclassification schedules.

ORAL HISTORY PROGRAM

The technological advances of the past centuryplace new demands on future historians and onlibraries. Not all statesmen and diplomats arewriters; perhaps only recorded interviews, oralhistories of pivotal lives, can preserve theirvaluable recollections. Because no comprehen-sive catalog exists for this field, the Institutelocated and cataloged potentially relevant andvaluable sources. An Institute survey ofcollections around the nation located approxi-mately 1,200 oral histories in 30 separate

Special Collection on the Gulf Crisis

A special library collection was begun in response tothe Persian Gulf crisis. The public on-line catalogsystem at the Institute already includes most elementsof the special collection.

The collection's criteria for inclusion include:

68

Working Papers and Reports: Usually overlookedand uncataloged "gray literature"materials fromprivate think tanks, university institutes, andnonprofit organizations.

Government Sources: Relevant documentsincluding those from Senate and House commit-tees, Congressional Research Service publications,Congressional Record, Foreign BroadcastingInformation Service, Daily Reports for Near Eastand South Asia, etc.

United Nations Documents: Selected UN resolu-tions and publications related to the Persian Gulfcrisis, including key resolutions.

Other: Selected books, newspapers, journalarticles, and wire service verbatim transcripts ofspeeches, hearings, colloquia, etc.

collections. The Institute plays a role in identi-fying and locating oral histories on peacemak-ing, negotiation, and related diplomatic experi-ences. About half of the histories have ab-stracts, which are held by the Institute andaccessible to the public.

The Institute's oral history program extendsbeyond cataloging existing materials in othercollections. Reliance on previously recordedinterviews alone would obviously be inad-equate. Under an Institute grant, the Associa-tion of Diplomatic Studies procured interviewswith senior Foreign Service Officers and otherAmerican officials who played important andcrucial roles in international diplomacy. Al-though these are also described in the databasewithin the Institute's library, the Association ofDiplomatic Studies interview tapes are part ofthe Georgetown University Library collection.

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PUBLICATIONS

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Books published by the United States Institute of Peace Press.

No matter what the subject, newspapers,periodicals, books, and other specializedpublications remain key educational tools. Foran organization such as the Institutewheresponsorship of research and analysis fordissemination to policymakers, diplomats,journalists, educators, and the general publicare primary goalspublishing is paramount.

When the 1989 Biennial Report was printed, theInstitute's publishing plans were in their initialstages. Today books published by the Instituteare on bookstore shelves and in libraries andare used in college courses; and Institutereports, proceedings, and books are in thehands of the public, academics, policymakers,

69

the media,media, the Administration, and the Con-gress. Reports are being distributed domesti-cally and beginning to find their way into theinternational marketplace.

INSTITUTE PRESS

The United States Institute of Peace Press,established in 1991, brings the Institute into thecompany of such organizations as the WilsonCenter Press, the National Defense UniversityPress, and the publishing operations of theBrookings Institution, the American EnterpriseInstitute, and other long-established publicpolicy institutions. The Institute's growing

national and international network of outletsshould enhance sales and distribution ofInstitute products.

PERIODICALS

The United States Institute of Peace Journal and InBrief are the Institute's two regular periodicals.The Journal, an eight- to twelve-page, bimonthlynewsletter, reports on recent and upcomingInstitute programs and products. Now in itsfourth year of publication, it has a circulation of30,000.

In Brief provides a two- to four-page synopsis ofInstitute-sponsored work on topics of interest topolicymakers, scholars, others in the peace andsecurity community, and the general public.Through the end of fiscal year 1991, thirty-twoissues of this publication have been producedand distributed to a 3,000-reader mailing list.

Publications on display at Institute conference.

FIRST BOOKS FIND SUCCESS

Five books had been produced by the newUnited States Institute of Peace Press by theclose of fiscal year 1991. One of the first,Origins of the Cold War: The Novikov, Kennon,and Roberts "Long Telegrams" of 1946, hasreceived wide praise in professional journals.The April 1991 issue of Peace Courier called it "alandmark new book." Foreign Affairs wrote"Having these three documents together in onepublication is a boon to scholars and teachers;"and the May 1991 The Bookwatch reported,"Students receive a unique opportunity tostudy and contrast Soviet, U.S. and Britishpostwar thoughts in a single volume." Thispublication marked the first time that the threedocuments were available in one volume, andthe first time the Soviet document was pub-lished in English.

70

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Selected In Brief Titles

Development and Peace: An Illusory Link? A reporton a Research and Studies Public Workshop.

Africa's Internal Wars of the 1980sContours andProspects. A report from Institute granteeRaymond W. Copson, Congressional ResearchService.

U.S. and USSR: Partners During the Cold War? Areport on a grant project by Nish Jamgotch.

The Salience of Ethnic Conflict in the Late TwentiethCentury. A book edited by Joseph V. Montvillebased on discussion of essays presented at aconference on Conflict and Peacemaking inMultiethnic Societies with grant support from theInstitute.

Dialogues on NicaraguaBridging the Barriers ofConflict. A report on dialogues and seminarsconducted by Peace Fellow Bruce M. Berlin,Trinity Forum for International Security Conflictand Resolution.

The Art of Pre-Negotiation: Opening New Doors toNegotiations. A report on work by grantee JayRothman of the Leonard David Institute of HebrevUniversity.

Citizen Diplomats Coming of Age. Excerpts fromTiming and the De-escalation of InternationalConflicts, by grantee Louis Kriesberg at SyracuseUniversity.

Origins of the Cold War has been adopted for usein courses on world politics, U.S. foreign policy,the Cold War, and international relations atmore than two dozen universities and collegesthroughout the United States. Libraries andbookstores are also ordering the volume fortheir shelves.

71

Off the Press

Books

Approaches to Peace: An Intellectual Map. A volumeinvestigating major different approaches to thestudy of conflict and peace, drawing from discus-sions and papers delivered at colloquia and aconference organized by the Institute (edited byBoard member Scott Thompson and staff memberKenneth Jensen.)

Guides to Library of Congress Subject Headings andClassification on Peace and International ConflictResolution. A unique two-in-one resource thatprovides access to complex interdisciplinaryinformation on conflict resolution and peace.

Negotiating Across Cultures: CommunicationsObstacles in International Diplomacy. Anexamination of the ways cultural factors haveaffected U.S. dealings with Japan, Egypt, India,China, and Mexico (by Peace Fellow RaymondCohen).

Origins of the Cold War: The Novikov, Kennan, andRoberts "Long Telegrams" of 1946. Threetelegrams that offer an opportunity to compareAmerican, British, and Soviet thinking in the earlypost-World War II period (edited by staff memberKenneth Jensen).

Soviet-American Conflict Resolution in the ThirdWorld. Essays by experts on opportunities andobstacles in resolving regional conflicts in Afghani-stan, Cambodia, the Middle East, Southern Africa,the Horn of Africa, and Asia and the Pacific(edited by Peace Fellow Mark Katz).

Ukraine: The Legacy of Intolerance. An examinationof religious and political intolerance in Ukraine(by Institute senior scholar David Little).

Special Reports

Making Peace Among Arabs and Israelis: Lessonsfrom Fifty Years of Negotiating Experience.Former U.S. negotiators, other senior officials, andscholars draw lessons for U.S. peacemaking effortsfrom their experiences and from history.

The Gulf Crisis: Finding a Peaceful Solution. A panelof former diplomats, scholars, internationallawyers, and others examine peacemaking optionsin the 1990-91 Persian Gulf crisis.

Study Group on Regional Arms Control Arrangementsand 2ssues in the Post-War Middle East: AnInterim Report. Experts analyze prospects forMiddle East arms control.

Prospects for Conflict or Peace in Central and EasternEurope. An institute study group surveys events in1989-90 in Eastern and Central Europe and looksbeyond to prospects for conflict or peace in theregion

Dialogues from Public Workshop Series

Pacifism and Citizenship: Can They Co-exist? Adiscussion between lifelong pacifist Elise Bouldingand political scientist Guenter Lewy and othersenior panelists on the relationship of citizenshipand pacifist beliefs.

Is It Feasible to Negotiate Chemical and BiologicalWeapons? Institute fellows Robin Ranger andRaymond Cohen propose the creation of aninternational authority to control chemical andbiological weapons.

A Discussion of the Origins of Thinking on ArmsControl: The Sarajevo Fallacy. Workshopparticipants challenge conventional wisdom aboutarms control.

72

The Meaning of Munich Fifty Years Later. Anexamination of what lessons the Munich accordsof 1938the failed attempt to appease Hitlermay have for the future of NATO.

A Look at the "End of History?" Francis Fukuyamaand his critics debate his controversial theory,drawn from Hegel, thatwith the end of ideolo-gies as the twentieth century has known themthe "end of history" has arrived.

CHAPTER IVTHE INSTITUTE AT WORK: GRANTS, FELLOWSHIPS,

AND IN-HOUSE RESEARCH AND STUDIES

Attendees register for an Institute conference.

A

CONTENTS

The Grant Program 74 Peace Fellows 110International Conflict Resolution and Visiting Fellows 117Conflict Management Training 78 Peace Scholars 119Arms Control 80EastWest Relations 81 Research and Studies Program 124International Organizations and Conference on the Origins ofInternational Law 83 the Cold War 126Rule of Law, Human Rights, and Conference on Conflict Resolution in theDemocracy 84 PostCold War Third World 127Regional and National Conflicts and Conference on Ethnic ConflictRegional Security 86 Resolution Under The Rule of Law 129Religion, Ethics, and Nonviolence Studies and Working Groups 131

Secondary Education_95

95 Study Group 135Higher Education 98 Public Workshop Series 136Public Education 100Library and Information Services 100 Middle East Peacemaking and ConflictOther 102 Resolution 138

Jennings Randolph Fellowship Religion, Ethics, and Human Rights 142Program 103

Distinguished Fellows 106

73

THE GRANT PROGRAM

Research to expand society's knowledge,specialized support and training for profession-als engaged in diplomacy and other peacemak-ing areas, enrichment of curricula at both theuniversity and high school levels, and a betterinformed publicthese purposes are served attheir broadest level through the Grant Program.

The Grant Program fosters research, education,training, and the dissemination of informationthrough financial support to nonprofit organi-zationsincluding private colleges and univer-sitiesofficial public institutions, and individu-als. Established in 1986, it was the Institute'sfirst program. Institute grant projects address awide range of subject matter. In addition, theyexpand the impact of the Institute's workthrough everwidening relationships withuniversities and other academic, research,educational, and library organizations through-out the United States and abroad.

ENCOURAGING THOUGHT

As an organization devoted to furtheringworldwide peace, the Institute must set aresearch agenda that addresses both the currentand underlying issues that cause and aggravateviolent conflict as well as those that may lead toits resolution. Moreover, if the lessons ofhistory are to be of value, knowledge aboutconflict and conflict resolution must be trans-mitted to students and the general publicthrough secondary, postsecondary, and adulteducation and outreach programs.

To fulfill these mandates, the Institute offerstwo types of grant competitions:

Unsolicited Grants provide financialassistance for projects related to topics thatfall within the Institute's broad mandate;and

NI.JtA Ott.

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Nadia Diuk (left), National Endowment for Democ-racy, and Marian Leighton (right), National Institute ofPublic Policy, participate in a grant review panel.

Solicited Grants are for special prioritytopics that the Institute identifies annuallyand publicizes widely to potentialapplicants.

Most grants provide project support for aperiod between one and two years. Supportlevels for individual projects are generallybetween $25,000 and $35,000.

During fiscal years 1990 and 1991, the Institutereceived a total of 775 (solicited andunsolicited) applications, amounting to a totalfunding request of more than $54 million. Bythe close of fiscal year 1991, 161 of those appli-cants had been approved for grants totaling$4.3 million.

GRANTEE SELECTION PROCESS

The selection process is the same for bothunsolicited and solicited categories. Instituteprofessional staff members first review theapplication for completeness and salience to theInstitute's mandate. A review panel of outsideexperts then evaluates applications. Theseevaluations, with the original application, are

74

5

passed to the Grant Committee of the Board ofDirectors to review and make its recommenda-tions to the full Board, which then makes itsfinal decisions on awards. Grants are awardedin three cycles per year, two for unsolicited andone for solicited applications.

The Institute recognizes that its grant supportoften has a leveraging effect that enablesgrantees to raise additional funds from othersources. Also; the Institute seeks granteeswhose work can have a multiplier effect; oftena start-up grant from the Institute enables thegrantee to launch a project with successfuloutcomes that can be easily transferred to otherlocales and institutions.

SOLICITED GRANTS

In fiscal year 1990, the solicited grant competi-tion concentrated on two topicsprospects forpeace in Central and Eastern Europe and war,peace, and conflict resolution in Latin Americaand the Caribbean. The fiscal year 1991 topicsincluded conflict resolution in Latin Americaand the Caribbean, again, and the developmentof educational and training materials forsecondary school teachers in internationalpeace, conflict resolution, human rights, andsecurity studies. Fiscal year 1992 topics are,ethnic conflict, arms control, and Middle Eastpeace and security.

GRANTS BRING RESULTS

Institute grants have resulted in dozens ofbooks and book-length manuscripts publishedby or under contract to such distinguishedacademic and commercial presses as Harvard,Princeton, Oxford, Syracuse, Lexington, andPraeger. (See box.) More than 100 grantee-produced articles have appeared in profes-sional journals, including Foreign Affairs, TheJournal of Conflict Resolution, World Politics,Orbis, Strategic Review, and Policy Studies.Grantees have presented their findings in TheChristian Science Monitor, The Washington Post,The Wall Street Journal, Newsweek, and TheAngeles Times; before committees of the Con-

Grant Program GeneratesWide Variety of Products

The Institute's Grant Program, now fully operationalfor more than four years, is generating a substantialvolume of products that are directed to thepolicymaking, policy analysis, and scholarly commu-nities, as well as the general public.

These products include, in fiscal years 1990 and1991, more than 30 books published, 26 bookmanuscripts in progress, more than 100 articlespublished or in manuscripts, and an estimated 16videos in various forms. Book publishers include theuniversity and commercial presses in the UnitedStates and overseas.

Listed below are a few of the books that critics havesingled out as particularly significant in their fields.

After the Cold War: Questioning the Morality ofNuclear Deterrence. Charles Kegley and KennethSchwab, eds. Boulder: Westview Press, 1991.

After the Wars: Reconstruction in Afghanistan,Indochina, Central America, Southern Africa, andthe Horn of Africa. Anthony Lake, ed. NewBrunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1990.

The American Search for Peace: Moral Reasoning,Religious Hope, and National Security. GeorgeWeigel and John Langan, eds. Washington, D.C.:Georgetown University Press, 1991.

Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies.Joseph Montville, ed. Lexington: Lexington Books,1990.

The Conflict Helix: Principles and Practices ofInterpersonal, Social, and International Conflict amCooperation. Rudolph Rummel. New Brunswick:Transaction Books, 1991.

Controlling the Sword: The Democratic Governanceof National Security. Bruce M. Russett. Cambridge:Harvard University Press, 1990.

Cross, Crescent and Sword: The Justification andLimitation of War in Western and Islamic Tradi-tions. James Turner Johnson and John Kelsay, eds.New York: Greenwood Press, 1990.

East Central Europe and the USSR. Richard F. Staar,ed. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991.

The Horn of Africa: From War to Peace. Paul HenzeLondon: Macmillan, 1991.

Just War and Jihad: Historical and TheoreticalPerspectives on War and Peace in Western andIslamic Traditions. James Turner Johnson and JohnKelsay, eds. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.

75

gress; on National Public Radio; and on theVoice of America. Institute-funded educationprojects have resulted in videos, study guides,simulations, and curriculum materials that arenow being used throughout the nation. Semi-nars and workshops for teachers; trainingprograms for practitioners; and radio, televi-sion, and lecture programs for the generalpublic have increased the country's overallunderstanding of issues in peace and peace-making. In addition, grants have resulted inthe development of resource guides and helpedaugment library holdings and services in suchfields as diplomatic history, international law,peace, security, and conflict resolution.

Small sampling of books published through Institutegrant projects.

Grant Awards by Category and Topic* (funding in thousands of dollars)

Area No. ofAwards

Funding Area No. ofAwards

Funding Area No. ofAwards

Funding

InternationalConflict Resolution

Arms Control

EastWestRelations

InternationalOrganizations andInternational Law

Rule of Law,Human Rights,and Democracy

Regional andNational Conflictsand RegionalSecurity

Religion, Ethics,and Nonviolence

Other

TOTALS

Research Projects

6

9

12

6

13

56

4

109

$ 150

215

284

93

327

1,526

50

100

52,745

SecondaryEducation

HigherEducation

PublicEducation

ConflictManagementTraining

EducationProjects

19

9

4

8

10

$ 827

241

112

165

51. ii

Library

Library andInformationServicesProjects

12

12

$ 292

$ 292

'Fiscal years 19Y111 and 1991. Grant avarr1s ammo, ed k thr i;;/ard (,1 Directors from (,)( Inkier 1, 141-1,1, through `4.1)tember Si).

1991.

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7

Spreading the Word

The Institute's Grant Program does more than receiveapplications, advise the Board of Directors onmeritorious grantees, and administer the program.When appropriate, the Institute offers prospectivegrantees advice about applying to the Institute,advises them in applying for grants from otherinstitutions, and presents such information atappropriate forums around the nation.

Listed below are a few outreach presentations byInstitute staff undertaken during fiscal years 1990 and1991.

Funding Dispute Resolution Research: Programs,Perspectives and Issues, Society of Professionals inDispute Resolution, Washington, D.C.

Grant-Writing Workshops:University of Texas at Austin, Texas.EastWest Center, Honolulu, Hawaii.Peace Studies Association annual conference,Washington, D.C.

The Impact of USIP Research on Public Policy,National Conference on Peace and ConflictResolution, Charlotte, North Carolina.

Funding Opportunities in Middle East Studies:Federal Agencies, The Middle East Studies Associa-tion of North America annual meeting, Washing-ton, D.C.

Funding Research and Education in Peace andSecurity Studies, Whittier College, California.

Grantees Bring Their Projects to the Institute

Following is a list of selected grant project activitiesconducted at the Institute:

Workshop on "Future Soviet Relations in EasternEurope," conducted by Richard Staar, HooverInstitution on War, Revolution and Peace, StanfordUniversity.

Presentation on "Soviet Third World Policies,"conducted by George Mirsky and Nodare Simonia,IMEMO (Moscow).

Workshop on "Arms Control and InternationalSecurity," conducted by Edward Hamilton, theStrom Thurmond Institute, Clemson University,Institute Peace Fellow Robin Ranger, and CathleenFisher, Defense Forecasts, Inc.

Seminar on "National Security and EconomicInterdependence," conducted by Harry Gelber,University of Tasmania.

Presentation on "The Relevance of Democracy forIsraeliPalestinian Peace," by Edy Kaufman andShukri Abed.

Simulation exercise on "Principles and Processes ofUN Security Council and Negotiation," conductedby Chris Coleman, International Peace Academy.

77F. S

Training onCivilianOversight ofArmed Forces

Radio Series

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Medieval EnglishFeuds andContemporaryDisputeSettlement

Training andCurriculumMaterials forIsraeli SecondarySchool Educators

Following are brief descriptions of all grants approved by the Institute Board of Directorsbetween October 1, 1989, and September 30, 1991.

INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT RESOLUTIONAND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT TRAINING

Training to enhance prospects for increased civilianoversight of the armed forces in Central and EasternEurope. Recently appointed or elected senior civilianofficials from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungarywill be invited to participate in a series of briefingsand seminars on executive and legislative oversightmechanisms for budgetary and defense policy controlin the United States and West Europe.

Atlantic Council of the UnitedStatesWashington, D.C.John Baker, Project DirectorS25,000 (99-90F)

Radio series of ten programs that explores thepotential for resolving major conflicts throughout theworld. In the series, two experts with opposing viewson a particular conflict discuss issues with theassistance of a facilitator skilled in conflict resolutiontechniques. The series will be broadcast by public,educational, and commercial stations throughout theUnited States and Canada.

Cambridge ForumCambridge, MassachusettsHerbert Vetter, Project Director$15,000 (046-2-90)

An interdi ciplinary analysis that uses feuds inmedieval England to illuminate both contemporaryquestions on third-party dispute settlement and therelationships between political and legal institutionsand societal regulation of conflict.

Cornell UniversityIthaca, New YorkPaul R. Hyams, ProjectDirectorS30,000 (49-91S)

Training, curriculum development, and othermaterials for Arab and Jewish Israeli secondaryschool educators on conflict resolution andintercommunal understanding. Resulting materialswill be published in Hebrew, Arabic, and English.

Givat Haviva EducationalFoundationNew York, New YorkSarah Ozackv-Lazar and WalidSadik, Project Directors520,000 (8-91S)

NATO Workshop Workshop on negotiation and conflict resolution forNATO and Warsaw Pact diplomats stationed in theUnited States.

MultitrackDiplomacy

Harvard UniversityCambridge, MassachusettsRoger Fisher, Project DirectorS20,000 (102-3)

Systems analysis of the multitrack diplomacynetwork, including a conceptual and practicalframework for describing and understanding nineareas, or tracks, of diplomacy that attempt to fosterinternational peacemaking.

7R !.4

Iowa Peace InstituteGrinnell, IowaJohn McDonald and LouiseDiamond, Project Directors525,000 (072-2-90)

ConflictManagementTraining inPoland

HungarianConflictManagementTrainingProgram

Improving Skillsof Soviet andEastern EuropeanDirectors ofConflictManagementCenters

11OINI111111

SovietNegotiation andMediationTraining

Regional ConflictManagement andResolution

Third-PartyMediation inThird WorldConflicts

Cooperative effort with the Polish Ministry ofEducation and the University of Warsaw to developan Institute for Participatory Conflict Management inWarsaw that will attempt to expand the field of studyin conflict resolution within Poland, introduce conflictresolution models and practices within the Polisheducational system, and create a Polish-Americancollaborative relationship in the field.

National Institute for CitizenParticipation and NegotiationSan Francisco, CaliforniaRaymond Shonholtz, ProjectDirector$35,000 (039-3)

Training program to create the capacity withinHungarian ministries, organizations, and unions tomanage conflict and change through negotiation andmediation and also work with the Polish Center forNegotiation and Conflict Resolution to create aninternational base for mediation of transnationaldisputes.

National Institute for CitizenParticipation and NegotiationSan Francisco, CaliforniaRaymond Shonholtz, ProjectDirector$20,000 (65-90F)

Participation by a director and trainer from conflictmanagement centers in Eastern Europe and the SovietUnion in a training program designed specifically forthem by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and anational conference on peacemaking and conflictresolutionboth events are intended to improve theparticipants' understanding of the structural compo-nents and theoretical underpinnings of mediationprocesses and rule of law systems.

Partners for DemocraticChangeSan Francisco, CaliforniaRaymond Shonholtz, ProjectDirector$5,000 (646)

Joint project with the Soviet Center for ConflictResolution to train Soviet government and unionofficials in American principles and proceduresof labor negotiation, mediation, and collectivebargaining.

Search for Common GroundWashington, D.C.Betsy Cohen, Project Director$20,000 (84-90F)

Conference and workshops to develop a new concep-tual framework for understanding regional conflicts,and to fashion key policy tools that encouragecooperation in the resolution and management ofthese conflicts.

University of IllinoisUrbana-Champaign, IllinoisRoger Kanet, Project Director$20,000 (114-90F)

Examination of different approaches to third-partymediation of Third World conflicts, including a seriesof typologies based on the conceptual premises of themore prominent approaches to third-party mediation,the difficulty of mediator access to conflicts, thetransition from unofficial to official diplomacy, andthe impact on mediation efforts of superpowerinvolvement in protracted social conflicts.

79fh)

University of LondonLondon, EnglandMichael Banks, Stephen Chan,and Vivienne Jabri, ProjectDirectors$35,000 (095-2-90)

111111=11111MInterethnicConflict andNegotiation inthe Soviet Union

Seminars andConflict Manage-ment Training forArab and JewishIsraeli Leaders

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RegionalApproaches toNuclearProliferation

11101Herbert Hooverand ArmsControl

Evolution ofU.S.-Soviet ArmsControlImplementation

M1111M11111111

Arms SalesPolicies ofCzechoslovakia,France, Germany,Sweden, andBritain

111!11111111111111111

ChemicalWeaponsControlLibyaand Beyond

Joint study, with the Institute of Psychology of theUSSR Academy of Sciences, of interethnic conflict andnegotiation, focusing on relationships between theSoviet republics and Moscow and between ethnicgroups within the republics.

University of Virginia, Centerfor the Study of Mind andHuman InteractionCharlottesville, VirginiaVamik D. Volkan, ProjectDirector$25,000 (96-91S)

Seminar series on issues of shared concern andtraining in conflict management for young leaderswithin the Arab and Jewish Israeli communities.

111IIIMIMMINES

ARMS CONTROL

Young Leadership ForumNazareth, IsraelMohammed M. Darawshe,Project Director$20,000 (145-91S)

Book on regional approaches to nuclearnonproliferation that explores regional deterrencedynamics, arms control, and confidence-buildingmeasures that might promote nonproliferation.

Canadian Centre for ArmsControl and DisarmamentOttawa, CanadaTariq Rauf, Project Director$30,000 (16-90F)

Book about Herbert Hoover's experiences in trying toachieve genuine arms reduction.

Coe CollegeCedar Rapids, IowaDonald Lisio, Project Director$32,000 (119-1-89)

Study of the evolution of implementation andenforcement of U.S.-Soviet arms control agreements.

Harvard UniversityCambridge, MassachusettsStanley Riveles, ProjectDirector$22,000 (117-91S)

Examination of arms sales policies in Czechoslovakia,France, Germany, Sweden, and Britain, focusing onnational aims for arms sales, the pressures for andagainst arms sales, and the scale and scope ofweapons transfers. Recommendations for controllingthe flow of arms and a model depicting the impact ofchanges in the flow of arms sales by the five nationsunder study will also be produced.

Laurent, Paul H.Lancashire, EnglandPaul H. Laurent, I'rojectDirector$20,000(111 -91S)

Study of international events associated with the1987-89 Libyan chemical weapons factory episode,and the development of policy options to combatthreats posed by chemical weapons.

809

Northern Illinois UniversityDeKalb, IllinoisThomas Wiegele, ProjectDirector$15,000 (015-2-90)

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Arms ControlComplianceRegimes

Naval ArmsControl

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BiologicalWeaponsControls

Deterrence andLong-TermStabilihy

Continuation of a study on the effectiveness ofcompliance policy for bilateral and multilateral armscontrol agreements in the evolving internationalsecurity environment of the 1990s.

Ranger, RobinChevy Chase, MarylandRobin Ranger, Project Director$15,000 (069-3)

Research on contemporary naval arms control,including the problems of asymmetry in force levels,the difficulties of verification, the feasibility ofmultilateral disarmament, and defense policies thatmight provide new opportunities for naval armscontrol.

University of BordeauxBordeaux, FranceNerve Coutau-Bergarie, ProjectDirector$27,500 (144-90F)

Examination of verification provisions that maystrengthen the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention,including a proposal for a global epidemiologicalsurveillance programunder multinational supervi-sionthat, it is hoped, will provide the capability todefine the source of the etiological agent of majorepidemics.

University of California atDavisDavis, CaliforniaMark Wheelis, Project Director$20,000 (049-3-90)

Study of deterrence as an aggregate of nuclearresources and specific decisions, focusing on whetherproliferation and the increasing sophistication ofnuclear weaponry accounts for seemingly incompat-ible policy shifts, and the effects of tactical nuclearweapons capabilities, nuclear proliferation, anddefense structures on deterrence and escalation incrisis situations.

Vanderbilt UniversityNashville, TennesseeJack Kugler and Frank Zagare,Project Directors$33,524 (532)

EastWestSecurityChallenges

New Approachesto EuropeanSecurity

EAST-WEST RELATIONS

Book on options for the evolution of the Europeansecurity structure through analysis of the interactionof Soviet and German policies, including the identifi-cation of alternative patterns for the evolution of theSovietGerman security relationship, the implicationof such patterns for alternative security regimes, andthe process of peaceful resolution of EastWestsecurity challenges.

American Institute forContemporary GermanStudiesWashington, D.C.Robbin Laird, Project Director$30,000 (035-2-90)

Articles on the restructuring of the European regionalsecurity system, including criteria for a new concep-tual framework for security in Europe, and the stepsto be taken in both East and West toward a trans-formed institutional structure.

81 ti

Center for Strategic andInternational Studies (CSIS)Washington, D.C.Robert Hunter, Project Director$30,000 (061-3)

11=111111111=1111=1111M

Transitioningfrom Hostile toPeacefulRelations

1.91111111111=111111111

History ofWartime Regimesin Central andEastern Europe

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Communicationsbetween HostileGovernments:U.S.-RomanianRelations,1985-89

U.S. Foreign Aidin Europe Today

Soviet ThinkingaboutNegotiations

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Soviet-GermanNonoffensiveDefense Concepts

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U.S.-SovietCooperation andthe Third World

Comparison of four cases where states have made thetransition from hostile to peaceful relations, includingthe identification of conditions that distinguishsuccessfully transformed relations from relations thatrevert back to hostility. The research is intended toidentify the conditions necessary for a stable, coopera-tive East-West relationship.

Cornell UniversityIthaca, New YorkRichard Ned Lebow and JaniceGross Stein, Project Directors525,000 (199-91S)

Comparative social history of wartime regimes inCentral and Eastern Europe, including the socialconsequences of the Second World War, which areseen as a prerequisite to a thorough understanding ofthe post-war imposition, institutionalization, anddissolution of Communist regimes in Europe.

Emory UniversityAtlanta, GeorgiaJan Gross, Project DirectorS20,000 (17-90F)

Analysis of the attempts of the U.S. and Romaniangovernments to influence each other during the lastfour years of President Ceausescu's dictatorship. Theanalysis is being undertaken by the two chief diplo-matic representatives of each country who arefocusing on how each government interpretedspecific initiatives by the other, the effects of thoseinitiatives, and lessons that apply to communicationsbetween hostile governments.

Georgetown UniversityWashington, D.C.Roger Kirk and MirceaRaceanu, Project Directors523,000 (58-91S)

Examination of the lessons of the U.S. foreign aidpolity in the post-World War II period that may he ofrelevance to newly initiated and impending U.S. aidprograms in Central and Eastern Europe.

Harvard UniversityCambridge, MassachusettsNicholas Eberstadt, ProjectDirector525,000 (SG 124-0)

Investigation of new Soviet research on internationalnegotiation, including compallsons of current Sovietthinking about negotiations with Moscow's views inthe past, traditional American understanding of theSoviet view, and actual Soviet negotiating behavior.

Mount Vernon CollegeWashington, D.C.Paul Bennett, Project Director510,000 (078-3)

Study of Soviet and German concepts of nonoffensivedefense and common security, including an examina-tion of whether the Soviets, in borrowing theGermans' basic concept of offensive defense, areattempting to manipulate Western perceptions of aSoviet military threat to Europe.

National Institute for PublicPolicyFairfax, VirginiaRobert Rudney and MarianLeighton, Project Directors520,000 (063-3)

Research on prospects for fundamentally changingthe U.S.-Soviet relationship from one of hostility toone of cooperation, especially over disputes in theThird World.

fi2

Naval War CollegePortsmouth, Rhode IslandMarshall l3rement, ProjectDirector534,320 (27-90)

SovietFasten:EuropeanRelations

U.S.EuropeanSecurity Needs

Soviet Militaryin the 1920s

Research on the future of political, security, andeconomic relations between the Soviet Union andEastern Europe, with emphasis on nonviolentresolution of potential intraregional ethnic conflict.

Staar, Richard, HooverInstitution on War, Revolutionand Peace, Stanford UniversityPalo Alto, CaliforniaRichard Staar, Project DirectorS18,000 (SG 79-0)

Research on long-term U.S. security needs in Europein light of the ongoing collapse of Soviet hegemony inEastern Europe, including future Western armscontrol objectives, the future of NATO, and thefeasibility of a new security structure based on theConference for Security and Cooperation in Europe.

Union of Concerned ScientistsWashington, D.C.Jonathan Dean, Project Directoi525,000 (SG 133-0)

Study of changes instituted by the Soviet military inthe 1920s that could serve as a framework for under-standing similar changes now under way.

Woodrow Wilson Interna-tional Center for ScholarsWashington, D.C.Dale R. Herspring, ProjectDirectorS22,000 (125-90F)

Changing Pole ofthe UN SecretaryGeneral

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UN StandingMilitary Force

11111111111111110111111111

Crimes Under theLaw of War

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ANDINTERNATIONAL LAW

1111111111111111

Conference and book on the impact that the changinginternational political climate is having on the role ofthe United Nations Office of the Secretary General,concentrating on changes that could increase thesecretary general's effectiveness within the UNsystem.

City University of New YorkNew York, New YorkBenjamin Rivlin, ProjectDirector515,000 (119-90F)

Assessment of the feasibility and alternative forms ofa United Nations standing military force with combatand self-defense capabilities for deployment as adeterrent or in response to aggression.

International EconomicStudies InstituteWashington, D.C.Timothy W. Stanley, ProjectDirector520,000 (159-91S)

Comprehensive study of law of war crimes, includinga history of the evolution of the law of war and theenforcement of penalties for violations thereof;specific actions that constitute crimes against peace,conventional war crimes, and crimes against human-ity; and procedural matters related to investigations,jurisdiction, extradition, trial procedures, andpunishment.

83

('

Naval War CollegeFoundationNewport, Rhode IslandHoward Levie, Project Director$8,216 (49 -90F)

DocumentaryFilm

111111111111111111111111

Rules forAvoidingConflicts

MultilateralOrganizationsand RegionalWar Avoidance

Completion of the documentary film, "Blue Helmets,"which examines the role of the United Nations inpromoting international peace and conflict resolutionthrough its worldwide peacekeeping operations. Thefilm was distributed over the Public BroadcastingService

Pacific Street Film Projects,Inc.Brooklyn, New YorkSteven Fisch ler, Project Director$15,000 (013-2-90)

Examination of rules for avoiding conflict andpromoting cooperation, including an identification ofthe types of rules that regulate international andtransnational cooperation, and a comparison of theserules to rules adopted by the European Community inthe Single Market.

University of StrathclydeGlasgow, ScotlandRichard Rose, Project Director$20,000 (42-91S)

study of how the risk of regional war can bereduced through more effective use of multilateralorganizations.

Yale UniversityNew Haven, ConnecticutJames Sutter lin, ProjectDirector$15,000 (086-3)

Regime Type andProspects forConflictResolution

Democracy andthe Avoidance ofWar

Rule of Law inDevelopingSocieties

Regime Type andWar and Peace

RULE OF LAW, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND DEMOCRACY

Monograph that attempts to identify types ofpoliticalgovernmental systems that tend to increase(or decrease) the likelihood of successful internationalarbitration and mediation.

Boise State UniversityBoise, IdahoRaymond Gregory, ProjectDirector$10,000 (120-3)

Historical examination of why some democratic statesdo not war against each other while others do,including the development of hypotheses about thecharacteristics of democracies that are key to theavoidance of war.

Florida State UniversityTallahassee, FloridaJames Lee Ray, Project Director$30,000 (22-91S)

Study of the role that the rule of law plays in adeveloping society such as Egypt, the implications ofthe Egyptian case for other regimes in the MiddleEast, and whether Western-style legal systems canwork successfully in emerging pluralist societies tomediate dramatic political change.

George WashingtonUniversityWashington, D.C.Nathan Brown, Project Director$10,000 (101-90F)

Articles on research and testing of the generalhypothesis that autonomous political units with morepolitical participation show less warfare with oneanother than with less participatory political units,even when appropriate controls arc introduced intothe analysis.

84 (

Human Relations Area FilesNew Haven, ConnecticutMelvin Ember, Carol R. Ember,and Bruce M. Russett, l'rojectDirectors$20,000 (067-2-90)

111111111111111111111111111111

WesternEuropeanPoliticalInitiatives forDemocracy

11111011111111111111

Threats toDemocracy inEastern Europe

Democracy andAggression

111~11111111111=11

Repatriation ofRefugees

Problem Areasfor PolishDemocracy

Research on recent Western European politicalinitiatives designed to facilitate the consolidation ofliberal democracy, the rule of law, human rights, andfree communication in the former socialist countriesof Eastern Europe, including an appraisal of politicalconditions and the need for assistance; and anevaluation of relevant policies and actions of theEuropean Community, the Council of Europe,individual governments, and nongovernmentalorganizations.

Hungarian Research Institutof CanadaToronto, CanadaBennett Korvig, ProjectDirector$33,000 (SG 8-0)

Survey, identification, cataloging, and analysis ofpotential subnational and international threats to theevolution of democracy in Eastern Europe. Theproject will focus on problems that could lead tooutside intervention and/or affect Western securityinterests. Issues to be examined include the transitionof regimes, border tensions, nationality conflicts,ethnic antagonisms, religious persecution, and laborstrife.

International Institute forStrategic StudiesLondon, EnglandHans Binnendijk, ProjectDirector$30,000 (SG 57-0)

Study of the underlying features of democraciesparticularly accountability and guarantees of indi-vidual rightsthat lead to less aggressive externalrelations.

Progressive FoundationWashington, D.C.Stanley Kober, Project Directc$11,000 (110-91S)

Study of programs for repatriating refugees afterchanges in their home country, focusing onBangladesh, Zimbabwe, and Afghanistan.

Refugee Policy GroupWashington, D.C.Dennis Gallagher and SusanForbes Martin, Project Directc$35,000 (610)

Research on problem areas for the development ofPolish local democracy, with special attention to thenature, role, and functioning of democratic decisionmaking in local government; models for democracy;the relation of democratic forms to history andculture; conflict resolution in local democraticgovernment; pluralism and the development ofpluralist institutions in support of democracy; and theparticipation of women in the development ofdemocratic local government.

0 rs85 "

Rutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, New JerseyJames Turner Johnson, ProjectDirector$30,000 (SG67-0)

New Democracyand LocalGovernance

DemocraticPoliticalInstitutions andPractices

Human Rights in100 Countries

1111111111111111111

U.S.Soviet Ruleof LawConference

Cross-national, collaborative research on the climatefor democracy at the local level in three EasternEuropean countries (Czechoslovakia, Hungary, andYugoslavia), three former USSR republics (Lithuania,Russia, and Ukraine), Austria, Germany, Sweden, 'Indthe United States. The research program will collectempirical data on the democratic political develop-ments taking place at the local level within a globalcontext; bring previously excluded scholars into theinternational community of social scientists; traingraduate students in comparative research; and drawan historical picture of political systems in transition,comparing those processes with evolution andincremental reforms in established democracies.

University of HawaiiHonolulu, HawaiiBetty M. Jacob and Richard A.Dubanowski, Project Directors$40,000 (91-91S)

Study of the impact that changes in values have onthe implementation of democratic political institu-tions and practices at the local level, focusing onGermany, Poland, Yugoslavia, Sweden, and theUnited States.

University of HawaiiFoundationHonolulu, HawaiiBetty Jacob, Henry Teune, andKrzsztof Ostrowski, ProjectDirectors$25,000 (645)

Study of human rights performance of approximately100 countries that focuses on the extent to which thesenations observe human rights, are involved ininternal and/or external conflict, and maintain highor low levels of military expenditures.

University of HawaiiFoundationHonolulu, HawaiiMichael Haas, Project Director$37,846 (090-3)

Conference of American and Soviet legal scholars onexpending and strengthening the rule of law in theSoviet Union, including the exploration of long-termprospects for constitutional and legal reform in theareas of human rights and economic transformation.

Yeshiva University, BenjaminCard ozo School of LawNew York, New YorkStephen Marks, ProjectDirector$15,000 (SG 149-0)

1111111111111111M

Organization ofAfrican Unity

PoliticalSettlements andNegotiations inRegionalConflicts

REGIONAL AND NATIONAL CONFLICTS ANDREGIONAL SECURITY-AFRICA

Study of measures for enhancing the organizationalcompetence in mediation of the Organization ofAfrican Unity (OAU), including development of aninstitutional framework or processes for facilitatedconflict management by the OAU.

George Mason UniversityFairfax, VirginiaRichard Rubenstein, ProjectDirector$25,000 (106-90F)

Study of the political settlements and negotiations incontemporary regional conflicts such as Afghanistan,Cambodia, Angola, Mozambique, and Nicaragua.

9

86

George WashingtonUniversityWashington, D.C.Constantine Menges, ProjectDirector$15,000 (055-2-90)

The Future ofEritrea

INIIIIII111M11NONNMIN

AfricanCommission onHuman andPeople's Rights

1111111111111111111

StudyCommission onAfrican Conflicts

Study of Eritrea's future within the Horn of Africa inlight of the upcoming referendum on Eritrea'sindependence, with particular attention to relationsbetween Eritrea and Ethiopia.

Morris Brown CollegeAtlanta, GeorgiaAmare Tekle and Betty RuthJones, Project Directors$20,000 (174-91S)

Study of the potential of the African Commission onHuman and People's Rights in helping to establishand maintain human rights in Africa, including anassessment of the extent to which a functioningcommission would enhance the likelihood of domes-tic and international peace on the continent.

State University of New Yorkat BuffaloBuffalo, New YorkClaude E. Welch, Jr., ProjectDirector$15,001, (194-91S)

Establishment of a study commission on conflicts anddiplomatic initiatives in Africa. The commission ofAfrican, Russian, and American experts will exploremeans of achieving cooperative solutions to conflictsin Africa.

University of California at LoAngeles, Center for Interna-tional and Strategic AffairsLos Angeles, CaliforniaMichael Intriligator, ProjectDirector$45,000 (104-2-90)

PostGulf WarConference

Turkey and theKurds

11111111Democracy andthe IsraeliPalestinianConflict

REGIONAL AND NATIONAL CONFLICTS ANDREGIONAL SECURITY-THE MIDDLE EAST

Conference on the social, political, and economicdimensions of the quest for order and stability in thepostGulf War Arab world, including the Arabpolitical order in the aftermath of the Gulf crisis,political reform and democratization, regionalsecurity, development and reconstruction, environ-mental degradation, humanitarian issues, develop-ment, and the role of external powers.

The American Universityin CairoCairo, EgyptJohn Swanson, Project Directo]$35,000 (80-915)

Analysis of Turkey's changing approach to theKurdish struggle for autonomy and independence,including the implications of Turkey's new policiesfor Turkish Kurds, the Kurdish nationalist movementin the region, and U.S. foreign policy.

George WashingtonUniversityWashington, D.C.Sabri Sayari, Project Director$27,500 (161-91S)

Study of the relevance of democratic development inthe resolution of the IsraeliPalestinian conflict, withemphasis on the commitment to democratic ideals inboth communities as an indicator of prospects forlong-term peace and stability.

87 C..'

Hebrew University ofJerusalemJerusalem, IsraelEdy Kaufman, Project Director$48,000 (SG 91-9)

WAI1111111111111M

The Impact of the1982 War inLebanon

Regional ArmsControl

TechnologicalCooperation anPeace

IMI1111111111111111

Islamic Iran inthe New WorldOrder

111111111EIWININNII1

U.S.-IsraeliPost-Cold WarSecurityRelationship

Phased Approachto Peace betweenIsraelis andPalestinians

111111111111111111111111111111111111=

Arab ConflictManagement

EconomicConsequences ofMiddle EastPeace Proposals

Study of the impact of the 1982 war in Lebanon onIsraeli reserve soldiers' and protest leaders' percep-tions of war as a means to achieve political goals.

Hebrew UniversityJerusalem, IsraelBaruch Kimmerling, ProjectDirector$20,000 (007-2-90)

Edited volume on arms control in the Middle East,addressing such topics as nuclear proliferation,conventional arms transfers, confidence- and security-building measures, tacit arms control, and newverification technologies.

Henry L. Stinson CenterWashington, D.C.Alan Platt, Project Director$29,845 (037-2-90)

Assessment of the efficacy of technical and scientificcooperation in reducing international conflict througha study of the Cooperative Marine TechnologyProgram for the Middle East. This cooperativeventure between Egypt, Israel, and the United Statesmay serve as a model for similar efforts to promotepeace through technical cooperation both in theMiddle East and elsewhere.

New Jersey MarineSciences ConsortiumFt. Hancock, New JerseyRobert B. Abel, Project Director$25,000 (134-91S)

Study of the place of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI)in the new world order, including the IRI's probableforeign policy orientationparticularly in the PersianGulf regionand likely shifts in that policy in thepost-Khomeini era.

University of ChicagoChicago, IllinoisKhosrow Shaken, ProjectDirector$30,000 (36-90F0)

Study of U.S.-Israeli security relationship as affectedby the changing perception of the Soviet threat.

Puschel, KarenWashington, D.C.Karen Puschel, Project Director$35,000 (058-2-90)

Education program to explore a phased approach tothe achievement of peace between Israelis andPalestinians.

Stages for PeaceJerusalem, IsraelShmuel Toledano, ProjectDirector$35,000 (22-90F)

Research on ways in which Arab states have at-tempted, since the late 1960s, to contain and manageconflicts and rivalries, avoid war, and preserve ameasure of regional stability, including the effective-ness and utility of Arab conflict management tech-niques in pacifying current and possible futureMiddle East conflicts.

Tel Aviv UniversityTel Aviv, IsraelBruce Maddy Weitzman andJoseph Kostiner, ProjectDirectors$25,000 (111-90F)

Study of the economic consequences and impact onIsrael, Jordan, and the Palestinians of current propos-als in the Palestinian-Israeli peace process, focusingon such issues as resettlement costs, immigrantabsorption, employment and income, trade, and thecost of financing a transition to peace.

88

Washington Institute for NearEast PolicyWashington, D.C.Patrick Clawson, ProjectDirector$20,000 (020-3-90)

Post-Cold WarNortheast Asia

11011111111111111=1111

Ethno-PoliticalRelations in theSino-SovietBorder Region

IIIIIIMEMINNI111111111110111MI

India andSecurity in SouthAsia

U.S.-NorthVietnameseWartimeNegotiations

Stability andthe KoreanPeninsula

1111111111111111111131111111111111

ConflictResolution in theSouth China Sea

REGIONAL AND NATIONAL CONFLICTS ANDREGIONAL SECURITY-ASIA

Research on the development and assessment ofpossible approaches for a transition to anonadversarial post-Cold War relationship amongmajor powers in Northeast Asia, including Russian,Chinese, Japanese, and American perspectives on thenature of the relationship; and modalities for easingtensions, reducing forces, and enhancing securitycooperation in the region.

Banning, GarrettAlexandria, VirginiaGarrett Banning, ProjectDirector$30,000 (76-90F)

Research on ethno-political relationships in the Sino-Soviet border region, with particular emphasis oncross-border interactions among Inner Asian Muslimpeoples and the dynamics of Mongolian nationalassertiveness across jurisdictions in China and theformer Soviet Union.

Central Asian FoundationKansasville, WisconsinPaul B. Henze, Project Directo$30,000 (36-915)

Examination of the prospects for peace and war inSouth Asia and the Indian Ocean Basin, focusing onthe reasons for India's military buildup; India's role inregional and international relations; perceivedmilitary threats to India; elite attitudes toward warand peace, collective security, ?nd conflict resolution;and the regional implications of India's foreign anddefense policies.

Foreign Policy ResearchInstitutePhiladelphia, PennsylvaniaRoss H. Munro, ProjectDirector$40,000 (94-91S)

Continued study of negotiations between the UnitedStates and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam(North Vietnam) during the Vietnam War.

George Mason UniversityFairfax, VirginiaBui Diem and Nguyen Hung,Project Directors$15,000 (103-3)

Research on confidence-building measures toincrease stability and reduce tensions on the Koreanpeninsula.

Henry L. Stimson CenterWashington, D.C.Catherine Fisher, ProjectDirector$11,550 (090-2-90)

Research on the potential for conflict and means formanaging and resolving interstate rivalry in the SouthChina Sea, including development of a paradigm forThird World conflict prevention and resolution in thepost-Cold War strategic environment.

89 1 (j 0

International Center forDevelopment PolicyWashington, D.C.Ning Lu, Project Director$30,000 (47-90F)

The UV and theCambodianConflict

1111111111111=11111111M1111

Stability andPeacekeeping inSouth Asia

Soviet-Japanese-AmericanRelations andNortheast AsiaSecurity andEconomics

MINIU11111111111111111111111M11111E

ConflictReductionWorkshop

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The ChangingU.S. MilitaryPresence in thePhilippines

Soviet-AmericanCooperation andConflict Resolu-tion in Afghani-stan and Kashmir

Asia-PacificDialogueConference

Re-,eat ch on the Cambodian conflict and the efforts toresolve it through political compromisebrokeredand administered by the United Nationsfocusingon details of the UN plan of August 1990 and itscurrent status, and the possible future course of theCambodian peace process if the UN plan stalls orcollapses.

Johns Hopkins ForeignPolicy InstituteWashington, D.C.Fredrick Z. Brown, ProjectDirector522,000 (19-91S)

Study of strategic stability and peacekeeping in SouthAsia, including internal security and the threat ofnational disintegration, conflict management and thethreats to institutions in countries that are currentlydemocratic, and transregional spillover effects and thethreats to regional security.

Marquette UniversityMilwaukee, WisconsinRaju G.C. Thomas, ProjectDirector$20,000 (82-915)

Study of the impact of Soviet-Japanese-Americanrelations on the development of new internationalsecurity and economic arrangements in NortheastAsia, including the Northern Islands issue, and theongoing negotiations that may result in a settlementthat will establish new parameters for post-Cold Warsecurity and economic order in the region.

National Bureau of Asianand Soviet ResearchSeattle, WashingtonHerbert Ellison and DonaldHellman, Project DirectorsS30,000 (122-90F)

Workshop for scholars and practitioners from policyinstitutes in the Asia-Pacific region at which partici-pants Nvill develop strategies for anticipating andreducing the potential for regional conflict.

Pacific ForumHonolulu, HawaiiRichard L. Grant, ProjectDirector530,000 (115-3)

Study of approaches for the peaceful resolution ofissues of sovereignty and compensation between theUnited States and the Philippines, including thechanging nature of the U.S. military presence and thepositive benefits of those changes to both countriesand the region in general.

Pacific FuturesDevelopment CenterManila, PhilippinesAlejandro Melchor, Jr., ProjectDirector530,000 (041-3-90)

Joint research between Soviet and American scholarson ways to reduce tensions in Afghanistan andKashmir, focusing on possible cooperative efforts bythe United States and the former Soviet Union to helpresolve these conflicts.

The Asia SocietyNew York, New YorkK.A. Namkung, ProjectDirector$30,000 (27-91S)

Second in a series of conferencesThe Asia-PacificDialoguefocusing on the continuing conflict withinCambodia, and on the conflict between North andSouth Korea. Participants will include leadingscholars and practitioners from the Asia-Pacificregion.

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University of HawaiiInstitute for PeaceHonolulu, HawaiiStephen Uhalley, ProjectDirector525,000 (116-3)

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Chinese PoliciesToward Korea

Study of China's Korea policy and the implications ofthat policy for peace and security in East Asia,including key factors in China's Korea policy, theevolution of this policy since 1949, and possible futureoptions for China and her neighbors in light ofchanging security relationships in East Asia.

Washington Center for ChinaStudiesWashington, D.C.Hao Jia and Zhuang Qu-bing,Project Directors$44,000 (123-90F)

Civil - MilitaryRelations inLatin America

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FosteringDemocraticGovernments

Impact ofConflict-ResolutionEfforts inPanama

Democracy andMilitary Expen-ditures in SouthAmerica

Peruvian DrugTrafficking

REGIONAL AND NATIONAL CONFLICTS ANDREGIONAL SECURITY-LATIN AMERICA ANDTHE CARIBBEAN

Continuation of a series of studies on civil-militaryrelations in Latin America, focusing on extraregionaldevelopments such as the easing of EastWesttensions, intraregional issues such as drug trafficking,narco-terrorism, environmental degradation, and theevolution of democratic politics.

American UniversityWashington, D.C.Louis W. Goodman, ProjectDirector$30,000 (SG 28-0)

Research on issues challenging the consolidation ofdemocratic governance in Colombia, El Salvador,Guatemala, and Peru, focusing on techniques thecivilian governments of these countries might employto combat insurgencies, drug traffic1-..1-- and othersustained violence while preservin,,, ar 3 expandingthe protection of basic democratic frt.. ..loms.

Aspen Institute (Inter-American Dialogue)Washington, D.C.Richard Nuccio, ProjectDirector$40,000 (SG 100-0)

Research on the implications for U.S. policy of recentevents in Panama, including reasons for the failure topeacefully resolve the Panama crisis, the impact ofU.S. military action during the crisis, and the evolu-tion of democracy in Panama, and lessons that may beapplied to other instances of political transition fromauthoritarian to democratic regimes.

Center for Strategic andInternational StudiesWashington, D.C.Georges Fauriol, ProjectDirector$30,000 (SG 81-0)

Comparative study of military expenditures as apotential threat to development and democratizationin Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and Peru from1969 through 1989, including the impact of defensespending on growth, savings and investment, andbalance of payments.

Centro de InvestigacionesEuropeoLatinoamericanas(EURAL)Buenos Aires, ArgentinaThomas Scheetz, ProjectDirector$20,000 (182-90F)

Research on drug trafficking as a security and foreignpolicy issue in Peru, including the nature of the threatas defined in producing, consumer, and transitcountries; the local and regional implications of drugtrafficking; and national and multilateral approachesto combating and eliminating the problem.

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Centro Peruano de EstudiosInternacionales (CEPEI)Lima, PeruAlejandro Deustua Caravedo,Project Director$30,000 (SG 51-0)

Transition fromDictatorship toDemocracy inArgentina

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Civilian-MilitaryDialogues inArgentina

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CocaineTrafficking inColombia andthe Andes

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Sources ofConflict inNicaragua and ElSalvador

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Effectiveness ofthe Inter-AmericanSecurity System

Resolving theFalklands/MalvinasDispute

Research on democratic institutions and human rightspolicies during periods of transition from dictatorshipto democracy, focusing on the treatment of formergovernment officials and on the responses of theArgentine judiciary and military to the transitionalpolicies of the Alfonsin and Menem governmentsfrom 1983 through 1990, with comparisons betweenexperiences in Chile and Uruguay.

Facultad Latinoamericanas deCiencias SocialesBuenos Aires, ArgentinaJaime Malamucl-Doti, ProjectDirector$34,500 (SG 83-0)

Civilian-military dialogues to develop a clearerunderstanding of the role of the armed forces in ademocratic society and of appropriate civilianoversight of the military in Argentina. Materials fortraining a professional civilian staff, particularly forArgentina's congressional defense communities, willalso be prepared.

Fontana, AndresBuenos Aires, ArgentinaAndres Fontana, ProjectDirector$10,000 (201-91S)

Analysis of various approaches to the problem of thecocaine trade in Colombia and elsewhere in theAndes, including a review of the possible policy ofnegotiations with drug traffickers (since implementedby the government of Colombia), and examination ofways to use market forces to shift large numbers ofAndean coca farmers and cocaine processors intogrowing alternative crops or other occupations.

Foreign Policy ResearchInstitutePhiladelphia, PennsylvaniaRensselaer W. Lee III, ProjectDirector$30,000 (SG 25-0)

Examination of the internal and external sources ofconflict in Nicaragua and El Salvador during the1980s, with particular reference to Soviet policy andinvolvement, and changes that have effected positivemovement in each country toward peace and demo-cratic governance, including suggestions of ways foreach country to achieve full reconciliation betweenopposing groups and democratic civilian control overthe military.

Georgetown UniversityWashington, D.C.Sergo A. Mikoyan, ProjectDirector$46,000 (SG 39-91)

Research on the effectiveness of the existing inter-American security system to deal with new securitythreats to the Western Hemisphere, includingproposals and recommendations designed tostimulate public discussion and policy deliberation.

Inter-American SecurityEducational InstituteWashington, D.C.William Perry, Project Director$40,000 (SG 66-0)

Conference of Argentine and British experts on theFalklands/Malvinas dispute who will examine thejuridical-historical claims and political realities thatpose obstacles to the resolution of the dispute, andconsider prospects under the Menem administration,resulting in a book.

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Johns Hopkins University,School of AdvancedInternational StudiesWashington, D.C.Riordan Roett and WayneSmith, Project Directors$30,000 (020-2-90)

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Religion andTransitions fromMilitary toCivilian Rule

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Mexico andCompetitiveDemocracy

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The Military andDemocratic Rulein Uruguay

SecurityPerceptions andDefense Policies

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ConflictResolutionPolicies inColombia

NonviolentOpposition toDictatorship inPanama

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PresidentialLeadership andDemocracy inArgentina, Chile,and Uruguay

Research on the role of the Roman Catholic Church inthe transition from military to civilian rule and thedevelopment of democratic institutions and practicesin Chile and Peru, including a look at the various"Catholic communities" in each country and thesocietal forces and pressures by which they areconditioned.

Marquette UniversityMilwaukee, WisconsinMichael Fleet and Brian Smith,Project Directors$22,000 (SG 142-0)

Study of whether Mexico can successfully make thetransition from a one-party system to a competitivedemocracy, focusing on the political participation ofMexico's middle classes, with particular attention tothe declining legitimacy of Mexico's ruling partyamong the middle classes.

New School for SocialResearchNew York, New YorkDiane E. Davis, Project Director$25,832 (SG 71-91)

Research on the social and cultural characteristics ofthe officer corps in Uruguay's military and on ways torecruit officer corps candidates that will strengthensupport within the army for democratic rule.

PEITHOMontevideo, UruguayJuan Rial, Project Director$23,000 (SG-53-91)

Comparison and analysis of the principal aspects ofthe defense policies of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru,and Venezuela in terms of domestic and foreigninfluencesfocusing on the "security perceptions"that tend to inspire such policiesand an examina-tion of existing regional collective security arrange-ments that may serve as models for these countries.

Programa de Seguimiento delas Politicas ExterioresLatinoamericanas iPROSPEL)Santiago, ChileBoris Yopo, Project Director$30,000 (SG 112-0)

Study of the conflict resolution policies and efforts tocurtail violence by the past four Colombian presi-dents in reaction to violence perpetrated by guerrillagroups, drug dealers, and death squads.

University of AlabamaTuscaloosa, AlabamaHarvey F. Kline, ProjectDirector$35,000 (SG-24-91)

Research on nonviolent opposition to dictatorship,with a case study of the opposition organized by theNational Civic crusade against General ManuelNoriega's dictatorship in Panama and the continuedactivities of the crusade during the initial years ofcivilian rule.

University of Arkansasat Little RockLittle Rock, ArkansasMargaret E. Scranton, ProjectDirector$35,000 (SG-45-91)

Study of presidential leadership following the returnto democratic rule in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguayin order to understand the degree to which electedpresidents have been able to reshape inheritedauthoritarian structures and to provide effective,democratic leadership and forestall a return tomilitary control.

93

University of Chile, Institutode Ciencia PoliticaSantiago, ChileAlfredo Rehren, ProjectDirector$20,000 (SG-26-91)

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PoliticalIdeology andMilitaryDoctrine inArgentina andEcuador

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Demilitarizationof CentralAmerica

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CaribbeanSecurity

Research on the interplay of political ideology andmilitary doctrine in shaping the perceptions of themilitary in Argentina and Ecuador about their role inpolitics, including alternative military doctrines andpolitical strategies for encouraging more democraticpatterns of civil-military relations.

University of ColoradoBoulder, ColoradoJ. Samuel Fitch, Project Director$15,000 (SG 89-0)

Research on the prospects for regionwide demilitari-zation of Central America, based upon multilateral,negotiated, phased reductions in the size and politicalautonomy of military institutions.

University of New MexicoAlbuquerque, New MexicoWilliam D. Stanley, ProjectDirector$20,000 (SG-57-91)

Study of Caribbean regional security from theperspective of the small, democratic, independentstates in the region, including the history of securitypolicies in the region from 1940 to the present, ananalysis of the new security threat posed by drugtrafficking, and an assessment of external security.

University of SheffieldSheffield, EnglandAnthony Payne, ProjectDirector$20,000 (SG 11 -0)

Ethnic Conflictand MuslimEmigres in theWest

Workshops onNorthern Ireland

Miiii111111Labor Migrationsand Conflict

REGIONAL AND NATIONAL CONFLICTS ANDREGIONAL SECURITY-EUROPE

Research on the potential for conflict between emigreMuslims in the West and the native citizens of theiradopted countries, including ways in which theseconflicts can be avoided or ameliorated.

Foreign Policy ResearchInstitutePhiladelphia, PennsylvaniaDaniel Pipes, Project Director$25,000 (112-90F)

Conference and series of workshops on the termina-tion of deep-n, :ed and protracted conflict in North-ern Ireland.

George Mason University,Center for Conflict Analysisand ResolutionFairfax, VirginiaJames Laue, Project Director$11,000 (112-2-90 and 644)

Study of the impact of labor migrations from South-ern Europe and North Africa to Western Europe,including patterns of integration of nine labormigrant groups in six major European countries; andthe potential for increased economic, social, political,and cultural conflicts between the labor migrants,other groups of foreign citizens, and different strata ofthe host country.

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94

Tufts UniversityMedford, MassachusettsRosemarie Rogers, ProjectDirector$35,000 (145-90F)

ummillimmersamiEthnic Conflict inthe USSR

Conference and published proceedings on ethnicconflict in the former USSR and its implications forinternational peace and stability. Among the issues tobe addressed is the role of external groups in exacer-bating and mediating ethnic conflict.

University of MichiganAnn Arbor, MichiganZvi Gitelman, Ronald Suny,and Roman Szporluk, ProjectDirectors$25,000 (073-3)

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Religion,Morality, andWar Text

NonviolentMethods forConflictResolution

Ethics of Warand NuclearDeterrence

RELIGION, ETHICS, AND NONVIOLENCE

College text and accompanying book of readings onreligion, morality, and war that present religious andethical perspectives on war and peacefrom biblicaltimes to the present.

Swarthmore CollegeSwarthmore, PennsylvaniaJ. William Frost, ProjectDirector$20,000 (131-91S)

Study, of the use of nonviolent methods to resolvefundamental political, social, and economic conflictsbetween dominant and disempowered segments ofsociety.

University of ColoradoBoulder, ColoradoPaul Wehr, Guy Burgess, andHeidi Burgess$10,000 (172-90F)

Teacher Trainingon the MiddleEast

InternationalEducationCurricula

Book on the ethics of war and nuclear deterrence,including the principles that determine when it ispermissible to engage in a defensive war, the scope ofviolence that is morally permissible, and the ethicalpermissibility of certain exceptional types ofnondefensive war.

University of IllinoisUrbana-Champaign, IllinoisJeff McMahan, Project Direct()$25,000 (180-91S)

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Seminar for high school and college teachers in WestVirginian and central Appalachian institutions for thepurpose of developing teaching materials on variousconflicts and the prospects for peace in the MiddleEast.

Alderson-Broaddus CollegePhilippi, West VirginiaJames W. Daddysman, ProjectDirector$30,000 (198-91S)

Guidelines for strengthening precollegiate interna-tional education programs, including preparation ofinstructional materials, establishment of curriculumresource centers, and teacher education.

95

Alliance for Education onGlobal and InternationalStudies (AEGIS)New York, New YorkRonald Herring, ProjectDirector$30,000 (088-2-90)

wilammrommormGuidelines forBalancedEducation aboutthe World

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Teacher Trainingon Arms Control

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Teacher Trainingon Peace andSecurity Issues

Teacher Trainingon Religion andEthnicNationalism

momiummeorsrCurriculumDevelopment andTeacher Trainingin Peace andSecurity Studies

PeacekeepingCurriculumDevelopment andTeacher Training

World AffairsTeacherWorkshops

Guidelines and concept papers to help educatorsbring issues of global controversy into the classroom,and regional conferences and seminars (in five areasof the United States) to assist state and local educatorsin developing means for addressing those issues intheir schools.

Alliance for Education onGlobal and InternationalStudies (AEGIS)New York, New YorkRonald Herring and Pamela L.Wilson, Project Directors$50,000 (169-91S)

Two-week summer course on arms control andinternational security for secondary school socialscience teachers, including a lecture series anddiscussions in Washington, D.C., with federalgovernment authorities representing the principalagencies in arms control and security.

Clemson UniversityThe Strom Thurmond InstituteClemson, South CarolinaEdward Hamilton, ProjectDirector$20,000 (031-3)

Teacher training on peace and security issues thathave arisen since 1945. Four weekend institutes,conducted by university faculty, will prepare selectedAmerican studies senior high school teachers toinstruct other senior high school teachers in satelliteworkshops throughout the Mid-Atlantic region.

Council of Chief State SchoolOfficersWashington, D.C.Fred Czarra, Project Director$60,000 (SG-12-91)

Lecture and workshop program series on the impactof religion and ethnic nationalism in shaping theprospects for peace and conflict in the post-Cold Warera. Conducted by FPRI and the Camden CountyCollege, the series will provide teacher training andcurriculum development for secondary level teachersin the twenty-three high schools in Camden County,New Jersey.

Foreign Policy ResearchInstitute (FPRI)Philadelphia, PennsylvaniaAlan Luxenberg, ProjectDirector$50,000 (SG-23-91)

Peace and security studies curriculum developmentand training for secondary school teachers and facultyof historically black colleges and universities inMississippi and Arkansas.

Mississippi State University,Center for InternationalSecurity and Strategic StudiesMississippi State, MississippiJanos Radvanyi, ProjectDirector$20,000 (52-91S)

Continuing support of a curriculum project, includinga program of teacher training workshops on thesubject of peacekeeping in the nuclear age.

National Institute for PublicPolicyFairfax, VirginiaKeith Payne, Project Director$40,000 (107-90F)

Workshops for high school social science teachersaimed at improving the quality of instruction inworld affairs through development of curricula onthe changing nature of issues in world peace andsecurity.

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New Hampshire Council onWorld AffairsDurham, New HampshireDavid Larson, Project Director$10,000 (123-3)

Peace andConflict Manage-ment Curriculaand Training

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Ethnic ConflictCurricula andWorkshops

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Teacher Trainingon ConflictAnalysis andManagement

isiummommorrCurriculaDevelopment onEastern Europeand the SovietUnion

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Global Changeand PublicPolicy ComputerSimulation

InternationalConflictManagementTeacher Training

Curriculum materials on international peace andconflict management for high school social studiescourses, and for establishment of a national trainingprogram that disseminates those materials and helpseducational leadersstate social studies coordinators,district supervisors, district resource personneltocreate local programs to train classroom teachers.

Ohio State University(Mershon Center)Columbus, OhioJames E. Hart., Project Director$75,000 (SG-66-91)

Development of curricular materials for both univer-sities and high schools on ethnic conflict in Europeand in the Middle East. Teaching modules will beprepared, teacher training workshops organized,public forums held, and modules disseminatednationally.

San Diego State UniversitySan Diego, CaliforniaDipak Gupta and Elsie Begler,Project Directors$50,000 (SG-13-91)

Training program in international conflict analysisand management for secondary school educators.The North Bay International Studies Project will use aseries of educational programs, including a summerinstitute, to assist fifty teacher-leaders in developing apacket of lessons, which will then be distributedthroughout California.

Sonoma State UniversityRohnert Park, CaliforniaCarol B. Eber, Project Director$45,000 (SG-49-91)

Second-year support for the preparation and publica-tion of the Stanford Program on International andCross-Cultural Education's (SPICE's) units on EasternEurope and the Soviet Union, including The CulturalDiversity of tile Soviet Union and Post-War EasternEurope. A staff development institute will introducethese materials, which will be disseminated across thecountry.

Stanford UniversityStanford, CaliforniaNorman Naimark, ProjectDirector$50,000 (SG-42-91)

Computer simulation, an accompanying studentmanual, and a corresponding set of instructionalactivities to assist high school and university studentsin understanding the process of global change(including demographic, agricultural, energy,economic, political, and environmental change) andthe difficulties of developing cooperative interna-tional public policy.

University of DenverDenver, ColoradoBarry B. Hughes, ProjectDirector$50,000 (SG-17-91)

Teacher training on managing international conflict,including peacekeeping, negotiation, third-partymediation, and citizen group intervention. Teacherswill learn about substantive issues, develop alterna-tive pedagogical strategies, and construct modules fordissemination to teachers in Kentucky.

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University of KentuckyLexington, KentuckyKaren A. Mingst and AngeneH. Wilson, Project Directors$50,000 (SG-52-91)

InternationalNegotiation andForeign PolicyDecision MakingSimulations

Middle EastConflictCurriculum

111171111111National Securityand PeacemakingCurriculum

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Peace StudiesTeacher Training

An international communication and negotiationsimulations projeci that builds on the experience ofWhittier College in training high school studentsinternational negotiation and foreign policy decisionmaking: three new regional negotiation centers willbe created, participating teachers will be trained,training materials and a technical manual will beassembled and disseminated, and simulation exer-cises will be implemented.

University of MarylandCollege Park, MarylandJonathan Wilkenfeld and JoyceKaufman, Project Directors$70,000 (SG-80-91)

Curricular materials for high schools and communitycolleges on the sources and possible resolutions toconflict in the Middle East, including subjects such aswater scarcity, ArabIsraeli conflict, religious conflict,and income inequality. A summer institute for fiftyteachers will be organized.

University of MichiganAnn Arbor, MichiganRobin Barlow, Project Director$45,000 (SG-65-91)

Curriculum on issues of national security andpeacemaking from local, national, and internationalperspectives that will be used in St. Louis secondaryschools. The project includes a summer institute forsecondary school teachers.

University of Missouri, Centerfor International StudiesSt. Louis, MissouriJoel Glassman, Project Director$25,000 (056-2-90)

Teacher training, and the development and dissemi-nation of educational resources and teaching guideson international conflict, security, and peacemaking.

University of Missouri, Centerfor International StudiesSt. Louis, MissouriJoel Glassman, Project Director$20,000 (74-91S)

Peace andConflictResolutionCurriculum

MNIIMIIMPE=MMI

FacultyWorkshop onSoviet Union andEastern Europe

HIGHER EDUCATION

Cooperative curriculum development project to helpfive midwestern colleges integrate perspectives onpeace and conflict resolution into courses across theircurriculum.

Concordia College, NobelPeace Prize CommitteeDecorah, IowaBruce Stuart, Project Director$35,000 (079-2-90)

College-level faculty workshop on the Soviet Unionand Eastern Europe and evolving SovietAmericanrelations. Participants examined critical develop-ments in the Soviet Union t nd Eastern Europe andtheir implications for world peace and security.

Five College Consortium,Program in Peace and WorldSecuritiesHampshire CollegeAmherst, MassachusettsMichael Klare and WilliamTaubman, Project Directors$15,000 (056-3-90)

Peace, ConflictResolution, andInternationalStudies

Approaches toTeaching PeaceandInternationalRelations

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Peace Studies forHistoricallyBlack Collegesand Universities

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Cold War andNew WorldOrderInstructionalMaterials

Europe and USSRConflict Resolu-tion Curriculum

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TeacherWorkshop onGlobalCooperation

Computer-AidedNegotiationSimulation

Expansion of the Mississippi State UniversityProgram on Peace, Conflict Resolution, and Interna-tional Security Studies to the University of Alabamain Birmingham, and the University of Arkansas inLittle Rock, including curriculum development,teacher training, and public outreach.

Mississippi State University,Center for Internationalsecurity and Strategic StudiesMississippi State, MississippiIanos Radvanyi, ProjectDirector$50,000 (028-3)

Study of approaches to teaching undergraduate peaceand international relations courses in Britain, France,Hungary, and the former USSR.

Newbrough, MichaelPalomar CollegeSan Marcos, CaliforniaMichael Newbrough, ProjectDirector$6,000 (003-2-90)

Study to assess the feasibility, including the require-ments and opportunities, of teaching and researchinginternational security, conflict management, andrelated subjects at historically black colleges anduniversities.

Phelps-Stokes FundNew York, New YorkWilbert J. LeMelle, ProjectDirector$15,000 (129-91S)

Preparation of instructional manuals for high schoolteachers, college and university faculty, and civicorganizations based on a 1990 Southern Centertelevision program that brought former U.S. secretar-ies of state and defense together for a discussion ofthe end of the Cold War and the emerging new worldorder.

Southern Center for Interna-tional StudiesAtlanta, GeorgiaJulia Johnson White, ProjectDirector$40,000 (9-91S)

Development and dissemination of five curriculumunits on the themes of conflict, conflict reduction, andconflict resolution in Western Europe, the formerUSSR, and Eastern Europe.

Stanford UniversityPalo Alto, CaliforniaNorman Naimark and HansWeiller, Project Directors$30,000 (059-2-90)

Workshop for college instructors on global coopera-tion, focusing on peace and security. The workshop ispart of a series that also focuses on environmentaland NorthSouth issues, and is designed to increaseawareness of the significant role of internationaleducation in advancing global cooperation.

West Virginia UniversityMorgantown, West VirginiaSophia Peterson, ProjectDirector$10,000 (132-3)

Continuation of a computer-aided internationalnegotiation simulation project (ICONS) for under-graduate students. The project will expand to includea simulation with a Pacific Basin emphasis forstudents in fifteen high schools throughout thewestern United States.

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Whittier CollegeWhittier, CaliforniaJoyce Kaufman, ProjectDirector540,000 (113-3)

Cross-CulturalDiscussion Series

Clearinghousefor PeaceInformation

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Film Library onthe UN

RegionalConflictsDiscussion Seriesand RadioBroadcasts

PUBLIC EDUCATION

Citizen discussion series and follow-on high school-and college-level curriculum on alternative visions ofEuropean security. Material developed will be usedas the basis for linked discussions between citizenstudy groups in America and their counterparts inCentral Europe.

Brown UniversityProvidence, Rhode IslandSusan Graseck, Project Director$12,000 (140-90F)

Public affairs and program activities to direct theattention of members of national educational organi-zations to the importance of international relations,with an emphasis on issues of peace, war, and conflictmanagement.

Council for the Advancementof CitizenshipWashington, D.C.John Buchanan, ProjectDirector$74,900 (058-3)

Development of a film library that emphasizes theUN's functional role in achieving world peace. Theproject will attempt to increase public understandingof the problem-solving activities of the UN.

United Nations Associationof BerkeleyBerkeley, CaliforniaCarol Mosher, Project Director$10,000 (126-3)

Series of public discussion programs and radiobroadcasts on six regional conflicts for residents of theBay Area. The series is intended to promote dialogue,increase public awareness, and provide teachers withmaterials for curriculum units.

World Affairs Council ofNorthern CaliforniaSan Francisco, CaliforniaKimberly Weichel, ProjectDirector$15,000 (151-91S)

Gray Literatureon Peace andSecurity

Arms ControlandDisarmamentBibliography

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SERVICES

Report on the feasibility of establishing a clearing-house that provides systematic bibliographic controlof reports, occasional papers, conference proceedings,substantive newsletters, and other literature thatrelate to peace, security, and international relations.

ACCESS: A SecurityInformation ServiceWashington, D.C.Mary Lord, Project DirectorS25,200 (154-90F)

Comprehensive, up-to-date bibliography to helpresearchers locate basic literature on contemporaryand historical events that relate to arms control anddisarmament issues.

California State UniversityLos Angeles, CaliforniaRichard Burns, Project Director$14,220 (20-90F)

1M11=1111111InternationalLaw Library

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Peace ResourceCatalog

Library andResource Center

RegionalConflictsSoftware

Ii1M11111111ConflictManagement andPeace StudiesMaterialsAcquisition

LibraryCollectionAcquisition

Survey,Cataloging, andMicrofilming ofPeace Collection

Computer-basedPeace ResearchInformationSystem

Conversion of the remaining paper card catalogrecords of the International Law Collection of theColumbia University Law School Library intocomputer-usable electronic records that can be addedto two national library computer networks.

Columbia UniversityNew York, New YorkKent McKeever, ProjectDirector$20,000 (022-2-90)

Development of a comprehensive collection ofpeacekeeping resources that will be accessible toresearchers and practitioners, including an on-linecatalog of the Peace Academy's existing collection ofsome 3,500 volumes and documents.

International Peace AcademyNew York, New YorkOlara A. Otunnu, ProjectDirector$25,000 (060-2-90)

Development of a library and media resources centerthrough the acquisition of books and videotapes onconflict management, global education, world trade,and international development.

Iowa Peace InstituteGrinnell, IowaJohn McDonald, ProjectDirector$20,000 (038-3)

Educational software programthe Computer-AidedSystem for Analysis of Local Conflicts (CASCON)designed to improve understanding of repetitiouspatterns in regional conflicts.

Massachusetts Institute ofTechnologyCambridge, MassachusettsLincoln Bloomfield, ProjectDirector540,000 (027-2-90)

Acquisition of simulations, books, and other materialsrelated to conflict management and peace studies, foruse at the secondary and collegiate levels. The projectwill also include training for personnel in the use ofsimulations in instructional settings.

Oregon Peace InstitutePortland, OregonElizabeth Furse, ProjectDirector$30,000 (169-90F)

Development of a peace studies program throughacquisition of basic library materials: materials willbe made available to institutions and citizens in theInstitute's service region to enhance research andeducational opportunities.

Rocky Mountain CollegeBillings, MontanaDon Petterson, Project Director$15,000 (055-3)

Survey, cataloging, and microfilming unprocessedcollections relating to peace currently in the Society'slibrary.

State Historical Societyof WisconsinMadison, WisconsinJames P. Danky, ProjectDirector$11,000 (062-2-90)

Improvements and expansion of the peace researchcomponent of the International Exchange Programasystem for sharing computer-based informationpertaining to peace research and conflict resolutionthrough the collection of bibliographic and otherinformation from other computer systems worldwide.

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University of ColoradoBoulder, ColoradoPaul Wehr, Project Director$16,200 (170-91S)

Database ofGenocide,Politicide,Massacres, andOther Killings

Acquisition ofMaterials onEastern Europeanand SovietDemocratization

Continued development of a coded database for thepurpose of examining cases of twentieth-centurygenocide, politicide, massacres, and other intentionalkilling, focusing on cases in the Soviet Union, thePeople's Republic of China, and Taiwan.

University of HawaiiFoundationHonolulu, HawaiiR.J. Rummel, Project Director$25,000 (010-3)

Acquisition and processing of new materials fromEastern Europe and Russia on democratization andpeace, including books, and ephemera, such aspamphlets, irregular newspapers, broadsides, andposters documenting a historic period of change.

Yale UniversityNew Haven, ConnecticutJack Siggins, Project Director$25,000 (110-90F)

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HistoricalConcepts ofPeace

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AnPolicies andTerroristBehavior

NewInternationalOrder Conference

Terrorism andConflicts

Conflict Controlin the Kingdomof the Maya

OTHER

Research on the idea of peace through history, basedon selected documents and extracts from documentsthat represent the major concepts of peace fromantiquity to World War II. The project is beingundertaken in collaboration with the USSR Academyof Sciences.

Council on Peace Research inHistoryWittenberg UniversitySpringfield, OhioCharles Chatfield, ProjectDirector$40,000 (034-2)

Study of the effects of antiterrorist policies on terroristbehavior, including an examination of the conse-quences of retaliatory policies taken by Israel, SouthAfrica, and the United States.

George WashingtonUniversityWashington, D.C.Jerrold Post and Ariel Merari,Project Directors$25,000 (616)

Conference and related anthology of invited paperson the emerging new international order of the postCold War world.

St. Catherine's CollegeOxford, EnglandRobert Schuettinger, ProjectDirector$30,000 (188-91S)

Research on terrorism that attempts to integrate theterrorist phenomenon with a larger class of social,legal, and political conflicts, including developmentof a general theory of the life cycle of terrorism-producing radical movements and an "early warningsystem," both to identify the potential for terrorismand to help prevent it through expert intervention.

Sprinzak, EhudRockville, MarylandEhud Sprinzak, ProjectDirector$20,000 (80-90F)

Study of the system of conflict control during theperiod of the Kingdom of the Maya in CentralAmerica, including an examination of archaeologicalevidence to determine why this system of controlledconflict collapsed during the eighth century, precipi-tating a cycle of endemic warfare that eventuallydestroyed the entire civilization.

112

i

Vanderbilt Unive :tyNashville, TennesseeArthur Demarest, ProjectDirector$10,000 (082-3)

JENNINGS RANDOLPH FELLOWSHIP PROGRAM

\rvit VII -

111

In-residence Distinguished Fellows and Peace Fellows at the Institute in October 1990.

The Jennings Randolph Fellowship Programsupports outstanding individuals who arefocusing their professional energies on deter-mining the reasons for conflicts and evaluatingmethods for achieving peace. The Instituteaims to attract fellows from a diverse pool ofapplicants, including university researchers,policy analysts, U.S. and foreign diplomats,officials or staff from international organiza-tions, conciliators and mediators, journalists,educators, lawyers, clergy, social workers,business, other world leaders, and graduatestudents. Fellows include men and womenfrom different countries, different cultures, anddifferent generations.

To accommodate the different stages and needsof career development, the Institute providesstipends and supplementary support withinfour fellowship categories:

Pr7 Nrclf AMAMI

Distinguished Fellowseminent scholarsand practitioners whose careers are markedby extraordinary achievement;

Peace Fellowspersons in varied careerswho show substantial accomplishment andpromise for future leadership;

Visiting Fellowsprominent statesmen andother outstanding individuals who come tothe Institute generally for periods of two tosix months to carry out particularly timelyprojects; and

Peace Scholarsoutstanding doctoralstudents from American universities who areundertaking dissertation research thatadvances the state of knowledge aboutinternational peace and conflict manage-ment. Recipients must complete all gradu-ate workexclusive of their doctoral disser-tationbefore beginning the fellowship.

103-

Sought-After Expertise

Institute fellows have

Testified before committees of Congress.

Briefed senior executive branch officials.

Participated in the Conference on Security andCooperation in Europe meeting in Copenhagen.

Attended the summit meeting of the South AsianAssociation for Regional Cooperation.

Conducted a roundtable on "Identity GroupConflicts with Sovereign States: Incidence,Dynamics, and Resolution" at an annual meetingof the International Studies Association.

Participated in a UN-sponsored meeting on"Schemes of Self-Government for IndigenousPopulations."

With the exception of Peace Scholars, all fellowswork in residence at the Institute. PeaceScholars remain based at their universities.Fellowships have normally been for a one-yearperiod. Recipients for each type of award areselected through an annual, widely publicizedinternational competition.

GIVE-AND-TAKE BENEFITSFELLOWS AND COMMUNITYALIKE

Financial support is only one aspect of theInstitute's Fellowship program. To expedite thecompletion of individual projects, residentfellows have access to in-house services, such aslibrary resources and research, editorial, andclerical assistance. To maximize interdiscipli-nary collaboration and cross-fertilizationamong fellows, while enhancing personal andprofessional experiences, the program includesin-house collegial events as well as eventstargeted for specialists and institutions con-cerned with international relations. To makeuse of the wealth of pertinent knowledgeoffered by the fellows, the programs alsoinvolve them in the Institute's public educationeffort. Consequently, fellows not only interactwith each other, their respective professional

groups, policy analysts, and policvmakers, butthey also speak before citizen groups, localleaders, and students throughout the nation.Through these and other outreach efforts, suchas the Institute's Iii Briefseries and mediainterviews, the Institute is able to take thefindings and other results of fellows' NN'ork,even at preliminary stages of completion, andput them into formats that are of interest andvalue to decision makers and the public.

Professional Seminars

As part of their projects, Institute fellows havegathered experts for seminars on

"The Role of Unofficial Diplomacy in ConflictResolution."

"New Approaches to Arms Proliferation in theThird World."

"The Future of UN Peacekeeping."

"New Architecture: Alternative Security Modelsfor Europe."

"Superpower Conflict Resolution in Asia and thePacific;" and

"Beyond the Wall: The Future of SuperpowerConflict Resolution in the Third World."

Public Outreach

Institute fellows have contributed explanations ofevents and policy analysis to the following:

Op-ed pieces in The Washington Post, The NewYork Times, The Wall Street Journal, The ChristianScience Monitor, and numerous other dailynewspapers.

Interviews on national television, including CBSNews, "Good Morning America," "MacNeil LehrerNews Hour," CNN, and C-SPAN.

Interviews on National Public Radio, MonitorRadio, and numerous local stations.

Presentations to hundreds of high school andcollege students visiting the Institute.

Speeches to students, teachers, and civic groups inmore than twenty states.

GROWING RESULTS

In the selection of fellows, the Institute hassought to fund projects that address fundamen-tal policy-relevant questions. A few c.ramplesof fellowship foci include:

The opportunities and limits for superpowercooperation in resolving regional conflictssuch as the Persian Gulf crisis;

The implications of increased ethnic andreligion-based conflict throughout the worldin recent years, such as that in Kashmir andthe Sudan;

Feasible roles that the United N,:tions andother international bodies might play inestablishing an enforceable internationallegal order and promulgating human rightsnorms;

The practical lessons that can be applied toparticular conflicts from emerging researchand theory in the field of conflict resolution;and

The future roles that might he played byNATO, the European Community (EC), andthe Conference on Security and Cooperationin Europe (CSCE) in ensuring peace andsecurity in post-Cold War Europe.

More important, the work of the fellows isreaching every possible audience. Fellows havepublished eight books and written for numer-ous professional journals, magazines, andnewspapers.

Following are brief descriptions of Institutefellowships undertaken at least partially duringfiscal years 1990 and 1991. Several of theawards were approved in fiscal year 1991 forcommencement in fiscal year 1992.

Jennings Randolph Fellowship ProgramNumber of Fellowship Awards

105

FY89 FY90 FY91

Distinguished 3 2 3Peace Fellows 7 6 7

Visiting Fellows 2 2Peace Scholars 12 9 10

Chester Crocker(1989-90)

Alexander George(1990-92)

DISTINGUISHED FELLOWS

Fellowship Project: A bookabout flue roles played, and themediation techniques andprocesses used, by the UnitedStates and other third parties tosettle dispute's in SouthwestAfrica and bring about Namibianindependence and the withdrawalof Cuban forces from Angola.

('hester Crocker was United States assistant secretarystate for African affairs from 1981 to 1989. In this

capacity, he managed U.S. relations with all sub-Saharan African countries, serving as the principalmediator during the negotiations among Angola,Cuba, and South Africa that settled several disputes inSouthwest Africa. Previously he was associateprofessor of international relations at the School ofForeign Service, Georgetown University. He has alsoserved as a staff officer of the National SecurityCouncil and as a consultant to many governmentagencies and private corporations. Dr. Crocker haswritten a number of monographs and articles and isthe coeditor of the book South Africa into the 1980s. Heearned a Ph.D. in international politics and Africanstudies from the School of Advanced InternationalStudies of The Johns Hopkins University. His Institutefellowship project was undertaken at the GeorgetownUniversity School of Foreign Service, where he isDistinguished Research Professor of [Diplomacy.

Fellowship Project: Twostudies: one Olt coercive diplomacyas a strafes!' for internatimtalconflict management and the otheron the problems in bridging thegap between theory and practice inpeace and security decisionmakingIn early 1992, the Institute willpublish his mongraph, ForcefulI'ersuasion: Coercive Diplo-macy as an Alternative to War.

Alexander George is an expert in U.S.-Soviet rela-tions, crisis management, and diplomacy. His careerin international relations has spanned more than fivedecades. Since 1968, Professor George has served onthe faculty at Stanford University, where he is cur-rently the Graham H. Stuart Professor of InternationalRelations. He has also participated in a number ofhigh-level working groups and committees, includingthe Dartmouth Conference Task Force on RegionalConflicts, the National Academy of Sciences' Commit-tee on International Security and Arms Control, andthe joint U.S.-Soviet Committee on Contributions ofBehavioral and Social Sciences in Avoiding War.Before joining the Stanford faculty, Professor Georgeworked at RAND for twenty years, where for a timehe was head of the Social Science Department.Professor George is the author or coauthor of anumber of books, including Avoiding War: Problems ofCrisis Management. His first hook, Woodrow Wilson midColonel House, is widely regarded as a seminal study ofthe role of personality in politics. He earned his Ph.D.in political science from the University of Chicago.

106 1 1 7

Herbert Kelman(1989-901

Jamsheed Marker(1989-90)

11=111=1

Herman Nickel(1989-90)

Fellowship Project: Theintegration and expansion of workon the social-psychological aspectsof tlw analysis and resolution ofinternational conflict and a book,tentatively titled Mutual Reas-surance: Overcoming thePsychological Barriers toResolution of InternationalConflicts.

Herbert Kelman is a social scientist recognized for hwork in developing conflict resolution methods addapplying them to specific conflictssuch as the AralIsraeli dispute. His academic career has includedfaculty appointments at the Center for Research onConflict Resolution at the University of Michigan anat Harvard Universitywhere he is Richard ClarkeCabot Professor of Social Ethics in the Department aPsychology and is affiliated with Harvard's Center ftInternational Affairs. Dr. Kelman also has heldresearch fellow and visiting scholar status at StanfonUniversity, The Johns Hopkins University, theAmerican University in Cairo, the Woodrow WilsonInternational Center for Scholars, and the HebrewUniversity of Jerusalem. In addition to extensivepublication in journals, Dr. Kelman currently sits onthe editorial boards of the Journal of Conflict Resolutio,Human Relations, International Studies Quarterly, Peaceand Change: a Journal of Peace Research, and NegotiationQuarterly. He received his Ph.D. in psychology fromYale University in 1951.

Fellowship Project: An analysisof the withdrawal of Soviet fOrcesfrom Afghanistml; the end of theIran-Iraq warwith particularemphasis On the role of the UnitedStates; and the challenges andopportunities these events pose forfuture U.S. policy in that region ofthe world.

Jamsheed Marker became the permanent representsfive of Pakistan to the United Nations after complethhis Institute fellowship. Ambassador Marker'sdiplomatic career has spanned twenty-four years an(included posts in France, West Germany, Japan,Canada, East Germany, and the Soviet Union. AsPakistan's ambassador to the United States, he wasinvolved in the negotiations that led to the 1988Geneva Accords and the subsequent withdrawal ofSoviet troops from Afghanistan. He was also a sonicmember of Pakistan's delegation to the UN GeneralAssembly and its permanent representative to theEuropean Office of the United Nations, Geneva.Before entering diplomatic service, AmbassadorMarker was a successful businessman, directingseveral shipping, insurance, and banking corpora-tions. He graduated with honors in economics fr,nthe University of Punjab and served in the RoyalIndian Navy in World War II.

Fellowship Project: A book onthe potential role of economicinterdependence as a means ofbuilding peace among and withincountries in Southern Africa.

Herman Nickel was U.S. ambassador to the Republicof South Africa from 1982 to 1986. Previously heworked for nineteen years with Time-Life NewsService as correspondent in London andJohannesburg; as the bureau chief in Bonn, London,and Tokyo; and as a senior diplomatic correspondeniin Washington, D.C. He was also Washington editorfor Fortune magazine, and a member of the magazineeditorial board. Most recently, Ambassador Nickelserved as diplomat-in-residence and director of theSouthern African Studies Project at The Johns HopkiiForeign Policy Institute. Ambassador Nickel iscoauthor of Europe, America and South Africa and has

1071 J

INSIBEIONIMMINIEBOBIM

Herman Nickel Conti/wed

Mancur Olson(1990-91)

Eugene V. Rostow(1990-92)

been widely published in journals and other periodicalublications. In 1947 he became the first German

student to come to the United States after World WarII, on a scholarship to Union College. He earned hisJ.D. from Syracuse University.

Fellozoship Project: A mono-graph acrd articles that applyecounnic concepts and reasoningto problems of cooperation andconflict avoidance among nations.

Mancur Olson is currently Distinguished Professor ofEconomics at the University of Maryland, where hehas served as a faculty member for twenty-one years.His career in the field of economic and social policieshas spanned three decades and included positions atacademic and government institutions. His governmeat service positions have included vice chairman ofthe Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commis-sion and deputy assistant secretary for social indica-tors of the Department of Health, Education, andWelfare, where he played a leading role in developingtheories and methods for reporting on social indica-tors. His research has dealt with the effect of indi-vidual incentives on the,behavior of labor unions,social movements, interest groups, and other largegroups. A prolific writer, Dr. Olson is the author oftwo major books that have contributed to publicdebate about social and governmental behavior, The

Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory ofGroups and The Rise and Decline of Nations: EconomicGrowth, Stagflation, and Social Rigidities, which has beentranslated into eleven languages. l le has also heldfellowships at the American Association for theAdvancement of .5 lice, the American Academy ofArts and Sciences, the American Enterprise Institutefor Public Policy and Research, the Lehrman Institute,and the Woodrow Wilson International Center forScholars, and is a Rhodes scholar. Dr. Olson earnedhis Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University.

Fellowship Project: A book,Aggression and Self-Defense,that C.111111hICS the currentinternational le sal controls thatare intended to govern the use offarce by nations.

Eugene V. Rostow has devoted more than fifty yearsto the fields of law and public service. From 1984 to1990 he was distinguished research professor at theInstitute for National Strategic Studies at the NationalDefense University. Previously, he served as the U. S.under secretary of state for political affairs anddirector of the Arms Control and DisarmamentAgency. Professor Rostow has also been an informaladvisor to officials in several presidential administra-tions and served under the Secretariat of the UnitedNations. Before becoming a faculty member of theNational Defense University, he served for forty Yearson the faculty of Yale Law Schoolwith ten years asthe school's dean. He has held visiting fellowships orprofessorships at many institutions, including theUniversity of Chicago and Oxford and CambridgeUniversities, and has received a number of honorarydegrees. Professor Rostow is the author of a numberof books, including Laze, Power, and the Pursuit of Peace;Peace in the Balance; and The Ideal in Law.

108 7

#,)

Shimon Shamir(19qI-92)

IMMENNINIMMEINNIthalia

Louis R. Sohn(1991-921

Fellowship Project: Anexamination of linkages betweenunofficial and xobernmentalreconcilution processes in theIsraeli.-1-..,,,mptian relationships as aprecedent for peace-buildinNbel Wee!? Israel aunt other ArabShlteS.

Shimon Shamir is a prominent scholar on MiddleEast history 1 ta l e Arab world. Ile is known for hispioneering efforts in promoting discussions betweenIsraeli and Egyptian intellectuals and political leaderfollowing; the Camp David Accords and related effortthrough people-to-people peacemaking. Beforecoming to the Institute, he served as Israel's ambassa-dor to Egypt and director of the Israeli AcademicCenter in Cairo. Since 19b6, he has been a professor cModern History of the Middle East at Tel AvivUniversity. Ambassador Shamir has also authored oredited several books and many articles on Egypt andArabIsraeli relations and has played a central role informulating relationships among Israeli and Egyptiarscholars and educational institutions. He holds aPh.D. in oriental studies from Princeton University.

Fellowship Project: A book onthe mnse of lexal instruments forinternational dispute resolution.

Louis B. Sohn is one of the foremost scholars andpractitioners of international lawa field in which hehas worked for more than fifty years. Much of hisprofessional life has focused on international law as ameans for promoting peaceful settlements of conflictsamong nations. Since 198 I, Professor Sohn has beenWoodruff Professor of International Law at theUniversity of Georgia School of Law. For the preced-ing twenty years he was the Bemis Professor ofInternational Law at Harvard Law School. He hasserved both as U.S. counsel before the InternationalCourt of Justice and as chairman of the U.S. delega-tion to the Athens meeting on settlement of disputesbetween states parties to the Helsinki Final Act onSecurity and Cooperation in Europe. He has alsoserved on the U.S. delegation to the Third Law of theSea Conference, the UNESCO Congress on Disarma-ment Education, and the U.S. National Commissionfor UNESCO, and has been an advisor for the U.S.departments of State and Defense, the Arms Controland Disarmament Agency, and the UN Secretariat.He is a past president and current honorary vicepresident of the American Society of InternationalLaw and has authored numerous books and journalarticles. Professor Sohn earned his L.L.M and S.J.D.from Harvard Law School.

109n

t

Arun Elhance19()I-q2)

40*Muhammad Faour

(1991-921

Charles Glaser989-90)

PEACE FELLOWS

Fellowship Project: A compara-tive study of how disputes overseveral larse intentatiottal riversystems could lead to cooperationor conflict in fit a' regions of theThird World--Southeast Asia,North Africa. the Middle Last,South ..1-4a, and South America.

Arun Elhance has focused his career primarily on therelationship of environmental concerns, economicdevelopment, and human resources. and has alsowritten on international security issues. He came tothe Institute from the University of Illinois, Urbana,where he is an assistant professor of geography. In hisnative India, Dr. Elhance was active in efforts to limitcommercial deforestation of the Himalayas, workedfor the Karnataka State Planning Bureau in Bangaloreon policies and programs for metropolitan and ruraldevelopment, and wrote a major case study of a locallarge-scale irrigation project. He has contributedchapters to several books on nuclear warfare anddisarmament and written articles for a number ofprofessional journals. Dr. Elhance received his Ph.D.in economic geography and regional science fromBoston University.

Fellowship Project: Anexamination of Ions-term socialand political changes in Arabcountries in the aftermath of thePersian Gull war.

Muhammad Faour has focused his career on demo-graphic and health issues pertaining to his nativeLebanon and the Middle East, and on approaches toconflict resolution and the application of thoseapproaches to conflict among Arabs and betweenArabs and Israelis. During his fellowship he is onleave from the faculty of the American University ofBeirut, where he has served since 1983, most recentlyas an associate professor of sociology and also aschairman of the university's department of social andbehavioral sciences. Dr. Faour earned his Ph.D. insociology from the University of Michigan.

Fellowship Project: A study ofthe possible effects of arms races onthe probability of war, with a focuson a number of cases, includinspost-World War II U.S.-Sovietrelations.

Charles Glaser began a Council on Foreign Relationsfellowship for the Joint Chiefs of Staff at the Pentagonafter finishing his Institute fellowship in the fall of1990. He was previously an assistant professor ofpolitical science at the University of Michigan and aresearch associate at the University's Institute ofPublic Policy Studies, and a research associate at theCenter for International Studies at the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology and the Center for Science andInternational Affairs at Harvard University. He haspublished numerous writings on strategic nuclearweapons policy and arms control and is the author ofa book, Analyzing Strategic Nuclear Police. Dr. Glaserreceived his Ph.D. from the Kenneth' School ofGovernment, Harvard University, and an M.A. inphysics from Harvard.

1121

tHurst Hannum

(1989-90)

11111111111111M=MINNION

Mark Hoffman(1990 -91)

Thomas Imobighe(1991-921

Fellowship Project: A hook thatexamines the concept of self-determination in the postcolonialera th-: it Mate:: 10and (-0111.10S

Hurst Hannum is associate professor of internationallaw at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy ofTufts University. Previously, Mr. Hannum wasexecutive director of the Procedural Aspects ofInternational Law Institute. A specialist in humanrights and international organizations, he has workedwith many nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),including Amnesty International, Survival Interna-tional, and the International Human Rights LawGroup. He has testified before the U.S. Congress andthe Helsinki Commission and has represented NGOsbefore the UN Commission on Human Rights and itsSubcommission on Prevention of Discrimination andProtection of Minorities, as well as the European andInter-American human rights commissions. Heedited The Guide to International Human Rights Practice,which received an award from the American Societyof International Law; has written many journalarticles; and is the author of the book, Autonomy,Sovereignty, and Self-Determination: The Accommodationof Conflicting Rights. Mr. Hannum received his J.D.from the University of California, Berkeley.

Fellowship Project: Anof ;::'illationillation efOrls

in 5(Terill recent conflicts in theThird tVorld to pinpoint theproces,:es and various effects ofsuccessful mediations.

Mark Hoffman is a lecturer in international relationsat the London School of Economics and director ofresearch for the Centre for the Analysis of Conflict atthe University of Kent, Canterbury. His vork hasfocused on conflict resolution in the Third World,particularly third-party mediation techniques. In 1981Mr. Hoffman was a European fellow at the U.S. -European Summer School on Global Security andArms Control at the University of Sussex, along withscholars from the United States, Eastern and WesternEurope, and the Soviet Union. He has also taught atthe University of Keele and the University ofSouthampton, where he participated in a FordFoundation research project examining North-Southand South-South security issues. Mr. Hoffman hascontributed chapters to many books and edited anumber of works on conflict, mediation, and interna-tional relations. He holds an M.Sc. in internationalrelations from the London School of Economics.

Fellowship Project: A compara-tive study of the Organization ofAfrican Unity and the Organiza-tion of American States to showhow regional organizations can hemore effrctive in managingconflicts in their respectiveregions.

Thomas Imobighe is an expert on African securityissues. He came to the Institute from Nigeria, wherehe is a commissioner of the National BoundaryCommission of the Nigerian P: ,sidency and a profes-sor at Bendel State University in Ekpoma. At thecommission, Dr. Imobighe concentrates on projectsaimed at peaceful management and the resolution ofconflicts among Nigerian communities. At BendelUniversity, he is working to establish a Centre forSecurity and Development Studies that providestraining programs in mediation skills and otherconflict management techniques to people fromNigeria and other countries. Previously he was a

111

ThomasImobighe

Mark Katz(1989-90)

Mohamed Khalil(1991-92)

Continued Senior Fellow and headed the Defence and SecurityUnit at the National Institute for Policy and StrategicStudies in Kuru for ten years. Dr. Imobighe is theauthor or editor of several books on Africa. He holds aPh.D. in strategic studies from the University Collegeof Wales in the United Kingdom.

Fellowship Project: A bookpublished by the Institute in 1991,Soviet-American ConflictResolution in the Third World,drawing on a series of seminarsfocused on Afghanistan, SouthernAfrica, the Horn of Africa, theMiddle East, Central America,Asia, and the Pacific.

Mark Katz is assistant professor of government andpolitical science at George Mason University and aninternational affairs consultant on Soviet foreignpolicy toward the Third World. He has been aresearch associate at the Woodrow Wilson Interna-tional Center for Scholars, a guest scholar at TheBrookings Institution, and a Soviet affairs analyst forthe Department of State, and has received fellowshipsfrom The Brookings Institution, the Kennan Instituteof the Woodrow Wilson Center, and the RockefellerFoundation. Dr. Katz is the author of Gorbachev'sMilitary Policy in the Third World; Russia and Arabia:Soviet Foreign Policy Toward the Arabian Peninsula; andThe Third World in Soviet Militant Thought. He has beenpublished in many journals and has undertakenseveral speaking tours in Europe, South Asia, and theMiddle East for the United States Information Agency.He received his Ph.D. in political science from theMassachusetts Institute of Technology.

Fellowship Project: Anexamination of the compatibility oftraditional Islamic law and legalconcepts of democracy and 11111111111

rights.

Mohamed Khalil is an expert in international andIslamic law. He is a native of the Sudan, where he hasheld a number of important government positions.Most recently, Mr. Khalil served as a consultant to theWorld Bank. He has also been speaker of theSudanese Constituent Assembly, minister of foreignaffairs, minister of justice, and minister of localgovernment. From 1978 to 1986, Mr. Khalil was legalcounsel for the Kuwait Fund for Arab EconomicDevelopment; he held a similar position at the AbuDhabi Fund for Arab Economic Development. Inaddition, he has been the dean of the Faculty of Lawand Sharia at Khartoum University and has headedacademic departments and the Institute of IslamicLegal Studies at Ahmadu Bello University in Nigeria.His numerous written works include articles forjournals published in the Sudan, Nigeria, and theUnited Kingdom. Mr. Khalil earned LL.B. and LL.Mdegrees from Khartoum University and the LondonSchool of Economic Development, respectively.

1 .3112 '

Ruth Lapidoth(1990-91i

Yuri Maltsev(1990-91)

Fellowship Project: A hook thatexamines the potential of limitedautonomy or:liven:cutsas analternative to full independenceas solutions to national andinternational conflicts.

Ruth Lapidoth is professor of international law at theHebrew University in Jerusalem and an expert oninternational autonomy and sovereignty agreements.She has served the Israeli government in a number ofnegotiations and reconciliation efforts between Arabsand Israelis. As legal advisor to the Ministry ofForeign Affairs, she participated actively in the CampDavid peace process, including negotiations onPalestinian autonomy and establishment of theMultinational Force and Observers in the Sinai. Shewas also a member of the arbitration panel establishedto solve the boundary dispute between Israel andEgypt over Taba and was later appointed a member ofthe Permanent Court of Arbitration. A seventeen-yearmember of the Hebrew University faculty, Dr.Lapidoth has written five books and forty articles.She has also taught at Duke University, NorthwesternUniversity, Tulane University, and the University ofSouthern California. Dr. Lapidoth holds a Ph.D. ininternational law from the University of Paris.

Fellowship Project: Anassessment of policy options foreconomic retain: in the SovietUnion.

Yuri Maltsev, a Soviet-trained economist with broadexperience in Soviet government and academicinstitutions, began teaching at Carthage College,Wisconsin, in the fall of 1991. Dr. Maltsev has written,lectured, and consulted with numerous financial andcommercial institutions on the likely outcomes ofeconomic reform in the Soviet Union and EasternEurope. Before coming to the United States in 1989,he was senior researcher at the Institute of Economicsof the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, where heworked with a team of leading Soviet economists onGorbachev's reforms package. He was formerly amember of the Commission of Economic Reform ofthe Council of Ministers and senior researcher andchief consultant for management at the USSR Bank forForeign Trade. His government service includesterms as people's deputy, Solnechnogorsk CityCouncil, Moscow region, and as advisor to the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions and theEconomics Department of the CPSU Central Commit-tee. He has taught at the Moscow Institute forElectronic Engineering, advising local governmentson industrial management and contracting, and at theHigher Commercial School of the USSR Academy ofForeign Trade and the University of Marxism-Leninism as a professor of management. His publica-tions include nineteen articles and contributions tothree monographs and five books. Dr. Maltsevreceived his Ph.D. in economics from the Institute forLabor Research in Moscow.

113n

Cynthia McClintock(1990-91)

Vernon Mendis(1990-91)

Robert Rothstein(1992)

Fellowship Project: A study ofhow Peru, El Salvador, and otherLatin American nations canpreserve and promote democracywhile coping with violentrevoluthmary movements.

Cynthia McClintock is a professor of political scienceat George Washington University and an expert onguerrilla challenges to democratic regimes in LatinAmericaparticularly Peru. Dr. McClintock consultsfrequently with the Commission on U.S.LatinAmerican Relations and the Inter-American Dialogueand has briefed several senior State Departmentofficials about Peruvian politics. She has written andedited numerous books and articles on political issuesin Latin America. Dr. McClintock also serves on theExecutive Council of the Latin American StudiesAssociation. She earned a Ph.D. in political sciencefrom the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Fellowship Project: Aninvestigation of how the SouthAsian Association for RegionalCooperation can help resolveconflicts among member states.

Vernon Mendis was among the first diplomatsappointed to the newly formed Sri Lankan ForeignService in 1949. During his thirty-one-year career hehas held a number of important assignments, includ-ing Sri Lankan ambassador to France, high commis-sioner to Canada and the United Kingdom, deputyhigh commissioner to India, and director general ofexternal affairs in Colombo. He has also had extensiveexperience in multilateral organizations as secretary-general of the 1976 Non-Aligned Summit in Colombo,as a member of Sri Lanka's delegation to the UN, andwit!. UNESCO as regional director to the Arab statesand representative to Egypt and the Sudan (withheadquarters in Cairo). In the latter capacity he wasinvolved in efforts at preserving cultural heritage. In1986, the president of Sri Lanka appointed himchairman of the Telecommunications Board of SriLanka to implement privatization of telecommunica-tions. He has lectured on diplomacy at severaluniversities and at diplomatic and military traininginstitutes in six countries. He was awarded anhonorary doctorate in recognition of his contributionsto the study of Sri Lankan history, a subject on whichhe has written three books. Ambassador Mendis isalso the author of many articles.

Fellowship Project: A compari-son of new democracies that hazehad successful and unsuccessfulexperiences in establishing durabledemocratic institutions.

Robert Rothstein specializes in issues affecting theemergence and performance of democratic govern-ments in the developing world. He has been theHarvey Picker Distinguished Professor of Interna-tional Relations at Colgate University since 1985, andhas also taught at Johns Hopkins and ColumbiaUniversities. Dr. Rothstein has also worked for theOrganization for Economic Cooperation and Develop-ment, the United Nations Conference on Trade andDevelopment, the Rockefeller Foundation, the FordFoundation, and the Department of Statefor whichhe conducted extensive research on NorthSouthrelations and U.S. policies regarding transitions fromauthoritarianism to more liberal forms of government.Dr. Rothstein's writings have covered such subjects as

114/

Robert Rothstein Continued

Barnett R. Rubin(1989-90)=smi

Eugene Shirley(1989-1991)

Mihaly Simai(1991-92)

the Third World and U.S. foreign policy, internationaleconomic order, and developing countries in theinternational system. He holds a Ph.D. in interna-tional relations from Columbia University.

Fellowship Project: A book onthe origins of the conflict inAfghanistan, options for settlingthe conflict, and management ofthe national reconstructionprocess.

Barnett R. Rubin is associate professor of politicalscience at Columbia University. Previously he was anassistant professor of political science at Yale Univer-sity and a consultant to Amnesty International andHuman Rights Watch. He wrote Feudal Revolt andState Building and he is coauthor of A Nation Is Dying:Afghanistan Under the Soviets. Dr. Rubin has alsocontributed chapters to edited works and has beenpublished extensively in newspapers and journals.He received his Ph.D. in political science from theUniversity of Chicago.

Fellowship Project: Planningand preliminary execution of afive-part television series for thePublic Broadcasting Service (PBS)and the British BroadcastingCorporation (BBC) titled WorldRevolution: The Rise and Fallof Communism. This compara-tive series on Communist statesand parties will be filmed inYugoslavia, Hungary, Poland, theSoviet Union, China, Vietnam,and Cuba.

Eugene Shirley is the founder and president of PacemProductions, Inc., located in Los Angeles, the firstindependent American television production com-pany granted approval to film in the Soviet Union.He is best known for producing the award-winningfilm for PBS, Candle in the Wind, which focused onreligion in the Soviet Union. His documentaryprojects deal primarily with issues in the philosophiesof science, technology, and religion, as well as humanrights and communism. Mr. Shirley has lectured inthe United States and overseas and his work has beenthe subject of more than 175 articles.

Fellowship Project: Anexamination of the challenges andopportunities posed by recentchanges in international ecmwm-ics, finance, ecology, and technol-ogy for the United Nations allother multilateral organizationspromoting international peace andcooperation.

Mihaly Simai is an international economist specializ-ing in modernization and technological development.His work has focused on the increasingly multipolarand interrelated nature of international economics.Dr. Simai is on leave from his position at the Institutefor World Economics of the Hungarian Academy ofSciences, where he has worked for the past sixteenyears. In addition to this position, he is director ofgraduate studies in international relations at theBudapest University of Economics, where he hastaught for the past thirty-three years. Dr. Simai hasalso served as vice chairman of the UNICEF ExecutiveBoard of the United Nations, and vice chairman of theUN Committee of Development Planning. He iscurrently chairman of the Council of the UnitedNations University and honorary president of theWorld Federation of United Nations Associations. Hismany books include A New World Economy: GlobalChallenges for Hungary; Global Power Structure, Technol-ogy, and the World Economy; and Foreign Direct Invest-ments and Debts. Dr. Simai earned a Ph.D. in interna-tional economics from the University of Economics inBudapest.

115/0,

4Milan Svec(1989-911

MMINNIPi

FranciscoVillagran de Leon

(1992i

Ibrahim Wani(1989-90t

Fellowship Project: Anexamination of how the changingcharacter of the elite ideologies ofthe Soviet Union and EasternEumpe influenced the domesticreform and foreign policies of thesecountieswith special attentionto how these ideas and policiesaffect U.S. interests and theoptions available to Washingtonfor enhancing peaceful relations.

Milan Svec accepted a position, in the fall of 1991, as avisiting professor at the U.S. Army Russian Institute inGarmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. He was a seniorconsultant to the Institute for National StrategicStudies at the National Defense University and asenior associate at the Carnegie Endowment forInternational Peace prior to his Institute fellowship.He received political asylum in the United States afterserving as minister counselor and deputy chief of theCzechoslovak Embassy in Washington from 1982 to1985. In Czechoslovakia, he served as a senior advisorto the Minister of Foreign Affairs and a senior officialat the International Department of the CentralCommittee of the Communist Party. Mr. Svec'sarticles and opinion pieces have been widely pub-lished in newspapers and professional journals. Hewas the first foreigner to receive a Ph.D. from theInstitute for the U.S.A. and Canada in Moscow.

Fellowship Project: A study ofhow the Organization of Ameri-can States can he strengthened topromote peace and security inLatin America and the Carihheait.

Francisco Villagran de Leon will take leave from theGuatemalan Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the periodof his Institute fellowship. He has served as perma-nent representative (ambassador) to the UnitedNations and permanent representative to the Organi-zation of American Statesduring which time heparticipated in numerous general assemblies andsummit meetings. Ambassador Villagran de Leon hasalso held several other key positions, including viceminister of foreign affairs and deputy chief of missionat the Guatemalan Embassy in Washington, D.C., andhas participated in bilateral negotiations betweenBelize and Guatemala and multilateral meetingsrelating to the Central American peace process. Heholds an M.A. in international affairs fromGeorgetown University.

Fellowship Project: Anexambiation of the currentcapabilities of cm yulsoryinternational ad judis-ation--exemplified by the InternationalCourt of Justicein resolvinginternational disputes and, inparticular, of tlw attitudes of statesthat affect their decisions onwhether to bring disfmtes ',ekethe Court.

Ibrahim Wani is assistant professor of internationallaw at the School of Law of the University of Missouri,Kansas City. Previously he was a research fellow atthe Center for Oceans Law and Policy at the Univer-sity of Virginia, a legal officer for the Uganda Missionto the United Nations, and an assistant state attorneyfor the Ugandan Ministry of Justice. In addition, Mr.Wani ivas a Ugandan representative to the ThirdUnited Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea andthe Second International Conference on the Law of theSea. His writings have appeared in several lawjournals and the journal Horn of Africa. He received anLL.B. from Makerere University in Uganda, an M.C.J.from Howard University School of Law, and an 1..1...M.from the University of Virginia, where he is currentlyan S.J.D. candidate.

Waiter Wink(1989-90)

IIMMINNIII111111111

Zhao Quansheng(1991)

Fellowship Project: A book onthe biblical roots of a nonviolentphilosophy and its relevance tocurrent conflicts.

Walter Wink has taught in the field of theologicaleducation for more than thirty years. He conductedhis fellowship project from Auburn TheologicalSeminary in New York, where he has, since 1976,been professor of biblical interpretation. Previouslyhe taught theology at Union Theological Seminary inNew York. Dr. Wink is a renowned domestic andinternational lecturer and the author of six books,including Violence and Nonviolence in South Africa. Hehas also written more than forty-five journal articles.Dr. Wink received an M. Div. and a Ph.D. from UnioiTheological Seminary.

Fellowship Project: Anexamination of Chinese domesticpolitics and foreign policy duringthe past decade and possibledirections for the future.

IIMI1=I====li

ism=Georgiy Mirsky

(1991-92)

Zhao Quansheng is an expert in Chinese affairs andEast Asian politics and international relations and anassistant professor of political science at Old Domin-ion University. Previously he was a research fellow z,the EastWest Center in Honolulu, Hawaii. He hasalso taught and conducted research at Cleveland StatUniversity, Oxford University, and the University ofTokyo, and has contributed articles to many Ameri-can, British, Chinese, and Japanese publications. Dr.Zhao was formerly a sergeant in the army of thePeople's Republic of China. He holds a Ph.D. inpolitical science from the University of California atBerkeley.

VISITING FELLOWS

Fellowship Project: Study ofthe prospects that the end of theCold War and the profounddiarist's inside the former SovietUnion represent for establishing, anew world order.

Georgiy Mirsky has been a professor at the Instituteof International Relations of the Soviet Ministry ofForeign Alf, rs for most of his professional career.During the past thirty years, he has also served ashead of the Department of Developing Countries amchief researcher at the Institute of World Economy arInternational Relations (IMEMO) in Moscow; lecture,at the Warsaw Pact headquarters in Moscow and theDiplomatic Academy of the Ministry of ForeignAffairs; was a visiting professor at the University ofMaryland; presented numerous papers on such topicas the ideological foundations and mechanics of Soviforeign policy, Soviet history, and the Cold War; andwrote several books. A prolific author, ProfessorMirsky has written many books and articles on topicsuch as the social and political problems in Asia,Africa, and Latin America, Soviet policy in the ThirdWorld, and new political thinking in the Soviet UnioHe graduated from the Institute of Oriental Studiesand holds a Ph.D. in science (history) from MoscowState Institute of International Relations.

117-'2,3

1111011111MiNIMMININNINI

Don Peretz(1992)

Indar Rikhye(1991)

Fellowship Project: Anexamination of how the establish-ment of a Palestinian state orother political entities in the WestBank and Gaza would affect thestatus of Palestinian refugeesthroughout the Middle East.

Don Peretz has more than six decades of experience inthe study of Middle East affairsspecifically on issuesaffecting Palestinian refugees. Since 1966, he hasserved on the faculty of the State University of NewYork, Binghamton, where he is a professor of politicalscimce. Dr. Peretz's firsthand experience in MiddleEast affairs began in 1947, when, as a correspondentfor the National Broadcasting Company, he reportedon the conflict between Arabs and Jews in Palestine.Later he worked as a representative of the AmericanService Committee in Jerusalem with the UN Reliefand Works Agency (UNRWA) and as a Middle Eastmedia evaluator for the Voice of America in NewYork. Dr. Peretz has also held positions with VassarCollege, the American Jewish Committee, and theNew York State Education Departmentwhere hewas associate director of the Center for InternationalPrograms and Services at the state department ofeducation. A prolific writer, Dr. Peretz has authoredand coauthored books and professional journal articleson a number of topics pertaining to the Middle Eastand foreign policy. He holds a Ph.D. in Middle Eaststudies from Columbia University.

Fellowship Project: A study ofthe elements that led to thesuccesses and failures of UnitedNations peacekeeping missions.(Visiting Distinguished Fellow)

Indar Rikhye, a retired major general in the Indianarmy, has spent the past thirty-four years working inthe areas of multilateral peacekeeping as a diplomat, asoldier, and an educator. After the 1956 Suez War, heserved in Gaza as a unit commander and later as chiefof staff for the first United Nations peacekeepingmission. As military advisor to Secretaries GeneralDag Hammarskjtild and U Thant, he led peacekeepingoperations in the Congo, West Irian, the DominicanRepublic, Yemen, and Gaza. He also conductedspecial missions for the secretary general in Rwanda,Burundi, Cuba, Jordan, and Israel. After leaving theUN in 1969, General Rikhye founded the InternationalPeace Academy, a New York-based, nonprofit,nongovernmental, educational institute that conductsresearch and training programs in the areas ofpeacekeeping, mediation, arbitration, and otherconflict resolution techniques. He is now a seniorfellow of the academy, where he has developedcourses and practical models for third-party roles inpeacemaking. General Rikhve is the author orcoauthor of many articles and books and has lecturedat universities, research institutes, and defense anddiplomatic training centers in more than fifteencountries on five continents. In 1985, he was awardedUNESCO's Prize for Peace Education.

11J '1l)(:)1

Vadim Udalov(1991)

Fellowship Project: Study of theconcept of balance of interests inconflict management, bondingthe theoretical and pragmaticreasons for exploring the concept,the relat Wnships bet WWII theconcept and current notions ofconflict management, and thespecific means for applying thebalance of interests concept toactual conflicts.

Vadim Udalov is an expert on Soviet internationalrelations and conflict resolution. He is currently firstsecretary of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs,before which he was first secretary of the ResearchCoordination Center of the USSR Ministry of ForeignAffairs. Previously, Mr. Udalov served as secondsecretary for the Research Coordination Center fortwo years; worked for the Department of the MiddleEast; and was a diplomat with the Soviet Ministry ofForeign Affairs, assigned to the Soviet Embassy inAnkara, Turkey. His article, "Balance of Power andBalance of Interests," appeared in a 1990 edition ofInternational Affairsa journal published by the SovietMinistry of Foreign Affairs. Mr. Udalov is a graduateof the Institute of Asian and African Countries atMoscow State University.

miamilEMohammed AbuN imer(1991-92)

1111MiNEIMEMINI

Alice Ackermann(1991-92)

Cecilia Albin(1989-90)

MNIIliMMENEMMIM

Eileen Babbitt(1989-90)

Geoffrey Bate(1990-91)

PEACE SCHOLARS

Conflict Resolution and AnalysisProgram at George MasonUniversity

Dissertation: Conflict Resolution and Political Change: /Case Study of Intervention Models in Arab JewishRelations in IsraelAn examination of the role thatproblem-solving interventions have played in promot-ing dialogue between Jews and Arabs in Israel.

Department of Government andPolitics of the University ofMaryland at College' Park

Dissertation: Passage to a "Normal State": The ForeignPolicy of the Federal Republic of Germany,1983-1990Arexamination of the foreign policy issues in a newlyunified Germany.

School of Advanced InternationalStudies (SAIS) of The johnsHopkins University

Dissertation: Resolving Conflicts over Indivisible Issues:The Question of Jerusalem An application of social-psychological and integrative approaches to disputeresolutionwith a focus on the status of Jerusalemto illuminate how violent conflicts over indivisibleissues can be resolved.

Department of Urban Studies andPlanning at MassachusettsInstitute of Technology

Dissertation: Understanding and Using Leverage: TheKey to Superpower Mediations of international ConflictAstudy of the link between negotiation/mediationtheory and the study of diplomacy for insights on theeffective use of leverage by superpowers mediatingconflicts.

Department of Anthropology, CityUniversity of New York, GraduateCenter, New York City

Dissertation: Defend Your People: Radical NationalistPolitics in a Basque TownAn examination of theanthropological sources of Basque terrorism.

119

Jean Boone(1991-92)

onwasomavilamm

William De Mars(1991-92)

Imularomomm.Nora Femenia(1991-92)

oulmThomas Firestone(1989-90)

NathalieFrensley(1989-90)

Department of Governownt atGeorgetown University

Dissertation: The USSR in the World Economy: ThePolitics of Soviet Economic Reform 1985-1991A studyof the politics of Soviet foreign economic reform,focusing on domestic factors that are likely to influ-ence the prospects for peace or conflict in the formerSoviet Union.

Department of Goverinnent andInternatumal Studies of NotreDame University

Dissertation: Vying for Hearts and Minds: InternationalOrganizations and the Ethiopian Conflict in the 1980sAstudy of the role of humanitarian aid in the Ethiopiancivil war in the 1980s, examining how violent conflictaffects relief efforts of the international community.

Program in Analysis and Resolu-tion of Conflicts of SyracuseUniversity

Dissertation: National Self-Images, Enemy-Images, andConflict StrategiesA study of the Falklands/Malvinasconflict to illuminate how countries mobilize enemy-images and self-images during times of militaryconfrontation.

Department of Political Science atthe University of California,Berkeley

Dissertation: The Soviet Union and Peace: A Case Studyit, the Exercise of Power over OpinionAn examinationof the methods and intent of Soviet efforts to influenceWestern European public opinion against NATOdeployments.

Department of Government at theUniversity of Texas at Austin

Dissertation: Elite Demobilization of Mass Constituen-cies: The Role of Persuasion in Northern Irish ConflictSettlementsAn examination of the hypothesis thatconflict resolution only occurs when elites success-fully persuade their constituents to accept the terms ofa settlement, focusing on two attempts at settling theNorthern Ireland conflict.

Kurt Taylor Department of Political Science atGaubatz Stanford University(1989-90)

Marc Genest Department of Government at(1990-91) Georgetown University

Daniel Gibson(1989-90)

Dissertation: The Democracies and Conflict in theInternational SystemAn investigation of whetherdemocratic states are more inclined to peacefulinternational behavior than nondemocratic ones.

Dissertation: National Security Policy and Arms Control:Negotiating in the Public EyeAn examination ofmedia influence on arms control negotiations.

De111171111ellt of Political Science at

Duke UniversityDissertation: Aiding or Abetting?: InternationalDevelopment Assistance, Predatory Government, andEthnic ConflictAn analysis of the extent to whichinternational development assistance is linked todomestic political factors and whether more restric-tive aid criteria might reduce ethnic conflict in theThird World.

129

Ran Greenstein(1989-90)

Jussi Hanhimaki(1991-92)

lormirmsW. Scott Harrop(1989-90)

Department of Sociology at the Dissertation: Settler Societies and Political Conflict:University of Wisconsin-- South Africa and IsraelA comparison of Israel andMadison South Africa as "settler societies" in order to obtain

new insights about basic origins and dynamics of theirsocial and political conflicts.

Department of History of BostonUniversity

Dissertation: Containment vs. Neutrality: America andthe Finnish Solution, 1948-1956A study of the rolethat Finland's neutrality played in the development ofEast-West relations and American policies towardEurope in the period immediately following WorldWar II.

Departnrcut of GOV(711111C111 and

Foreign Affairs at the Llniversituof Virginia

Dissertation: Protracted Rebellion and the Quest forInternational LegitimacyA survey of case studies toassess the ability of protracted insurrections to gaininternational approval.

Jairo Hernandez The Fletcher School of Law and(1991-92) Diplomacy at Tufts University

Cynthia Irvin(1991-92)

Moira Killoran(1991-92)

Sung Hee Kim(1990-91)

nommirmommenMegan Koreman(1990-91)

Dissertation: Leadership, Nesotiatimi, and InternationalLaw: The Arias Peace Initiative in the Context of theCentral American Conflict An investigation of the roleof Costa Rica as a mediator in the settlement of CentralAmerican disputes in the 1980s, in particular, thepeace initiative launched by President Oscar Arias.

Department of Political Science atDuke University

Dissertation: Parties Against the State: ParamilitaryPolitics in Severely Divided SocietiesAn examination ofwhy some antisystem political groups resort toelectoral politics in seeking to achieve their goals,while others choose violence and military action.

Department of Anthropolosy ofthe University of Texas at Austin

Dissertation: The Significance of History and SocialMemory in the Construction of Ethnicity in NorthCyprusA study of the Turkish community in NorthCyprus to explore how competing interpretations ofhistory and "social memory" can play a formative rolein shaping the identity of ethnic groups involved inprotracted conflicts.

Department of Psychology atTufts University

Dissertation: Retaliation and the Escalation of ConflictAn experimental investigation into the effectsof escalation and retaliation in negotiation andmediation.

Department Of History of theUniversity of California, Berkeley

Dissertation: The Liberation of the Local Cimmiunity:France, 1944-46An exploration of the ti%oisition fromwar to peace in three small French cornmuniii,,sduring the liberation at the end or World War Ii.

womormerMark Lagon( 1989-90)

Itshak Lederman(1990-91)

Department of Goz,ernment atGeorgetown Lbilversity

Dissertation: Structures and Beliefs: Perspectives on theDeclaration of the Rea Na mu DoctrineA study of theideological sources of the Reagan Doctrine onreplacing Marxist regimes with democratic ones.

Ddlartment of Government andPolitics of the University ofMaryland of College Park

Dissertation: Verification of Conventhmal Arms Controlin EuropeA study of the objectives and operations ofarms verification agreements in general, and of aconventional agreement in Europe in particular.

Jeffrey Legro Department of Political Science at(1990-91) the University of California, Los

Angeles

Terrence Markin(1989-90)

Simei Qing(1990-91)

Laura Reed(1990-91)

Dissertation: Restraint and Escalation in WarAnexamination of the use of restraint and escalation inwar, focusing on three types of weapons: submarines,strategic bombing, and chemicals.

School of AdvancedStudies of The Johns HopkinsUniversity

Dissertation: The Resolution of the West Irian DisputeAn examination of the resolution of the West Iriandispute between Indonesia and the Netherlands inorder to identify and analyze mediation techniquesrelevant to other conflicts.

Department of History of Michi-gan State University

Dissertation: Chinese and American Conceptions ofPeace, Order, and Economic Development in East Asia,1944-84A study of Chinese and American ideolo-gies on national developments as they affected Sino-American relations.

Department of Political Science at Dissertation: The Road Not Taken: The Fate o' Policythe Massaclu Institute of Alternatives in the American Security Debate e: :,1Technology Germany, 1945-50 An exploration of American

policy alternatives in Germany in the period in.rm-ii-ately following World War II.

Thazhakuzhyil Department of Political Science of Dissertation: The Weak Againq the Strm:s: 1."'ir

Paul the University of California at Los initiation by Lesser Powers in the Iv', . ,,,a, ..iystem(I 989-90) Angeles An investigation of why militarily weaker and

economically less-developed states initiate warsagainst ostensibly more powerful entities.

uGsgamemmommi

Aaron Wolf(1991-92)

nummermoommi.

Michael Yaffe(1989-90)

Land Resource ManagementProgram at the University ofWisconsin-Madison

Dissertation: The Waters of the Jordan River Watershedand Their Impact on Regional Conflict and CooperationAn investigation of how the scarcity of water re-sources in the Jordan River basin is a source ofregional conflict and cooperation.

Department of Political Science atthe University of Pennsylvania

Dissertation: Politics of Tactical Nuclear WeaponsModernization, 1968-1979An examination of thepolitics of modernizing short-range tactical nuclearweapons from 1968 to 1979 as an example of weaponsinnovation and changing nuclear strategy.

21

Qiang Zhai(199Q-91)

Departinent of llitory of OhioLlniversity

Dissertation: Anglo-American ,Policw toward the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1949- 59 -An analysis of U.S. andBritish foreign policies toward China and the SovietUnion from 1949 to 1959.

1 1 1

123 .t f

RESEARCH AND STUDIES PROGRAM

(From left to right) Patrick Glynn, Charles Fairbanks, Kenneth Jensen, Myron Rush, and Milan Svec participate inan Instititue workshop on the Current Soviet Crisis.

In the traditional sense, research relies on theexamination of historical materialsbooks,periodicals, records, personal papers or publicdocuments, and statistical reports. For thoseattempting to respond to a crisis or addresscurrent issues, however, traditional researchtechniques must be augmented by otherimportant information that simply may not yetexist through the normal research channels.

In establishing its Research and StudiesProgram, the Institute recognized that it couldnot rely solely on traditional researchtechniques if it were to contribute usefulinformation on peace and related subjects. Itoften implements study methodology thatmixes experience of practitioners with thescholarship of international academic and otherexperts in the study and practice ofinternational relations.

I :3

As a complement to the Institute's grants andfellowship programs, Research and Studiesbrings together current experts to examine anddebate issues. The program employs a numberof different formats for these sessions:

Conferences, which include sessions on avariety of issues related to a single topic;Studies and Working Groups, which runfor a period of a year or more with sessionsat which a core group or rotating groups ofexperts discuss and critique papersreceived in advance of the session;

Study Groups, which mix a core group ofscholars and diplomat practitioners in aseries of intense discussions over periods ofup to six months; and

Public Workshops, which are three-hourgroup discussions on a variety of differentsubjects.

"1,,"11, ABLE6.'101 '.YC'11

Each of these types of projects is designed andsupervised by the Institute, with the assistanceof expert consultants and/or contractresearchers. During fiscal years 1990 and 1991,the following Research and Studies events wereundertaken:

Conferences:

The Origins of the Cold War

Conflict Resolution in the PostCold WarThird World

Ethnic Conflict Resolution Under Rule ofLaw

Studies and Working Groups:Strengthening World Order and theUnited Nations Charter System AgainstSecret Warfare and Low-Intensity Conflict(four two-day sessions)

Peace and Deterrence after the Intermedi-ate Nuclear Forces (INF) Agreement (fivetwo-day sessions)

Study Group:The Future Prospects for Conflict orPeace in Central and Eastern Europe (sixsessions)

Public Workshop Series:

Resolving Regional Conflicts: A Role forU.S.Soviet Cooperation?

Can There Be an International Solution tcthe Cambodian Question?

The Romanian Revolution: PresentProspects

The Future Stability of Yugoslavia

Current Soviet Crisis (two sessions)

By the close of fiscal year 1991, more than 1,20foreign affairs experts, scholars, journalists, anmembers of the general public, including manfrom other nations, had participated in theInstitute's Research and Studies Program. ThEwork and views of these individuals has beendocumented and disseminated through theInstitute periodical publications, In Brief and tlJournal; the Dialogues from Public Workshopsseries; Lessons from Fifty Years of NegotiatingExperiences; and books, Approaches to Peace: Ai,Intellectual Map and Origins of the Cold War: TG

Novikov, Kerrrran, and Roberts "Long Telegrams"1946.

:1()125

Conference on the Origins of the Cold WarJune 25 -28, 1990 Moscow July 22 -25, 1990 Washington, D.C.

During the summer of 1990, the Institute and theResearch Coordination Center of the Soviet Ministryof Foreign Affairs conducted two three-day workingconference to compare U.S. and Soviet visions of theorigins of the Cold War. During the meetings, morethan two dozen American and Soviet expertsexchanged views on lessons from diplomacy,personalities, and public perceptions of the earlyCold War period. The purpose of the project was tocompare historical perspectives and generate newU.S. and Soviet scholarship on the decisive eventsfrom 1945 to 1950 and to correct misperceptionsabout the crucial early Cold War years.

The June meetingsheld in Meshcherino (outsideMoscow)were followed by meetings with seniorSoviet officials to discuss the findings and theirimplications for SovietAmerican relations. In July,the group reconvened at Institute headquarters forsimilar meetings with senior American officials.

Additional information on this conference can befound in Chapter II.

American DelegationRobert Conquest*, Hoover institution on War,Revolution and Peace, Stanford UniversityFrancis Fukuyama, former deputy director, Office ofPolicy Planning, U.S. Department of StateJohn Lewis Gaddis, Ohio UniversityWalter Laqueur*, Center for Strategic and InternationalStudiesMelvyn Leffler, University of VirginiaPaul H. Nitze**, School of Advanced InternationalStudies, The Johns Hopkins UniversityRichard Pipes, Harvard UniversityElspeth Davies Rostow, vice chairman, Board ofDirectors, United States Institute of Peace, andUniversity of Texas at AustinWalt Whitman Rostow, University of Texas at Austin,and former national security advisor to President LyndonB. JohnsonArthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., City University of NewYorkGaddis Smith**, Yale UniversityHelmut Sonnenfeldt**, The Brookings InstitutionAdam Ulam**, Russian Research Center, HarvardUniversityAllen Weinstein (Delegation Chairman), member,Board of Directors, United States Institute of Peace, andpresident, The Center for Democracy

Soviet Delegation(All institutes listed are affiliated with USSR Academyof Sciences.)

Aleksandr 0. Chubar'ian, Institute of World HistoryAleksei M. Filitov, Institute of World IrstoryVictor L. Mal'kov, Institute of World History

Mikhail M. Narinskii, Institute of World HistoryIgor' I. Orlik, Institute of Economics of the WorldSocialist SystemVladimir Pechatnov**, Institute of the U.S.A. andCanadaSergei Plekhanov, Institute of the U.S.A. and CanadaKonstantin V. Pleshakov, Institute of the U.S.A. andCanadaYurii A. Poliakov, Institute of the History of the USSRVladislav Zubok, Institute of the U.S.A. and Canada

Ministry of Foreign AffairsRepresentativesAleksei Obukhov*, deputy minister of foreign affairsVladimir Sokolov**, department of diplomatic historyVladimir V. Shustov (Delegation Chairman),director, Research Coordination CenterVadim Udalov, first secretary, Research CoordinationCenter

United States Institute of PeaceRepresentativesKenneth M. Jensen, director, Research and StudiesProgramSamuel W. Lewis, presidentRichard Schifter, member ex officio, Board of Directorsand assistant secretary of state for human rights andhumanitarian affairsW. Scott Thompson, member, Board of Directors, andFletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University

* Attended the Moscow sessions only.

** Attended the Washington, D.C., meeting only.

1 26

Conference on Conflict Resolution in thePost-Cold War Third World

October 3-5, 1990Washington, D.C.

This three-day conference examined vital topics thataffect prospects for peace and stability in the ThirdWorld in light of an emerging new world order. Theconference was attended by more than 300 people,including 90 expert panelists and commentators

Systemic Changes and theThird World in the Post-ColdWar Period

Panelists:Claude Ake, The BrookingsInstitution

Fundamental Sources of ThirdWorld Conflict

Sessions and Presenters:Problems of EconomicDevelopment, the Environment,and Constraints on Foreign Aid:Nazli Choucri, MassachusettsInstitute of Technology

Third World ConflictPrevention and Resolution

Sessions and Presenters:The Role of Democracy Building:Dennis Austin, professor emeritus,University of Manchester, England

The Role of Religion inPeacemaking: George Weigel,Ethics and Public Policy Center

Practicing Conflict Resolutionin the Middle East: The GulfCrisisA Case Study

Panelists:Alexander George, DistinguishedFellow, United States Institute ofPeace

almost all of whom are Institute grantees, fellows, orparticipants in Institute research projects. Portions o.the conference were broadcast on C-SPAN televisionand an edited volume of conference papers isforthcoming.

Richard Barnet, Institute for PolicyStudiesRichard Feinberg, OverseasDevelopment CouttcilCarl Gershman, NationalEndowment for Democracy

Michael Ledeen, AmericanEnterprise Institution for PublicPolicy ResearchRobert Rothstein, ColgateUniversityW. Scot Thompson, member,Board of Directors, United StatesInstitute of Peace and Fletcher Schooof Law and Diplomacy, TuftsUniversity

Ethnic and Religious Tension as aCause of Inter- and Intra-StateConflict in the Third World:Ted Robert Gurr, University ofMaryland

The Impact of the Proliferation ofHigh Technology on RegionalConflicts: Geoffrey Kemp,Carnegie Endowment forInternational Peace

Weak Democracy and theProspects for Peace and Prosperityin the Third World: RobertRothstein, Colgate University

The Impact of Increased DefenseSpending on the EconomicPerformance of Third World Stateand Its Relationship toInternational Behavior: RobertWest, Fletcher School of Law andDiplomacy, Tufts University

The Role of the Superpowers andMajor Regional Peacemakers:Chester Crocker, DistinguishedFellow, United States Institute ofPeace

A New Role for the UnitedNations in Third World ConflictResolution: Joseph Lorenz, formersenior foreign service officer

The Theory and Practice of Third-Party Mediation and InformalPeacemaking: Saadia Touval,Harvard University and,I. William Zartman, School ofAdvanced International Studies, TheJohns Hopkins University

Allan Gerson, American EnterpriseInstitute for Public Policy ResearchMartin Indyk, WashingtonInstitute for Near East PolicySamuel W. Lewis, president,United States Institute of Peace

127

Jerrold Post, George VVashingtonUniversityGholam Razi, Air War CollegeJay Rothman, Hebrew UniversityHarold Saunders, The BrookingsInstitution

Panel Discussion: AlternativeU.S. Policy Approaches toThird World Conflicts

Panelists:Madeleine Albright, Center forNational Policy

Patrick Glynn, AmericanEnterprise institute for Public PolicyResearchSamuel W. Lewis, president,United States Institute of PeaceEdward Luck, United NationsAssociation

128

Peter Rodman, School of AdvancedInternational Studies, The lohnsHopkins UniversityEugene V. Rostow, DistinguishedFellow, United States Institute ofPeaceMichael Vlahos, Foreign ServiceInstitute

Conference on Ethnic Conflict ResolutionUnder the Rule of Law

June 12-14, 1991Washington, D.C.

The three-day, dialogue-oriented conference on eth-nic conflict and rule of law in East Europe broughttogether more than fifty East European members ofparliamentand other civic leadersfor a three-cornered dialogue with forty Western experts on the

Keynote Address

Innovative Approaches toEthnic Conflict

Sessions and Presenters:Recurrent Sources and Patterns ofConflict: Walker Connor, TrinityCollege

M11111=111111,

Innovative Approaches toEthnic Conflict

Sessions and Presenters:Mediation and Negotiation:Joseph Montville, Foreign ServiceInstitute

Rule of Law and EthnicConflict: Rights and Judiciaries

Sessions and Presenters:Constitutionalism: A.E. DickHoward, University of Virginia

Rule of Law and EthnicConflict: Structural Issues

Sessions and Presenters:Federalism and TerritorialDevolution: John Kincaid, U.S.Advisory Commission onIntergovernmental Relations

Problems of Self-Determination

Panelists:Thomas Buergenthal, GeorgeWashington University

rule of law and innovative solutions to ethnic conflictproblems, and experts on East Europe. Subjects dis-cussed also included democratization, institutionbuilding, and regional and international cooperation.See Chapter I for details on this conference.

To Hate the People Your FamilyHate: Richard Schifter, assistantsecretary of state for human rights

and humanitarian affairs andmember, Board of Directors, UnitedStates Institute of Peace

Self-Determination: MartinHeisler, University of Maryland

Voting Across Ethnic Lines:Donald Horowitz, Duke University

Government Structures: UriRa'anan, Boston University

Territorial Devolution: I. WilliamZartman, School of AdvancedInternational Studies, The JohnsHopkins Ultiversity

Policies on Language, Education,Religion, Culture: WallaceWarfield, George Mason University

The Role of Religion in MediatingEthnic Conflict: Richard JohnNeuhaus, member, Board ofDirectors, United States Institute ofPeace and Center for Religion andPublic Life

Limits on Government: NadineStrossen, New York Law School

Affirmative Rights: Mary AnnGlendon, Harvard University

Judicial Review and IndependentJudiciary: Jerome Barron, GeorgeWashington University

Electoral Systems and VotingRights: Abigail Thernstrom,Boston LlItiversity

The Lawmaking Process andParliaments: Joel Aberbach,University of California, Los Angeles

Executive Powers andAdministration: Louis Fisher,Library of Congress

Hurst Hannum, Fletcher School ofLaw and Diplomacy, TuftsUniversityRuth Lapidoth, Peace Fellow,United States Institute of Peace

129 1 4 0

David Little, United States Instituteof PeacePeter Paczolay, School of Law,Eeitviis University, BudapestOleg Rumiantsev, Congress ofPeoples' Deputies, USSR

Future of InternationalCooperation in East Europe:Toward Brussels or Sarajevo

Panelists:Lily Gardner Feldman, AmericanInstitute of Contemporary GermanStudies

East European ParticipantsNina Belyaeva, president,Inter legal Research Center, MoscowMartin Butora, Office of thePresident, Czech and SlovakFederative RepublicAndrei Cornea, Institute forOriental Studies, BucharestPaul Fudulu, University of Brasov,RomaniaFedor Gal, chairman, SlovakCouncil, Public Against Violence,Bratislava, Czech and SlovakFederative RepublicNicolai Gheorghe, Centrul deSociologic, Bucharest, RomaniaVasile Gogea, editor, ASTRA,Brasov, RomaniaAnton Gosar, University EdvardKardeli, Ljubljana, YugoslaviaMatthias Heber, Martin LutherUniversity, Halle /Wittenberg,GermanyAndras Heltai, Hungarian NewsAgencyZoran Hodjera, Democratic Partyof YugoslaviaIstvan Ijgyarto, Office of the PrimeMinister, Department for theHungarian Minorities AbroadIvan Ilchev, Sofia University,BulgariaRudolf Joo, Etitveis University,Budapest, HungarySteffen Kalauch, HumboldtUniversity, Berlin, GermanyTamas Kende, secretary, foreignaffairs, Alliance for Free Democrats,HungaryPeter Kresak, ComeniusUniversity, Bratislava, Czech and.Slovak Federative RepublicIvan L. Lebedev, correspondent,TASS News Agency, Moscow, USSRAleksandras Levinsonas,economist and managementconsultant, Vilnius, Lithuania

Vojislav Stanovcic, BelgradeUniversityVladimir Tismaneanu, Universityof MarylandLadislav Venys, Center forDemocracy and Free Interprise,Prague

Samuel F. Wells, Jr., WoodrowWilson International Center forScholarsSam Wise, Commission on Securityand Cooperation in Europe

Krenar Loloci, University of Tirana,AlbaniaVladimir Lukov, Russian Socio-Political Institute, Moscow, USSRBalint Magyar, Hungarianparliament and Executive Committeeof the Alliance for Free DemocratsIstvan Meszaros, founding member,Alliance of Free Democrats anddeputy chairman, ParliamentaryCommittee on Human Rights,Minorities, and Religion, Budapest,HungaryMircea Mihaes, editor-in-chief,Orizont, RomaniaLucian Mihai, University ofBucharest, RomaniaSonia Mirtcevska, Legal andTreaties Department, Ministry ofForeign Affairs, BulgariaCristian Moraru, editor,Counterpoint, RomaniaIstvan Olah, scholar, constitutionallaw and human rights, HungaryPaulina Oros, Ministry of Justice,HungaryPeter Paczolay, &live's UniversitySchool of Law, Budapest, HungaryValentin Paounov, Institute ofLaw, Bulgarian Academy of SciencesDan Pavel, Group of SocialDialogue and founder and editor, 22,RomaniaSlobodan Pavlovic, U.S.correspondent, Borba, YugoslaviaRyszard Piotrowski, University ofWarsaw, PolandOleg Rumiantsev, people's deputyand secretary, ConstitutionalCommission of the Russian Republic,USSRPeter Sereny, correspondent,Nepszabadsag, HungaryMilan Simecka, chairman, SlovakCommittee on the Charter 77Foundation, Czech and SlovakFederative Republic

1301

Vojislav Stanovcic, BelgradeUniversity, YugoslaviaJurar Strasser, Comenius School ofLaw, Bratislava, Czech and SlovakFederative RepublicPeter Szemerei, founder, Federationof Young Democrats (FIDESZ),HungaryMaria Todorova, University ofSofia, BulgariaLaszlo Tokai, legal expert, HungaryMichal Tomasek, Department ofInternational Economic Cooperation,Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Czechand Slovak. Federative RepublicGabor Turi, political affairs editor,Hajdu-Bihari Naplo, Debrecen,HungaryVadim V. Udalov, Visiting Fellow,United States Institute of Peace, andprincipal deputy to the director,Research Coordination Center,Ministry of Foreign Affairs, USSRLadislav Venys, Center forDemocracy and Free Enterprise,Prague, Czech and Slovak FederativeRepublicNatasa Vuckovic, attorney,YugoslaviaRadovan Vukadinovic, SveucilisteUniversity, Zagreb, CroatiaMarek Wierzbowski, WarsawUniversity, PolandKrzysztof Wojtowicz, Universityof Wroclaw, PolandAnna Maria Wolanska, director,International Relations for TradeUnion Solidarity, PolandJindra Zemanova, member,Citizens' Movement, Czech andSlovak Federative RepublicDusan Zupan, Washington bureauchief, Tanjug News Agency,Yugoslavia

Studies and Working Groups

The Institute's studies and working groups bringtogether specialists for periodic sessions on a specifictopic that may occur over a period of a year or more.The groups involve a core of expert participants who

Study on StrengtheningWorld Order and theUnited Nations CharterSystem Against SecretWarfare and Low-Intensity Conflict

Undeclared warsfrequentlyreferred to as "low-intensityconflict"have increasinglythreatened world order since

Immo

Conditions Affecting PresentTrends: Activities Destructiveof World Order by IntelligenceAgencies

October 13-14, 1989Washington, D.C.

Topics and Presenters:The KGBJeffrey Richelson, NationalSecurity Archive

Conditions Affecting PresentTrends: Secret WarfareActivities by TransnationalGroups and Non-State Entities:The Middle East and LatinAmerica

January 5-6,1990Miami, Florida

Topics and Presenters:Radical Palestinian and ShiiteTerrorist OrganizationsXavier Raufer, University of Lou'(Paris Wand the French War College

are involved throughout the period of study,augmented by experts on particular subjects coveredat individual sessions.

World War II. These types ofconflicts represent important andchallenging forms of internationalviolencewhether they are theresult of state-supportedterrorism; coups d'etat; wars ofnational liberation; or the covertviolence practiced by drug cartels,transnational organizations, andintelligence services.

Begun in October 1988, the studyexamines the nature of low-intensity conflict and its

instrumentalities; the nature of thechallenge it presents to the UnitedNations Charter and internationallaw; and ways in which policymechanisms, internationalinstitutions, legal rules, anddiplomatic practices might bealtered to cope more effectivelywith the threat. The projectcovered eight two-day sessionsfour of which occurred during theperiod reviewed in this report.

Herbert Romerstein, retired,United States Information Agency

Historical Case Studies of SecretWarfareWilliamson Murray, Ohio StateUniversityBrian Sullivan, U.S. Naval WarCollege

Western Intelligence ServicesLoch Johnson, University ofGeorgia, Athens

Roy Godson, National StrategicInformation Center

Remedies to Activities Destructiveof World Order by IntelligenceServicesJames Der Derian, University ofMassachusetts, AmherstPaul Seabury, University ofCalifornia, BerkeleyAlberto Coll, U.S. Naval WarCollege

Assad Abu-Khalil, GeorgetownUniversityW. Scott Harrop, University ofVirginiaGregg Rickman, Institute for Sovietand Middle Eastern Affairs

South American Drug CartelsRensselaer Lee, Global AdvisoryServicesBruce Bagley, University of MiamiDavid Jordan, University ofVirginia

1-31 t c 2

Narco-Terrorism: Realities andMythsRachel Ehrenfeld, Freedom HousePeter Lupsha, University of NewMexicoJaime Suchlicki, University ofMiami

Implications of Current U.S.Soviet Developments for MiddleEast and Latin American TerrorismJiri Valenta, Graduate School ofInternational Studies, University ofMiamiAlberto Coll, U.S. Naval WarCollege

Policy Alternatives to Dealwith Secret Warfare:International LawMarch 16-17, 1990Washington, D.C.

Topics and Presenters:International Law and SecretWarfareJames E. Baker, School of Lan', YaleUniversity

Institutions and MechanismsAvailable to LiberalDemocracies to Deter SecretWarfare

lune 22-23, 1990Washington, D.C.

Other Participants

Hairy Almond, Institute forNational Strategic Studies, NationalDefense UniversityAnthony Arend, GeorgetownUttiversityCharles Beitz, Swarthmore CollegeJ. Boyer Bell, International AnalysisCenter, Inc.Richard Bilder, School of Law,University of WisconsinDavid Campbell, The johnsHopkins UniversityGeorges Fauriol, Center forStrategic and International StudiesMichael Freney, U.S. Naval WarCollegeAllan Gerson, American EnterpriseInstitute for Public Policy ResearchL.F.E. Goldie, College of Law,Syracuse UniversityLawrence Hargrove, AmericanSociety of International Lan'Christopher Harmon, U.S. NavalWar CollegeMark Janis, School of Law,University of Connecticut

W. Michael Reisman, School ofLaw, Yale Unit,ersityThomas Farer, University of NewMexicoJames Turner Johnson, RutgersUniversity

Secret Warfare: Policy Optionsfor a Modern Legal andInstitutional ContextThomas M. Franck, AmericanJournal of International Law

Eugene V. Rostow, NationalDefense University

Deterring Secret Warfare: AHistorical PerspectiveBrian Sullivan, U.S. Naval WarCollegeCharles W. Kegley, Jr., Universityof South CarolinaMichael Joseph Smith, Universityof Virginia

Topics and Presenters:The Morality and PoliticalEffectiveness of DemocraciesResorting to Secret Warfare as aCountermeasure AgainstAdversarial Secret WarfareGregory F. Treverton, Council onForeign RelationsRichard FL Shultz, Fletcher Schoolof Law and Diplomacy, TuftsUniversity

Secret Warfare and InternationalOrder: Differences in Analysisand PrescriptionThomas J. Farer, Freedom HouseAlberto Coll, deputy assistantsecretary of defense for specialoperations and low-intensity conflictPatrick Glynn, AmericanEnterprise Institute for Public PolicyResearch

Kenneth M. Jensen, United StatesInstitute of PeaceAnthony James Joes, Saint Joseph'sUniversityJames Turner Johnson, RutgersUniversityLarry Johnson, Departmott ofDefenseChristopher Joyner, GeorgeWashington Ultiz7ersityMichael Klare, Hampshire CollegeMark Lagon, GeorgetownUniversityW. Thomas Mattison, GeorgeWashington UniversityAlbert Michaels, University ofNew York, BuffaloJohn Norton Moore, chairman,Board of Directors, United StatesInstitute of Peace and University ofVirginia School of LawJohn Murphy, Vitiation? UniversitySchool of LawLaurie Mylroie, HarvardUniversityCharles E. Nelson, United StatesInstitute of PeaceDavid Newsom, GeorgetownUniversity

131 4,y

Robert Phillips, Universky ofConnecticutMichael Radu, Foreign PolicyResearch InstituteWilliam Ratliff, Hoover Institutionon War, Revolution and Peace,Stanford UniversityJ. Ashley Roach, Oceans,International EnvironmentsJoel Rosenthal, Carnegie CouncilSeymour J. Rubin, The AmericanSociety of International LawAlan Ned Sabrosky, RhodesCollegeJeffrey Salmon, Office of theSecretary of DefenseRichard Staar, Hoover Institutionon War, Revolution and Peace,Stanford UniversityB. Hugh Tovar, independentscholar, Washington, D.C.W. Bruce Weinrod, member, Boardof Directors, United States Instituteof Peace and The HeritageFoundationH. Bradford Westerfield, YaleUniversityDov Zakheim, Systems PlanningCorporation

Working Group on Peaceand Deterrence after theIntermediate NuclearForces (INF) Agreement

An Institute working group onPeace and Deterrence after theIntermediate Nuclear Forces (INF)Agreement brought together

Peace and Deterrence:Defining Terms and Concepts

October 19-20,1989Washington, D.C.

Topics and Preserters:Introduction: The Debate overDeterrenceDavid Wurrnser, United StatesInstitute of Peace

The Theory of DeterrenceColin Gray, National Institute forPublic Policy

The Cultural and IdeologicalContexts of DeterrenceFebruary 12-13,1990Washington, D.C.

Topics and Presenters:Keynote Address: The Employmentof Terror: Interval War underSoviet and Totalitarian RegimesJeane Kirkpatrick, AmericanEnterprise Institute for Public PolicyResearch and former permanent U.S.representative to the United Nations

leading experts and formerofficials to address such topics asthe assumptions and definitions ofdeterrence as a theory, questionsabout its conventional and low-intensity applications, the statusof nuclear deterrence between theUnited States and the SovietUnion: the role of deterrence inpreventing regional conflicts andpromoting security, and the legal

,i nd moral ramifications of andpossible alternatives to deterrenceThe working group held five two-day sessions in 1990 and 1991.(The session on the Middle East isincluded under the "Middle EastPeacemaking and ConflictResolution" section of this chapterChapter II provides additionalinformation about the workinggroup.)

Michael Mobbs, Feith & ZeIl P.C.Charles Kupperman, McDonnellDottglas Corporation

The Evolution of the Concept ofDeterrenceRichard K. Betts, Institute for Warand Peace Studies, ColumbiaLhtiversityGeorge H. Quester, University ofMarylandKeith Payne, National Institute forPublic PolicyPatrick Glynn, AmericanEnterprise Institute for Public PolicyResearch

The Current Requirements ofDeterrenceRobert C. McFarlane, McFarlaneAssociatesWilliam C. Martel, WashingtonResearch Division, RANDDavid Rivkin, legal advisor to theHonorable C. Boyden Gray, counselto the President

The Future of DeterrenceFred C. Ikle, Center for Strategicand International StudiesStephen J. Cimbala, PennsylvaniaState UniversityDov Zakheim, Systems PlanningCorporation

Issues for AnalysisDavid Wurmser, United StatesInstitute of Peace

The United States and EuropeMichael Vlahos, Foreign ServiceInstitute, LI.S. Department of State

The Soviet Union and TotalitarianRegimesLeon Goure, consultantThomas Nichols, DartmouthCollegeliana Kass, National DefenseUniversityDavid Rivkin, legal advisor to theHonorable C. Boyden Gray, counselto the President

133 4

The Far EastGerrit Gong, Center for Strategicand International StudiesNobutaka Ike, professor emeritus,Stanford UniversityRoger Brooks, Asian StudiesCenter, The Heritage Foundation

The Middle EastAdam Garfinkle, Foreign PolicyResearch InstituteElie Krakowski, Boston UniversityJames Coyle, Army War CollegeDaniel Pipes, Foreign PolicyResearch Institute

The Future of European andWestern SecurityArrangements and Deterrence

July 9-10, 1990Washington, D.C.

Topics and Presenters:Introduction: The Nature or theCurrent DebateDaniel Goure, SRS Technologies

Keynote Address: Future ofWestern Security Arrangementsand DeterrencePaul H. Nitze, School of AdvancedInternational Studies, The JohnsHopkins University, and formerambassador-at-large for arms controlnegotiations

Regional Security in the PacificBasin: East Asia in Change andImplications for U.S. PolicyMay 2-3, 1991Washington, D.C.

Topics and Presenters:Keynote Address: U.S. SecurityObjectives in East AsiaRichard H. Solomon, assistantsecretary of state for East Asianaffairs

Shifting Alignments in East AsiaGerrit Gong, Center for Strategicand International StudiesKen Pyle, University of WashingtonRobert Sutter, CongressionalResearch Service

Global U.S. Security ObjectivesKim Holmes, The HeritageFoundationJeffrey Simon, Institute forNational Strategic Studies, NationalDefense University/

Western Security Arrangements inEuropeWilliam Martel, RANDKeith Payne, National Institute farPublic PolicyRobert Rudney, National Institutefor Public Policy

Western Security Arrangements inthe Far EastThomas Blau, InTecTran, Inc.Rodney Jones, Policy Architects,Inc.

New Conceptions of Deterrenceand DoctrineNotra Trulock, StrategicCapabilities Assessment Cectcr,National Defense UniversityHenry Cooper, JAYCORTed Gold, Hicks and Associates

Peace or Conflict in Southeast AsiaEvelyn Colbert, School of AdvancedInternational Studies, The JohnsHopkins UniversityMacArthur F. Corsino, Embassy ofthe PhilippinesArch Roberts, Foreign AffairsCommittee, U.S. House ofRepresentatives

The Future American MilitaryPresence in East AsiaCarl Ford, principal deputy assistantsecretary of defense for Asia

Japan's Role in East Asian SecurityTakayuki Kimura, deputy chief ofmission, Embassy of Japan

1 34

)

Dynamics of Divided CountriesRalph Clough, School of AdvancedInternathund Studies, The johnsHopkins UniversityMark Pratt, former foreign serviceofficerAlan Romberg, Council on ForeignRelations

The Impact of Gorbachev's Visit toJapanYergeniy Afanasyev, minister,Embassy of the USSR

Future Economic and MilitaryArrangements in East AsiaJames Clad, Carnegie Endowmentfor International PeaceBart Boaden, University ofMarylandRichard Grant, Pacific Forum

Future Prospects forConflict or Peace inCentral and EasternEurope

111111=1.

Study Group

Design for this study group beganin early 1989well before the dra-matic upheavals in the region hadoccurred. Composed of morethan fifty scholars, diplomats,policymakers, and experts fromEastern and Central European

countries, the group met for sixhalf-day sessions between October1989 and January 1990. Their finalreport was distributed to govern-ment officials, the Congress, andthe interested public. Chapter IIprovides details on this project.

ParticipantsAlexander Alexiev, RANDJohn Baker, Atlantic Council of theUnited StatesRobert Barry, U.S. Department ofStateElez Biberaj, Voice of AmericaFredrick M. Binder, Foreign PolicyResearch InstituteCorneliu Bogdan, formerRomanian ambassador to the UnitedStatesJames Brown, RANDValerie Bunce, NorthwesternUniversityEric Chenoweth, Institute forDemocracy in Eastern EuropeWalter Connor, Russian ResearchCenter, Harvard UniversityKeith Crane, RANDNadia Diuk, National Endowmentfor DemocracyPaula Dobriansky, deputy assistantsecretary of state for human rightsand humanitarian affairsWilliam Echikson, RussianResearch Center, Harvard UniversityDavid Epstein, Office of NETAssessment, U.S. Department ofDefenseJohn Evans, Kenyan Institute,Woodrow Wilson InternationalCenter for ScholarsMarvin Feuerwerger, PolicyPlanning Staff, U.S. Department ofStateJohn Fox, Policy Planning Office,U.S. Department of StateBen Frankel, American EnterpriseInstitute for Public Policy ResearchFrancis Fukuyama, PolicyPlanning Office, U.S. Department ofState

Charles Gati, Union CollegeRichard Hassing, Center for NavalAnalysesGerald Heiman, former U.S.ambassador to the European office ofthe United Nations, GenevaGeorge Hoffman, Sino-SovietInstitute, George WashingtonUniversityJames Holmes, Policy PlanningStaff, U.S. Department of StateRussel Ingraham, Office of EasternEurope and Yugoslav Affairs, U.S.Department Of StateKenneth M. Jensen, United StatesInstitute of PeacePhilip M. Kaiser, former U.S.ambassador to HungaryRoger Kirk, former U.S. ambassadorto RomaniaJohn Lampe, Woodrow WilsonInternational Center for ScholarsJohn Lenczowski, Council forInter-American SecuritySamuel W. Lewis, president,United States Institute of PeaceJeffrey McKitrick, Office of theVice President of the United StatesMichael Mandelbaum, Council onForeign RelationsPaul Marer, Indiana UniversityMichailo Markovic, University ofPennsylvaniaThomas Melia, NationalDemocratic InstituteStephen Miller, Radio Free Europe/Radio LibertyAndrew Nagorski, NewsweekDaniel Nelson, CarnegieEndowment for International PeaceHerbert S. Okun, CarnegieCorporation of New York and formerU.S. amhassadox to West Germany

Harold Rhode, Office of theAssistant Secretary of Defense forInternational Security PolicyRozanne Ridgway, president,Atlantic Council of the United Statesand former U.S. ambassador to theGerman Democratic RepublicWalter Roberts, GeorgeWashington LbtiversityPeter Rodman, National SecurityCouncilTrudy Rubin, The PhiladelphiaInquirerFrancis Seay, The HeritageFoundationThomas Simons, dip/mint-in-residence, Brown UniversitySaul Singer, National SecurityCouncilHelmut Sonnenfeldt, TheBrookings InstitutionHarland Strauss, U.S. Departmentof DefenseMilan Svec, Peace Fellow, UnitedStates Institute of PeaceJames Swihart, U.S. Department ofStateJacek Tarkowski, WarsawUniversity and advisor to SolidarityVladimir Tismaneanu, ForeignPolicy Research InstituteRudolf Tokes, University ofConnecticutMiklos Vasarhelyi, SorosFoundationW. Bruce Weinrod, member, Boardof Directors, United States Instituteof PeaceAndrew Wood, minister, BritishEmbassy to the United States

1 35

Public Workshop Series

Public workshops are three-hour events on timelyquestions relating to conflict and peace. Since theseries was begun in 1988, the Institute has held six-teen of these events, six during the period under re-view. Topics for these workshops have ranged frompacifism and citizenship, to democracies, peace, and

Resolving RegionalConflicts: A Role forU.S.Soviet Cooperation?November 14,1989Austin, Texas

This workshop was designed toassess the superpower relation-ship regarding trouble spots in theThird World. Participants wereasked to consider whether U.S.Soviet cooperation with respect toregional conflicts is a long-termpossibility; how U.S. and Sovietinterests might be advanced byresolving regional conflicts; if theUnited States and the SovietUnion operate with different ideas

Can There Be anInternational Solution tothe Cambodian Question?February 20, 1990Honolulu, Hawaii

At this workshop, scholars anddiplomats addressed the possibil-ity of achieving an internationallymanaged solution to Cambodia'songoing, seemingly intractable

war, to the future stability of Yugoslavia. To addressissues concerning the rapidly changing political andsocioeconomic environment in the Soviet Union, aseparate series of workshops, entitled "Current So-viet Crisis," was inaugurated in 1990.

of how regional conflicts shouldend, and, if so, what U.S. policyshould be; if U.S.Soviet coopera-tive involvement in resolving re-gional conflicts is preferable toother alternatives such as multilat-eral diplomacy; and if cooperationbetween the superpowers willbenefit the regions where they acttogether to end conflict.

Participants

Robert B. German, Lyndon BainesJohnson School of Public Affairs,University of Texas, AustinJorge Caceres-Prendes, Institute ofLatin American Studies, Universityof Texas, Austin

Nayam Chanda, CarnegieEndowment for International PeaceKenneth M. Jensen, United StatesInstitute of PeaceMark Katz, Peace Fellow, UnitedStates Institute of PeaceSamuel W. Lewis, president,United States Institute of PeaceJagat Mehta, Lyndon BainesJohnson School of Public Affairs,University of Texas, Austin, andformer Indian foreign secretaryJiri Valenta, University of MiamiSidney Weintraub, Lyndon BainesJohnson School of Public Affairs,Universit y of Texas, Austin

civil conflict. The workshop was apart of a two-day Institute eventon issues affecting the Pacific Rimand Asia that was conducted withthe University of Hawaii Institutefor Peace and the EastWest Cen-ter in Honolulu, Hawaii.

Participants

Muthiah Alagappa, EastWestCenter

Frederick Z. Brown, The IndochinaCenter, George Mason UniversityKenneth Conboy, Asian StudiesCenter, The Heritage FoundationKenneth M. Jensen, United StatesInstitute of PeaceWilliam Kintner, former U.S.ambassador to Thailand and member,Board of Directors, United StatesInstitute of Peace

The RomanianRevolution: PresentProspectsMarch 9, 1990Washington, D.C.

Cosponsored by the East Euro-pean Studies Program of theWoodrow Wilson InternationalCenter for Scholars, this workshopfocused on the meaning of events

The Future Stability ofYugoslaviaJanuary 29, 1991Washington, D.C.

Convened in cooperation with theWoodrow Wilson InternationalCenter for Scholars, this work-shop brought together a panel ofexperts on the Balkans to discussYugoslavia's future in terms ofeconomic, political, and ethnic

What Is the Nature of theCurrent Crisis in theSoviet Union and HowDo We Know?February 27, 1990Washington, D.C.

This workshop brought togethereminent Soviet experts to discussthe events and conditions that ledto the current state of the union,

The Current Soviet Crisis:The Baltics, UnionReferendum, and the GulfWarFebruary 25,19911Vashington, D.C.

Topics included recent events inthe Baltics, the March 17 Sovietreferendum on union,

in Romania since the fall ofCeausescu on December 23,1989,and the prospects for democracyand social peace in Romania in thecoming three to five years. Theworkshop also served as a memo-rial to the late Romanian Ambas-sador to the United StatesCorneliu Bogdan and honoredboth the notable dissident andformer Wilson Center fellow Vlad

Georgescu and KlemensSzaniawski, who was also a Wil-son Center fellow.

Speakers

Mihai Botez, Stanti7rd UnipersityJohn Lampe, Woodrow WilsonInternational Center for ScholarsKenneth M. Jensen, United StatesInstitute of Peace

issues. Some of the subjects raisedduring the workshop includedYugoslavia's move away fromcommunism; the problems of na-tional restructuring; the imple-mentation of legal, political, andinstitutional reforms; privat-ization; and other issues of au-tonomy and community betweenthe six republics and two autono-mous regions of Yugoslavia.

Participants

David Binder, The New YorkTimesMilan Hauner, Woodrow WilsonInternational Center for ScholarsKenneth M. Jensen, United StatesInstitute of PeaceJohn Moore, George MasonUniversityEugen Pusic, Department ofPolitical Science and LAW, Universityof ZagrebDennison I. Rusinow, Universityof Pittsburgh

the reasons why Western Soviet-ologists failed to predict thecrisis, and its near- and long-termconsequences.

Core ParticipantsLeon Aron, The HeritageFoundationCharles Fairbanks, Jr., School ofAdvanced International Studies, TheJohns Hopkins University

Kenneth M. Jensen, United StatesInstitute of PeaceStephen Sestanovich, Center forStrategic and International Affairs

Invited Expert

Vladimir Brovkin, WoodrowWilson Center for InternationalScholars

Gorbachev's turn towardrepression, and Soviet policiesand the Persian Gulf war.

Core Participants

Leon Aron, The HeritageFoul:datumCharles Fairbanks, Jr., School ofAdvanced International Studies, TheJohns Hopkins University

137`3

Patrick Glynn, AmericanEnterprise Institute for Public PolicyResearchKenneth M. Jensen, United StatesInstitute of PeaceMyron Rush, Cornell UniversityMilan Svec, Peace Fellow, UnitedStates Institute of Peace

MIDDLE EAST PEACEMAKING ANDCONFLICT RESOLUTION

4

UGENE V. ROSTOW

N1ADELEINE ALBRIGHT

Distinguished Fellow Eugene Rostov addressed several Middle East-related issues during his fellowship. He ispictured here with Madeleine Albright, president of the Center for National Policy, at an Institute panel session.

All the activities listed under this special initiative are described in Chapter I.

MIP 111M

Regional Arms ControlIssues and Prospects inthe Post-War Middle East

Study Group Participants

Abderahman S. Abderahman,Embassy of EgyptCol. Edward Cabaness,Department of Defense, NetAssessmentW. Seth Carus, WashingtonInstitute for Near East PolicyHelena Cobban, Foundation forMiddle East PeacePierce Corden, Arms Control andDisarmament Agericy

The Institute convened thisinformal study group to addressarms control issues for the region.An interim report, issued in May

1991, after the first four sessions,provided arms control ideas to theexecutive branch, the Congress,and other interested audiences.

Richard E. Darilek, RANDLee Feinstein, Arms ControlAssociationDouglas Feith, Feith, Zell andAssociatesShai Feldman, Center for MiddleEastern Studies, University ofChicagoMarvin Feuerwerger, WashingtonInstitute for Near Eastern PolicyCharles Flowerree, former LI.S.ambassador to the Conference onDiSarIlla t

138

_

Robert Gallucci, United NationsCommission on Implementation ofUNSCR 687Raymond Garthoff, The BrookingsInstitutionBrad Gordon, Arms Control andDisarmament AgencyEric Hamburg, Office ofRepresentative Lee HamiltonMark Heller, Canadian Institute forInternational Peace and Security

11,-9 rf'1111 r,421L',

Study Group ParticipantsContinued

Hume Horan, United StatesInstitute of Peace and former U.S.ambassador to Saudi ArabiaKenneth M. Jensen, United StatesInstitute of Peaceliana Kass, National DefenseUniversityGeoffrey Kemp, CarnegieEndowment for International PeaceJames Leonard, retired foreignservice officerSimon Leschem-Stein, Embassy ofIsraelSamuel W. Lewis, president,United States Institute of PenceKaren Masterson, Office ofCongressman Tony HallBrian McKeon, Office of SenatorJoseph Bidet:

Michael Nacht, University ofMarylandJanne Nolan, The BrookingsInstitutionJennifer Noyon, U.S. Departmentof StateRoger F. Pajak, U.S. Department ofthe Treasury/Thomas Parker, Office of SenatorJoseph LiebermanAndrew Pierre, CarnegieEndowment for International PeaceDaniel Pipes, Foreign PolicyResearch InstituteAlan Platt, The Henry L. StimsonCenterRobin Ranger, Peace Fellow,United States Institute of PeaceIndar Rikhye, Visiting Fellow,United States Institute of PeaceJames Rubin, Office of SenatorJoseph Biden

Gary Samore, U.S. Department ofStateSarah Sewall, Senate DemocraticPolicy CommitteeMichael Shiloh, minister, Embassyof IsraelAbram Shulsky, National Strategy!Ovulation CenterJed C. Snyder, WashingtonStrategy SeminarLeonard Specter, CarnegieEndowment for International PenceSteven Spiegel, University ofCalifornia, Los AngelesDouglas Streusand, privateconsultantHillel Weinberg, private consultantJay Winik, National DefenseUniversityDavid Wurmser, United StatesInstitute of Peace

Lessons of the Gulf Warfor Strengthening theUnited Nations CollectiveSecurity System AgainstAggression

Study Group ParticipantsJohn Baker, Atlantic Council of theUnited StatesW. Tapley Bennett, Jr., former U.S.ambassador to NATORichard Gardner, ColumbiaUniversity School of LawTobi Trister Gati, United NationsAssociationStephen Grummon, PolicyPlanning Staff, U.S. Department ofSlateGerald B. Heiman, Office of theUnder Secretary for Policy Affairs,U.S. Department of StateH. Allen Holmes, U.S. ambassador-at-large for burdensharing, U.S.Department of State

The Institute began its study ofthis issue with two sessions thataddressed such topics as how tostrengthen the UN and increase itseffectiveness, how the institution-alization of specific articles of theUN Charter would further U.S.interests, strengthening the role ofthe UN secretariat, increasing the

profile of the UN secretary gen-eral, and choosing a new secretarygeneral. Other sessions will ad-dress issues such as humanitarianversus politico-security issues,educating the public about theUN, and increasing the effective-ness of regional organizations.

Kenneth M. Jensen, United StatesInstitute of PeaceIngrid Lehman, UN InformationCenter, Washington, D.C.James Leonard, former U.S.ambassadorSamuel W. Lewis, president,United States Institute of PeaceJoseph Lorenz, retired foreignservice officer and independentscholarLinda B. Miller, Wellesley CollegeDavid Popper, American Academyof DiplomacyIndar Rikhye, Visiting Fellow,United States Institute of PeaceRobert Rosenstock, U.S. Missionto the United Nations

139 '.ti t 1

Eugene V. Rostow, DistinguishedFellow, United States Institute ofPeaceJohn Gerard Ruggie, Institute ofGlobal Conflict and Cooperation,University of California, San DiegoOscar Schachter, ColumbiaUniversity School of LawDavid Scheffer, CarnegieEndowment for international PeaceWilliam Sherman, School ofAdvanced international Studies, TheJohns Hopkins UniversityJoseph H. Sisco, Sisco andAssociatesJames Sutterlin, Yale University

UN Peacekeeping in thePersian Gulf

Stt. Group Participants

Abderahman Abderahman,Embassy of EgyptCharles W. Arnold, LieutenantColonel, U.S. ArmyKeven Francis Conmy,Mission of Ireland to the UnitedNationsLars-Goran Engfeldt, PermanentMission of Sweden to the UnitedNationsHelmut Freudenschuss,Permanent Mission of Austria to theUnited Nations

This study group focused on UNpeacekeeping operations as theyrelated to the Gulf crisis. Partici-pants examined the UN's roleduring and after the war, includ-ing traditional peacekeeping and

enforcement operations, humani-tarian assistance and security forrefugees, precedents established,and prospects for the future. Theproject was later combined withthe study on collective security.

James Hamilton-Russel, Embassyof the United KingdomGilbert Kulick, CarnegieEndowment for International PeaceSamuel W. Lewis, president,United States Institute of PeaceMichael S. Lund, United StatesInstitute of PeaceClovis Maksoud, The AmericanUniversity, and former permanentrepresentative of the Arab League tothe United Nations

Phebe Marr, Strategic ConceptsDevelopment Center, NationalDefense UniversityMichael Priestley, UNDPAdministrator of HumanitarianAffairsIndar Rihkye, Visiting Fellow,United States Institu'e of PeaceAbdul Aziz Said, the AmericanUnivc,sityHi sake Shimura, Office of SpecialPolitical Affairs, United Nations

Regional Security in theMiddle East: Arab andIsraeli Concepts ofDeterrence and DefenseJune 17-19,1991Washington, D.C.

Topics and Presenters:Keynote Address: The Role ofDeterrence in the Middle EastGeoffrey Kemp, CarnegieElltiOU'lltellt for International Peace

The Syrian Concept of DeterrenceVis-à-Vis IsraelItamar Rabinovich, Tel AvivUniversityBrigadier General (Reserves)Aryeh Shalev, Jaffee Center forStrategic StudiesHabib Malik, Catholic University

The Failure of Israel's DeterrenceVis-A-Vis IraqAmatzia Baram, Haifa UniversityGerald Steinberg, Bar IlanUniversityLaurie Mylroie, HarvardUniversityAlexander George, DistinguishedFellow, Utnted States Institute ofPeace

This conference was part of theInstitute's larger working groupon deterrence. Participantsincluded leading American, Arab,and Israeli practitioners, scholars,and other experts. Major topicsconsidered included lessons about

deterrence based on Iraqi actionsthat precipitated the Gulf crisisand possible securityarrangements for the EasternMediterranean, the Gulf, and theMiddle East as a whole.

Ahmed Hashim, MassachusettsInstitute of Technology

The Israeli Concept of Deterrenceand DefenseShai Feldman, Jaffee Center forStrategic StudiesYair Evron, Tel Aviv University

Keith Payne, National Institute forPublic PolicyAvner Yaniv, University of HaifaMarvin Feuerwerger, WashingtonInstitute for Near East Policy

Deterring TerrorismAharon Yariv, Jaffee Center forStrategic StudiesMartin Kramer, Dayan Center forMiddle East StudiesAsher Susser, Dayan Center tin-Middle East StudiesAlan W. Lukens, DiplomaticSecurity. Inc.

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Israeli Security into the Twenty-First CenturyZalman Shoval, Israeli ambassadorto the United States

Saudi Arabia's Security Perspectiveand Its Impact on the RegionRobert Neumann, Center forSimtegic and International Studies,former U.S. ambassador to SaudiArabia

Roundtable Discussion: Securityin the Levant and EastMediterranean SeaSamuel W. Lewis, president,United States Institute of PeaceJoseph Alpher, Jaffee Center forStrategic StudiesPaul Jureidini, Abbott AssociatesPatrick Clawson, Foreign PolicyResearch InstituteBernard Reich, George WashingtonUniversity

Regional Security in the MiddleEast: Arab and Israeli Conceptsof Deterrence and DefenseContinued

Roundtable Discussion: Securityin the Arabian Peninsula andWestern GulfHume Horan, former U.S.ambassador to Saudi ArabiaDouglas Streusand, consultantJed Snyder, Washington StrategySeminar

Christine Helms, consultantJohn Duke Anthony, president,National Council on U.S.ArabRelationsWalter Cutler, president, MeridianHouse, and former U.S. ambassadorto Saudi Arabia

Lessons fromPeacemaking Efforts inthe Middle East:Approaches andDiplomatic Processes

This study group examined themost and leas' effective aspects ofArabIsraeli negotiations over thepast fifty years. Emphasis wasplaced on lessons from past multi-lateral diplomacy that might be

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relevant to today's negotiations.A final report was issued in October 1991. More extensive informLion about the study groupin-cluding a list of membersandthe report can found in Chapter I

RELIGION, ETHICS, AND HUMAN RIGHTS

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Experts participate in press briefing on events in Ukraine and Institute publication, Ukraine: The Legacy ofIntolerance. (From left to right) Susan Eisenhower, Institute senior scholar David Little, Fr. Frank Estocin, andBohdan Bociurkiw.

Initiated in 1989, the Institute's program on Re-ligion, Ethics, and Human Rights is designed tostudy the interplay of religion and associatedfactors as they relate to international conflictand conflict resolution. Under the auspices ofthis program, the Institute is directing researchprojects; cooperating with individuals, organi-zations, and agencies concerned with relatedsubjects; and participating in conferences, edu-cational events, and other outreach activities.

153

The Working Group on Religion, Ideology, andPeace is the first major activity of this program.To conduct the study, the Institute has formed atwenty-five-member core working group ofscholars, international legal and human rightsexperts, and religious practitioners and repre-sentatives. The group is examining the relation-ship between religion, nationalism, and intoler-ance. Additional information on this workinggroup is contained in Chapter II.

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Members of the Working Group on Religion, Ideology, and Peace

Kevin Avruch, George Mason UniversityBohdan R. Bociurkiw, Carleton University, Ottawa,CanadaFrancis Deng, The Brookings InstitutionPatti Gossman, Asia Watch, Washington, D.C.Lubomyr Hajda, Harvard UniversityHurst Hannum, The Fletcher School of Law andDiplomacy, Tufts UniversityJames Tomer Johnson, Rutgers UniversityMark Juergensmeyer, University of HawaiiJohn Kelsay, Florida State UniversitySarah Khalaf, Princeton UniversitySidney Liskofsky, Jacob Blausten, Institute for theAdvancement of Human Rights of the American JewishCommitteeDavid Little, United States Institute of Peace

Ian Lustick, Dartmouth CollegeSalim Nasr, Center for Peace and ReconstructionSulayman Nyang, Howard UniversityGerald Powers, U.S. Conference of Catholic BishopsAbdulaziz Sachedina, University of VirginiaJohn P. Salzberg, Working Group on the Questions of aUnited Nations Convention on Religious ToleranceH.L. Seneviratne, University of VirginiaElliot Sperling, Indiana UniversityDonna Sullivan, International League for HumanRightsStanley Tambiah, Harvard UniversityRobert Thurman, Columbia UniversityFather Alexander Webster, Ethics and Public PolicyCenterGeorge Weigel, Ethics and Public Policy Center

WORKINGGROUP SESSIONS

Ukraine: The Threat ofIntolerance and thePromise of PluralismJune 20-21, 1990Washington, D.C.

This session dealt with anexample from the Christiantradition, posing questions aboutbelief and political legitimacy, aswell as ethnicity and nationalism.The specific roles of ideology andintolerance were of particularinterest because of the recentreligious events in Ukraine as aresult of recent upheaval in theSoviet Union.

Religious Intolerance andConflict in Sri LankaSeptember 4-5, 1990Washington, O.C.

Following are brief descriptions of sessions of the Working Group onReligion, Ideology, and Peace held between October 1, 1989, andSeptember 30, 1991.

Session Topics and Speakers

David Little, working groupdirector and senior scholar, UnitedStates Institute of Peace

The Politics of Religion in theUkraine under Gorbachev: TheCase of the Ukrainian GreekCatholic ChurchBohdan R. Bociurkiw, CarletonUniversity, Ottawa, CanadaLubomyr Hajda, HarvardUniversity

Restructuring the State-to-ChurchRelationship, and Paths toward theNormalization of the ReligiousSituation in UkraineMykola Panasovych-Kolesnyk,Council of Religious Affairs, Moscow,USSR

Marta Bohachevsky-Chomiak,National Endowment for theHumanities

The Ukrainian AutocephalousOrthodox ChurchFather Frank Estocin, St. VladimirUkrainian Orthodox Cathedral,Philadelphia, and St. SophiaUkrainian Orthodox Seminary, SouthBound Brook, New JerseyJaraslaw Isajevych, HarvardUkrainian Research Center

The Russian Orthodox's Attitudetoward the Situation in UkraineJane Ellis, Keston College, EnglandFather Alexander Webster, priestof the Romanian Orthodox Churchand fellow, Ethics and Policy Center,Washington, D.C.

Sri Lanka provided a primeexample for the study of a societywhere exclusive communityidentity and hostile competitionover questions of race, language,ethnicity, religion, and politicalcontrol have resulted in intensive,

1 43 , .

destructive conflict. TheBuddhistHindu aspect of theconflict; the problems of religion,ethnicity, and nationalism; andthe complexity and types ofrelationships between belief andintolerance were examined.

Religious Intolerance andConflict in Sri Lanka SessionContinued

Topics and Speakers

David Little, working groupdirector and senior scholar, UnitedStates Institute of Peace

Religious Intolerance andConflict in LebanonNovember 5-6,1990Washington, D.C.

Lebanon provided an opportunityto study Islamic traditions as theyrelate to intercommunal rivalryamong different Islamic sects,among different Christian groups,and between Muslims andChristians. Of special interest wasthe question of the role of externalforces in undermining Lebanon'straditions of tolerance, mutuality,and civility, and fosteringdivisiveness and antagonismamong the different Lebanesereligious factions.

Buddhaputra and Bhumiputra?Dilemmas of Modern SinhalaBuddhist Monks in Relation toEthnic and Political ConflictSarath Amunugama, InternationalCenter for Ethnic Studies, Sri LankaStanley Tambiah, HarvardUniversity

The Accelerated MahaweliProgram and Ethnic ConflictPatrick Peebles, University ofMissouriC.R. de Silva, Bowdon' College

Religion and Ethnicity in Sri LankaJohn Rogers, Harvard UniversityGeorge Bond, NorthwesternUniversity

South Indian Cultural Nationalismand Separatism in Sri LankaH.L. Seneviratne, University ofVirginiaSarath Perinbanayagam, CM/1,111 iversity of New York

Session Topics and Speakers

David Little, working groupdirector and senior scholar , UnitedStates Institute of Peace

The Paradox of Tolerance andConflict in LebanonAntoine Messara, The LebaneseUniversity, BeirutNawaf Salam, Harvard University

Relations between the Vatican andthe Maronite CommunityGeorge Irani, Franklin College

1 5 144

Intolerance, Religion, and PoliticalSystems in LebanonBassem al-Jisr, ParisMahmoud Hadad, Middle EastInstitute, Columbia University

The Ties That Bind: ConfessionalLoyalties and the Restoration ofPluralism in LebanonSamir Khalaf, Princeton UniversitySalim Nasr, Center for PeaceReconstruction in Lebanon,Washington, D.C.

CHAPTER VMANAGEMENT AND FINANCE

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1.11The Institute's Board of Directors in early 1991. Seated (from left to right) Mary Louise Smith, John NortonMoore, Elspeth Davies Rostow, Ronald F. Lehman, 11, and Morris 1. Leibman. Standing (from left to right) SidneyLovett, William Kintner, J.A. Baldwin, Samuel W. Lewis (nonvoting), Richard Schiffer, and W. Scott Thompson.Not pictured: Dennis L. Bark, Stephen J. Hadley, Evron Kirkpatrick, Richard John Neuhaus, and Allen Weinstein.Chester Crocker and Theodore Hesburgh joined the Board in late 1991.

CONTENTS

Board of Directors: Governance and Annual Audit 151Leadership 146 Personnel 151

Office Space 151Appropriations and Budgets 149

Biographies 152Finance and Administration 151 Board of Directors 152

Administrative Services and Officers and Senior Staff 155Payment Mechanisms 151

1,45

BOARD OF DIRECTORSGOVERNANCE AND LEADERSHIP

The United States Institute of Peace Act veststhe powers of the corporation in a fifteen-member Board of Directors. Eleven directorsare drawn from outside of federal service andare appointed by the President, with the adviceand consent of the Senate. They may serve nomore than two four-year terms. Four membersserve ex officio: the secretaries of state anddefense; the director of the Arms Control andDisarmament Agency (these officials maydesignate another person from their depart-ment or agency who has been appointed withthe advice and consent of the Senate); and thepresident of the National Defense Universityor, if so designated, the vice president. Thepresident of the United States Institute of Peaceis a nonvoting member. No more than eight ofthe fifteen voting members may be of the samepolitical party.

The Institute's chairman since its inception,John Norton Moore, resigned in June 1991. Vicechairman Elspeth Rostow was subsequentlyelected by the Board to fill the remainder of histerm as chairman through February 1992. W.Bruce Weih:od left the Board in 1989 and theReverends Sidney Lovett and Richard JohnNeuhaus left in 1991.

In 1990 and 1991, President Bush made four ap-pointments to the Board. One was a reappoint-ment to a second term for Elspeth Rostow andthree were new appointments for ChesterCrocker of Washington, D.C., professor of inter-national relations at Georgetown Universityand former assistant secretary of state for Afri-can affairs; Rev. Theodore Hesburgh of Indiana,president emeritus, University of Notre Dame;and Mary Louise Smith of Iowa, former na-

Members of the Board as of November 30, 1991(dates denote beginning of service and expiration of current term)

Elspeth Davies Rostow, Chairman (January 1988 -January 1995)"

Dennis L. Bark (February 1986-January 1993)Chester Crocker (November 1991-January 1995)Theodore Hesburgh (November 1991-January 1995)William R. Kintner (February 1986-January 1991)"Evron M. Kirkpatrick (February 1986-January 1993)Morris I. Leibman (February 1986-January 1991)"Mary Louise Smith (December 1990-January 1995)W. Scott Thompson (February 1986-January 1993)Allen Weinstein (February 1986-January 1993)one vacancy

Ex Officio"'Vice Admiral J.A. Baldwin, president, National

Defense University (September 1989)Stephen J. Hadley, assistant secretary of defense for

international security policy (August 1989)Ronald F. Lehman II, director. Arms Control and

Disarmament Agency (May 1989)

Richard Schifter, assistant secretary of state for humanrights and humanitarian affairs (June 1986)

Samuel W. Lewis, president, United States Institute ofPeace, nonvoting (November 1987)

Four original board members left in 1989 and 1991:John Norton Moore, Chairman (February 1986-June

1991)Sidney Lovett (February 1986-November 1991)Richard John Neuhaus (February 1986-August 1991)W. Bruce Weinrod (February 1986-December 1989)

Rostow was elected chairman in July 1991. She hadbeen vice chairman since January 1989.

** Although their appointive terms have expired, thesedirectors continue to serve until replac ed.Ex officio members may serve as long as they hold their

urrent positions.

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tional chairman of the Republican party (tocomplete the term of Mr. Weinrod and for an-other full term). The appointments, which wereconfirmed by the Senate, expire in January 1995.

The United States Institute of Peace Act, whichestablished the Institute, grants the Board of Di-rectors considerable discretion in governing theInstitute. In addition to establishing high ethi-cal standards for itself and the staff, the Boardsets long-term priorities and goals for the Insti-tute and makes certain key decisions about theuse of Institute resources. It approves majornew program initiatives, chooses which grantand fellowship applicants should be offeredawards, and selects national winners of the Na-tional Peace Essay Contest and the recipients ofthe Spark M. Matsunaga Medal of Peace. Moni-toring the Institute's financial, administrative,and personnel policies and practices is anotherimportant Board responsibility. The day-to-daymanagement of the Institute is carried out bythe president and exe-utive vice president.

The Act and the Institute's bylaws specify thatthe Board must meet at least twice a year. Cur-rently, it adheres to a schedule of six meetingsper year, each lasting one or two days. Threemeetings are devoted largely to program re-views with senior staff members, budget priori-ties, and long-term planning. The other threeare devoted mainly to decisions relating to pro-gram cyclesdeliberations on grants, fellow-ship, and essay contest awards.

The Board regularly obtains the advice of awide range of outside experts in addition to re-ceiving counsel from the Institute president andsenior staff. For example, the Board makes useof outside review panels to inform its decisionson awarding grants, fellowships, and essay con-test scholarships and is establishing a statuto-rily mandated advisory panel for the Spark M.Matsunaga Medal of Peace. In addition, educa-tion experts advise the Institute on content andformat questions for the "Breaking the Mold"educational video series, and the publicationdepartment seeks outside reviews of manu-scripts under consideration for publication.

Chester Crocker (left) and the Reverend TheodoreHesburgh (right) joined the Institute's Board in late1991.

In 1990, the Board created a Grant Committeeto make recommendations to the full Board onindividual grant awards. The revised proce-dure for considering grant applications is nowas follows: Institute staff review applicationsfor completeness and salience to the Institute'sgeneral mandate. Applications are thengrouped into broad subject areas and reviewedby outside panels of experts chosen for theirindividual and collective range of experienceand subject knowledge. After reviewing allapplications, along with the recommendationsof the outside panel and the views of the staff,the five-member Grant Committee prepares itsown recommendations for the full Board. Thecommittee is currently composed of the chair-man of the Board Committees on Research andStudies, Information Services, and Educationand Training, plus the Board chairman and vicechairman. The full Board then makes the finaldecisions on grant awards after discussing thecommittee's recommendations.

This new procedure affects the grant reviewprocess in two important ways: first, it reducesthe amount of time the full Board spendsreviewing applications, and second, it permitsthe Board to spend additional time discussingthe most competitive applications. Conse-quently, the full Board is able to make a morethorough comparison of applications worthy offunding.

147 1 r1.

/-Left: Representative Dan Glickman speaks to the Board about Institute programs and priorities. Right: Board

member Dennis L. Bark (left) and Leonard Robinson, deputy assistant secretary of state for African affairs,

converse after Robinson's presentation to the Board.

Experts Share Forecasts on Peacemaking and Security in the 1990s

In December 1990, the Board of Directors invitedexperts from different areas of public policy, foreignaffairs, and education to address its members aboutmajor trends affecting international peace and theopportunities they present to the Institute. Theoccasion was designed to provide the Board withinput from experts from diverse backgrounds andpoints of view as it considers medium- and long-termgoals and priorities for the Institute.

ParticipantsDavid Abshire, president, Center for Strategic and

International StudiesElise Boulding, general secretary, International Peace

Research AssociationWilliam Burns, deputy director, Policy Planning Staff,

U.S. Department of StateRichard Gardner, Henry L. Moses Professor of Law

and International Organizations, Columbia LawSchool

Dan Glickman, Member, U.S. House of Representa-tives

Samuel P. Huntington, director, John Al. Olin InstituteOr Strategic Studies, Harvard University

I eane Kirkpatrick, former U.S. permanent representa-tive to the United Nations

Charles Krauthammer, syndicated columnistC. William Maynes, editor, Foreign PolicyEdward J. Perkins, director general, U.S. Foreign

ServiceLeonard M. Robinson, deputy assistant secretary of

state for African affairsBrent Scowcroft, national security advisor to the

PresidentSharon Shuster, president, American Association of

University WomenMichael Vlahos, director, Center for Study of Foreign

Affairs, Foreign Service InstitutePaul Wolfowitz, under secretary of defense for policyBernard Wood, chief executive officer, Canadian

Institute for international Peace and SecurityAleksandr Yakovlev, Institute of State and Lan . Soviet

Academy of Sciences

t-I. .1; ;)

1 48

APPROPRIATIONS AND BUDGETS

Congressional authorization levels for Instituteappropriations were $10 million per year forfiscal years 1990 and 1991 and are $15 millionper year for fiscal years 1992 and 1993. Asshown in the table below, final appropriationsfor fiscal years 1990 and 1991 were $7,550,000and $8,393,000, respectively. The final appro-priation level for fiscal year 1992 is $11 million.A statutory requirement placed on the budget isthat 25 percent of the Institute's annual appro-priations be devoted to grants and contractswith nonprofit and official public institutions(section 1705(c)).

Congressional authorization and oversight areprovided by the Senate Committees on Laborand Human Resources and Foreign Relationsand the House Committees on Education andLabor and Foreign Affairs.

The Institute's budget cycle begins when theInstitute provides information on its budgetrequest to the Office of Management andBudget (OMB) in October to assist that office inpreparing the Adminstration's overall budget.Under section 1709(a) of its enabling legislation,the Institute formally submits its requestdirectly to Congress, customarily in January,shortly after the President submits his budget.Institute officials later testify on the requestbefore the Labor, Health and Human Services,Education, and Related Agencies subcommit-tees of the Senate and House AppropriationsCommittees.

As indicated in the table on the next page, theInstitute had operating budgets of $8,132,000 infiscal year 1990 and $8,965,000 in fiscal year1991. Operating budgets include the final

Authorization and Appropriations History in thousands of dollars)

FiscalYear

Authorization InitialAppropriation

Adjustments FinalAppropriation

1985 $ 6,000 $4,000 $ $ 4,0001986 10,0001987 6,000 625 6251988 10,000 4,308 (181* 4,2901989 10,000 7,000 (841" 6,9161990 10,000 7,650 (1001*** 7,5501991 10,000 8,600 (2071**** 8,3931992 15,000 11,000 11,0001993 15,000

The fiscal year 1088 Labor, Health and Human Services, Educ alien, and Related Agencies appropriations measuredirected the Office of Management and f3udget to reduce overall funds available for travel items. The Institute's sharewas $18,000. Public l aw 100-202, section 512.The fiscal year 1989 Labor, Health and Human Sers Education, and Related Agencies appropriations measuredirected an across-the-board cut of 1.2 percent, reducing the Institute's as ailable funding bs $84,000. Public Lass 1(10-436, section 517.Funds were reduced by an at rocs -the -board cut of 5100,00(1 under the Gramm-Rudman-Hollings met hanism.The initial appropriation of $8.600,000 was reduced by $207,000 under budget reconciliation legislation to $8,301,000.Later, a mini-sequester added a further reduction of $150,000 to $8,214,000. This amount was restored during fiscalvex 1991 to give a final appropriation of SO, 103000.

149 1 C

Operating Budgets (in thousands of dollars)

FiscalYear

FinalApprop-nation

Carryover,Interestand Misc.

OperatingBudget

1985 $ 4,000 $ $

1986 4,000 4,0001987 625 3,700 4,3251988 4,290 1,177 5,4671989 6,916 377 7,2931990 7,550 582* 8,1321991 8,393 572 8,9051992 11,0n0 708** 11,708

* Includes funds available from one-time deobligations ofprior year funds.Includes $225 for grants approved in fiscal year 1991, butnot obligated until fiscal year 1992.

appropriations for the year, any funds carriedover from the preceding year, interest earnedon funds invested for the Endowment of theUnited States Institute of Peace, and miscella-neous receipts from sales of books and video-tapes. The Endowment, which was authorizedunder section 1704(c) of the enabling legislationand established by the Institute's Board ofDirectors in September 1987, is a complemen-tary, nonprofit, tax-exempt corporation. Itshares the same directors and officers as theInstitute and is operated for the same purposes,with the additional authority to invest fundsby direction of the Board in short-term Treasuryobligations and interest-bearing checkingaccountsuntil they are dispensed. TheEndowment earned slightly more than $300,000in interest annually in fiscal years 1990 and1991.

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FINANCE AND ADMINISTRATION

ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICESAND PAYMENT MECHANISMS

To perform many of its personnel and otheradministrative support services, the Institutecontracted with the General Services Adminis-tration (GSA) for fiscal year 1986 and then withthe Office of Administration of the ExecutiveOffice of the President. The latter contractended with the close of fiscal year 1990. Begin-ning in fiscal year 1991, the Institute has con-cluded similar contracts with GSA for morelimited services.

The Institute funds its programs and activitiesthrough two accounts: a Treasury appropria-tions account maintained by GSA and a RiggsBank account of the nonprofit, tax-exemptEndowment of the United States Institute ofPeace. The Endowment account is used princi-pally to pay grants, fellowships, scholarships,and rent. Staff salaries and most other programexpenses are dispersed from the appropriationsaccount.

ANNUAL AUDIT

As required under section 1708(g) of theenabling legisl, on, the Institute contracts foran audit of both the Institute and the Endow-ment and forwards a consolidated audit reportaccounts to the President and Congress. Audits

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BEST CUVI° AVAILABLE

during the recent reporting period were con-ducted by the firm of Ernst and Young.

PERSONNEL

During fiscal year 1990, the Institute had thirty-nine full-time permanent positions. Duringfiscal year 1991, the Institute had forty-four full-time permanent positions. (Whenever possibleand appropriate, the Institute makes use oflimited and other short-term consultant andemployment arrangements to conduct itsactivities.) The expansion in staff reflectscorresponding growth in Institute programs.By law, all employees hired after October 1,1988, are ineligible for federal health and lifeinsurance and retirement benefits; conse-quently, the Institute has established privatebenefit systems for these personnel.

OFFICE SPACE

In December 1987, the Institute leased space ina small office building in downtown Washing-ton. It has since acquired additional space inthe same building to accommodate the needs ofincreasing program activity. An importantaspect of the Institute's use of the building isaccess to a ground floor conference room forpublic meetings, including Board meetings,working group sessions, conferences, andpresentations.

The Institute's seniorstaff, seated (left toright): Charles D.Smith, Charles E.Nelson, Samuel W.Lewis, and PatriciaBandy. Standing (left toright): Hrach Gregorian,Robert Oakley, JeanneBohlen, David Little,Michel Lund, Bernice

! J. Carney, Kenneth M.Jensen, and Gregory M.McCarthy.

BIOGRAPHIES

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Elspeth Davies Rostow (Chairman) was electedchairman of the Board of Directors in July 1991, afterserving two and one-half years as vice chairman.Professor Rostow is Stiles Professor of AmericanStudies Emerita and professor of government at theLyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs, theUniversity of Texas at Austin, where she wasformerly dean. She is a graduate of Barnard Collegeand has received advanced degrees from RadcliffeCollege and Cambridge University. ProfessorRostow's work has concentrated on the areas ofAmerican studies and U.S. foreign policy. She is theauthor of numerous articles and three books:Europe's Economy After the War, America Now, and TheCoattail less Landslide. She has taught and lectured atall five senior military colleges, the Foreign ServiceInstitute, and six universities and also serves on theBoard of Directors of the National Academy of PublicAdministration.

Dennis L. Bark is senior fellow of the HooverInstitution on War, Revolution and Peace at StanfordUniversity. Dr. Bark received his Ph.D. in modernEuropean history and political science summa cumlaude from the Free University of Berlin. Therecipient of a number of fellowships, he has been amember of the President's Commission on WhiteHouse Fellowships and chairman of the UnitedStates Coast Guard Academy Advisory Committee.Dr. Bark is the author or editor of several books,including Agreement on Berlin: A Study of the 1971 -72Quadripartite Negotiations; To Promote Peace: U.S.Foreign Policy in the Mid-1980s; Thinking AboutAmerica: The United States in the 1980s; and ThinkingAbout America: The United States in the 1990s. Inaddition, Dr. Bark is coauthor with David R. Gress ofA History of West Germany: Vol. 1, From Shadow toSubstance, 1945-1963 and Vol. 2, Democracy and ItsDiscontents, 1963 -1988.

Chester Crocker is distinguished professor ofinternational relations at the Georgetown UniversitySchool of Foreign Service. In 1989 and 1990, Profes-sor Crocker was a Distinguished Fellow of theUnited States Institute of Peace. From 1981 to 1989he was assistant secretary of state for African affairsand the principal mediator in U.S.-Soviet sponsorednegotiations among Angola, Cuba, and South Africaleading to independence for Namibia, withdrawal ofCuban forces from Angola, and the subsequent

composition of UN peacekeeping forces and electionobservers during Namibia's transition to democraticgovernance. Prior to joining the Georgetown facultyin 1972, Professor Crocker was a staff member at theNational Security Council. He has written articles fornumerous foreign policy journals and is the coeditorof South Africa into the 1980s. He earned a Ph.D. ininternational politics and African studies from TheJohns Hopkins School of Advanced InternationalStudies.

Theodore M. Hesburgh, C.S.C., is president emeri-tus of the University of Notre Dame, where he waspresident for thirty-five years, from 1952 to 1987,thus having the longest tenure among active presi-dents of American institutions of higher learning.Among his accomplishments at Notre Dame was theestablishment of the Institute for International PeaceStudies, whose advisory committee he chairs. FatherHesburgh was awarded the Presidential Medal ofFreedom in 1964 and has held fourteen presidentialappointments relating to civil and human rights,Vietnam War objectors, atomic energy, Third Worlddevelopment, and immigration reform. In 1957 hebecame a charter member of the U.S. Civil RightsCommission and served as its chairman from 1969 to1972. As ambassador to the 1979 UN Conference onScience and Technology for Development, he was thefirst Catholic priest to serve in a formal diplomaticrole for the U.S. government. Father Hesburgh waseducated at Notre Dame and the Gregorian Univer-sity in Rome and later received his doctorate (S.T.D)from the Catholic University of America. He is theauthor of many works, including his bestsellingautobiography, God, Country, and Notre Dame (1990).

William R. Kintner was U.S. ambassador to Thai-land between 1973 and 1975. A graduate of the U.S.Military Academy at West Point, AmbassadorKintner received his Ph.D. from GeorgetownUniversity. Following a distinguished Army career,which included service in the Normandy landingand in the Korean conflict (for which he received theLegion of Merit with oak leaf cluster and the BronzeStar with oak leaf cluster), in 1961 AmbassadorKintner became a professor of political science at theUniversity of Pennsylvania, where he was laterpresident and director of the Foreign Policy ResearchInstitute. Ambassador Kintner has also been editorof the quarterly journal Orbis, a fellow of the HudsonInstitute, a member of the Board of Foreign Scholar-ships, and a member of the board of Freedom House.

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He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relationsand the author or coauthor of numerous books,including The Front Is Everywhere; Peace and theStrategic Conflict; Protracted Conflict; Building theAtlantic World; The New Frontier of War; and SovietGlobal Strategy.

Evron M. Kirkpatrick is president of the HelenDwight Reid Educational Foundation and served formore than twenty-five years as executive director ofthe American Political Science Association. He ispresident of the American Peace Society and is alsothe editor and chairman of the editorial board ofWorld Affdirs. Dr. Kirkpatrick received his Ph.D.from Yale University and, immediately followingWorld War II, held several research positions withthe U.S. Department of State. He was chairman ofthe Social Science Division of the University ofMinnesota, where he became a mentor to the lateHubert H. Humphrey, a long-time advocate of anational peace institution. Dr. Kirkpatrick taught forfour years at Howard University and was a memberof the faculty of Georgetown University from 1959 to1984. He is a former member of the NationalArbitration Association and of its board of arbitratorsand has served on the council and the executivecommittee of the International Political ScienceAssociation. He is the author of numerous booksand articles about American government andinternational affairs.

Morris I. Leibman, a partner in the law firm ofSidle' & Austin in Chicago, was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedom in 1981. For manyYears, Mr. Leibman was chairman of the AmericanBar Association's Standing Committee on Law andNational Security and was the 1986 recipient of theFellows of the American Bar Association's AnnualFifty-Year Award. He received his undergraduateand J.D. degrees from the University of Chicago. Mr.Leibman was a founder and now serves on theexecutive board of the Center for Strategic andInternational Studies and is also founder and currentchairman of the National Strategy Forum in Chicago.

Mary Louise Smith was the national chairman of theRepublican party from 1974 to 1977, the only womanever to have held this position, and has been active inIowa and national politics for over three decades. Shehas been a member of U.S. delegations to UnitedNations conferences in New York, Paris, and Genevaand was a member of the President's Commission forthe Observance of the 25th Anniversary of the UnitedNations in 197(1-1971. Mrs. Smith served as vicechair of the United States Commission on CivilRights from 1982 to 1984. A graduate of the Univer-sity of Iowa, Mrs. Smith also has honorary degreesfrom Grinnell College and Drake University. She is a

founding member of the Iowa Women's PoliticalCaucus, a member of the Advisory Board of theNational Women's Political Caucus and the IowaCentennial Memorial Foundation, a trustee of theHoover Presidential Library Association, and aformer hoard member of the Iowa Peace Institute.

W. Scott Thompson is professor of internationalpolitics at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacyat Tufts University. A Rhodes Scholar and a gradu-ate of Stanford and Oxford Universities, Dr. Thomp-son has been a White House fellow, an assistant tothe secretary of defense, and an associate director ofthe United States Information Agency. He is theauthor or editor of numerous hooks and articles onforeign policy; a founding member of the board ofthe Committee on the Present Danger; a member ofthe Council on Foreign Relations and the Interna-tional Institute for Strategic Studies; and a member ofthe board of the Institute for Strategic Trade.

Allen Weinstein was awarded the United NationsPeace Medal in 1986 for his work in promoting apeaceful political transition in the Philippines andpeaceful resolution of the conflict in El Salvador. Heis president of The Center for Democracy in Wash-ington, D.C. and University Professor and professorof history at Boston University. He has also taught atGeorgetown University and was president of theCenter for the Study of Democratic Institutions, amember of the editorial board of The Washington Post,and editor of The Washington Quarterly and TheCenter Magazine. He also served as acting presidentof the National Endowment for Democracy. A prize-winning historian, Professor Weinstein is the authorof many books, including Freedom and Crisis: AnAmerican History; Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case;and Between the Wars: American Foreign Policy fromVersailles to Pearl Harbor.

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Ex Officio Members

Vice Admiral J. A. Baldwin joined the Institute'sBoard when he became president of the NationalDefense University on September 1,1989. Hegraduated from the U.S. Naval Academy and wascommissioned in June 1955. Throughout his career,he has served at sea as commanding officer of shipsin both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets and hascommanded a destroyer squadron and a carrierbattle group. Vice Admiral Baldwin also served asexecutive assistant to the secretary of the Navy,military assistant to the deputy secretary of defense,and president of the Naval War College. Hisdecorations include the Defense DistinguishedService Medal, the Legion of Merit with two Gold

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Stars, the Bronze Star with Combat "V," the Meritori-ous Service Medal, and the Vietnamese Honor MedalFirst Class.

Stephen J. Hadley is assistant secretary of defensefor international security policy and was senior staffmember on the U.S. Department of Defense transi-tion team for the Bush administration. He wasdesignated to serve on the Institute's Board by thesecretary of defense in August 1989. From 1986 to1987, Mr. Hadley worked for the Tower Commissioninvestigating U.S. arms sales to Iran and waspreviously a consultant to the Senate ForeignRelations Committee in connection with the hearingson the proposed SALT II Treaty. From 1977 throughJanuary 1989, Mr. Hadley practiced law with the firmof Shea Sr Gardner in Washington, D.C., the last sixyears as a partner. He has served on various othergovernment posts in the national security field,including the staff of the National Security Council.Mr. Hadley earned his J.D. from Yale Law Schooland received the Israel Perez Prize for his submissionto the Yale Law Journal.

Ronald F. Lehman II was sworn in as director of theUnited States Arms Control and DisarmamentAgency (ACDA) on May 2, 1989. Before thatappointment, Ambassador Lehman was assistantsecretary of defense for international security policy,in which capacity he also served as an ex officiomember of the Institute's Board. AmbassadorLehman has been chief U.S. negotiator for strategicnuclear arms at the arms control talks in Geneva; astaff member of the Senate Arme Services Commit-tee; deputy assistant to the president for nationalsecurity affairs; and senior director for arms controland defense programs on the staff of the NationalSecurity Council. Ambassador Lehman received hisundergraduate degree from Claremont Men'sCollege and his Ph.D. from Claremont GraduateSchool.

Richard Schifter, assistant secretary of state forhuman rights and humanitarian affairs, was desig-nated by the secretary of state to join the Institute'sBoard in 1986. Ambassador Schifter has served asthe U.S. member of the United Nations HumanRights Commission and as deputy U.S. representa-tive to the Security Council with the rank of Ambas-sador. He was active for many years in the civic andeducational affairs of his home state of Maryland,serving on a number of boards and commissions,including positions as vice president and presidentof the Maryland State Board of Education, chairmanof the Governor's Commission for the Funding of theEducation of Handicapped Children, and chairmanof the Maryland Values in Education Commission.

Ambassador Schifter graduated summa cum laudefrom the College of the City of New York andreceived his L.L.B. from Yale Law School.

The following members left the Board during the 1989-91reporting period.

John Norton Moore was the chairman of the Boardof Directors from its first meeting in February 1986until his resignation in June 1991. Professor Moore isthe Walter L. Brown Professor of Law and director ofthe graduate program at the University of Virginiaand formerly counselor on international law to theDepartment of State; U.S. ambassador to the ThirdUnited Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea;deputy special representative of the President to theLaw of the Sea Conference; chairman of the NationalSecurity Council's Interagency Task Force on theLaw of the Sea; and a consultant to the U.S. ArmsControl and Disarmament Agency. He was also amember of the National Advisory Committee onOceans and Atmosphere; a member of the U.S.delegation to the Conference on Security andCooperation in Europe; chairman of the AmericanBar Association's Standing Committee on Law andNational Security; cochairman of the University ofVirginia Council on Legal Education Opportunityprogram; a member of the board of editors of theAmerican Journal of International Law; and a fellow ofthe Woodrow Wilson International Center forScholars. Professor Moore is a member of theCouncil on Foreign Relations and the American LawInstitute and is the author and editor of numerousbooks on international conflict management,including Law and Civil War in the Modern World; TheArab-Israeli Conflict (vols. I-1V); and the award-winning Law and the Indo-China War.

Sidney Lovett, a retired United Church of Christminister, served on the Board from its first meetingin February 1986 through November 1991. Hereceived his undergraduate education at YaleUniversity and his Master of Divinity degree fromUnion Theological Seminary. Reverend Lovett wassenior minister of the First Church of Christ Congre-gational in West Hartford, Connecticut from 1976 to1986, and later was interim pastor of Rock SpringCongregational Church (United Church of Christ) inArlington, Virginia, where he previously had beensenior pastor. Prior to that time, he served as theconference minister to the Central Atlantic Confer-ence (United Church of Christ). Reverend Lovett hasbeen on the boards of directors of many humanservices agencies and theological schools, includingservice as the director and president of the AlbanInstitute in Washington, D.C.

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Richard John Neuhaus served on the Board from itsfirst meeting in February 1986 until he resigned inAugust 1991. Ordained a Catholic priest in 1991, heis director of the Institute on Religion and Public Lifein New York and was previously director of theCenter on Religion and Society, also in New York.As a Lutheran clergyman, Reverend Neuhaus servedas senior pastor of a parish in Brooklyn, New Yorkfor seventeen years. He has held leadership posi-tions in numerous organizations concerned with civilrights, peace, international justice, and religiousecumenism. Reverend Neuhaus was editor ofWorldview and The Religion and Society Report andeu :1-or-in-chief of This World: A Journal of Religion andPublic Life and is currently editor-in-chief of FirstThings: The Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life.Reverend Neuhaus is the author of ten books,including The Naked Public Square: Religion andDemocracy in America; Movement and Revolution; ToEmpower People; and The Catholic Moment.

W. Bruce Weinrod, a member of the Board since itsfirst meeting in February 1986, resigned in Decem-ber 1989 to accept appointment to full-time federalservice as deputy assistant secretary of defense forEuropean and NATO policy. Mr. Weinrod, a U.S.Army veteran, holds a J.D. degree from GeorgetownUniversity School of Law and an M.A. degree ininternational affairs from the University of Pennsyl-vania, where he worked at the Foreign PolicyResearch Institute. He has been director of foreignpolicy and defense studies at the Heritage Founda-tion; legislative director to Senator John Heinz;manager of international corporate affairs for theChase Manhattan Bank; and a public member of theU.S. delegation to the 1986-1988 Vienna HelsinkiAgreement Follow-up Talks on the Helsinki Accords.A member of the Council on Foreign Relations, Mr.Weinrod serves on the advisory board of the Institutefor International Business and Trade at GeorgetownUniversity BL .ss School. His is a board memberof the Foreign Student Service Council and pastpresident of the International Affairs Council.

OFFICERS AND SENIOR STAFF

Officers

Samuel W. Lewis became president of the Instituteon November 1,1987, and serves as a nonvotingmember of the Institute's Board of Directors. Heretired from the State Department in 1985, afterthirty-one years as a Foreign Service officer. His lastassignment was from 1977 to 1983 as U.S. ambassa-dor to Israel, first appointed by President Carter andthen reaffirmed by President Reagan. He was a

prominent actor in ArabIsraeli negotiations,including the Camp David conference, the EgyptianIsraeli Peace Treaty, and U.S. efforts to bring theIsraeli invasion of Lebanon to a peaceful conclusion.He previously served as assistant secretary of statefor international organization affairs; deputy directorof the Policy Planning Staff; senior staff member onthe National Security Council; a member of theUnited States Agency for International Developmentmission to Brazil; special assistant to the undersecretary of state; and in lengthy assignments toBrazil, Italy, and Afghanistan. Before coming to theInstitute, Ambassador Lewis was diplomat-in-residence at The Johns Hopkins Foreign PolicyInstitute and a guest scholar at the BrookingsInstitution. He is a graduate of Yale University(magna cum laude), earned an M.A. degree in interna-tional relations from The Johns Hopkins University,and also spent one year as a visiting fellow atPrinceton University.

Charles E. Nelson is the Institute's executive vicepresident. Mr. Nelson previously served as vicepresident of an American export trading companyconducting business with Latin America and as anexecutive in the RAND Corporation's housing andcivil justice programs. He has also worked as alawyer, manager, and senior administrator in theUnited States Agency for International Developmentand in a private consulting firm on economic andsocial development programs in the Middle East,Africa, and Latin America. Mr. Nelson holds an A.B.degree (magna cum laude) from Harvard Universityand an LL.B. from Harvard Law School and hascompleted graduate courses at the London School ofEconomics and the National War College.

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Charles Duryea Smith is general counsel and alsodirects activities of the Institute's Rule of LawInitiative. He was special assistant to Senator SparkMatsunaga (chairman of the Commission onProposals for the National Academy for Peace andConflict Resolution) and drafted both the final reportand the legislation that became the United StatesInstitute of Peace Act. He also served on the staffs offederal commissions reporting on the internment ofcitizens during World War II and U.S. immigrationand refugee policy; is a former Peace Corps volun-teer; and has worked in the fields of criminal,constitutional, and immigration law. Mr. Smith isthe editor of The Hundred Percent Challenge: Building aNational Institute of Peace. He holds an A.B. degreefrom Oberlin College, an M.A. degree in Englishliterature from Washington University (St. Louis),and a J.D. from Boston University School of Law, andhas done postgraduate work at Harvard UniversityLaw School.

,G

Kenneth M. Jensen is director of the Research andStudies Program and was also the first director of theInstitute's Grant Program. His doct( ..,11:.-search andsubsequent scholarship has focuser' on Ru: sianMarxist social and political thought He is the authorof Beyond Marx and Mach and many Al tides, papers,and reviews in the Russian and Soviet fields;consulting editor of Studies in Soviet Thought; andeditor (with Fred E. Baumann) of three books onAmerican policy issues: American Defense Policy andLiberal Democracy; Crime and Punishment: Issues inCriminal Justice; and Religion and Politics. Dr. Jensenholds degrees in history, Russian, and Soviet studiesfrom the University of Colorado, University ofWisconsin, and Moscow State University, USSR.

Senior Staff

Patricia Bandy, director of publications and market-ing, has twenty years of experience in journalism andpublishing. Before coming to the Institute, Ms.Bandy worked at the Close Up Foundation, whereshe established its publication and book/videomarketing department, which received severalawards and honors. She has also worked in thepublishing areas of several other institutions,including the American Red Cross; has managed thepublications component for a multimillion dollarfederal education and clearinghouse program; andhas been a consultant in publishing management fornonprofit institutions. She has researched, written,and produced material in a variety of formats andhas won awards for her work. She holds a B.A.degree in English and an M.A. degree in journalismand public relations from the University of Okla-homa.

Jeanne Bohlen is director of the Jeannette RankinLibrary Program. Ms. Bohlen came to the Institutefrom Independent Sector, where she was vicepresident for membership, with responsibilities formembership recruitment and retention, grantsadministration, and the annual membership meetingand assembly. She was the founding director of TheFoundation Center's Cleveland field office, whichincluded a library serving grant makers and grantseekers in eighteen midwestem states. Earlierpositions include head librarian, reference supervi-sor, and reference librarian in public libraries andeditor of hook publications at University Microfilms,Inc. She has been active in many professionalorganizations, including holding elective office inboth the Special Libraries Association and theAmerican Library Association. Ms. Bohlen receivedher M.L.S. degree from Rutgers University and herA.B. degree from Oberlin College with a major inphysics.

Bernice J. Carney is director of administration. Shebrings to her position more than twenty-five years ofexperience with agencies of the federal government.For sixteen years, Ms. Carney served on the staff ofthe President's Council on Environmental Quality,where her last position was chief administrativeofficer.

Hrach Gregorian is director of the Grant Programand director of the Education and Training Program.He came to the Institute from the National Endow-ment for the Humanities, where he conducted specialresearch projects in the Division of State Programs;served as a program officer in the Office of theBicentennial of the U.S. Cons. .ution; and wascoordinator of the Endowment's special initiative onthe Foundations of American Society. Previously,Dr. Gregorian was assistant professor and actingchairman of the Political Science Department atSimmons College in Boston. His principal areas ofacademic and professional interest are internationalrelations, political philosophy, and Americanpolitical institutions and thought. He received a B.A.degree from Boston University and his M.A. andPh.D. degrees from Brandeis University. Dr.Gregorian is a consulting editor of the quarterlyjournal Ararat and has published articles in severaljournals and college textbooks.

David Little is senior scholar on religion, humanrights, and ethics. In this capacity, he directs theInstitute's working group on Religion, Ideology, andPeace. Dr. Little was one of the Institute's firstdistinguished fellows and a professor of religiousstudies at the University of Virginia. He has alsoheld teaching positions at Harvard University andYale University and fellowships at Amherst College,Brown University, University of Colorado, andHaverford College. He is the author of numerousbooks, including Religion, Order and Law; AmericanForeign Policy and Moral Rhetoric; ComparativeReligious Ethics; and Human Rights and the Conflict ofValues and has contributed to a number of editedvolumes and journals. Dr. Little received his D.Th.from Harvard University and his graduate trainingin the philosophy of law and ethics.

Michael S. Lund is director of the JenningsRandolph Fellowship Program. He is a former PeaceCorps volunteer, a professor of government andpublic policy, and public policy analyst at the UrbanInstitute and several federal agencies. His teaching,research, and publications have focused on politicaldevelopment, especially in Western Europe andAfrica; public policymaking and administration inthe United States and elsewhere; the evaluation ofpublic policy performance; and the relationshipbetween research and the policy process. He is

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coeditor of The Reagan Presidency and the Governing ofAmerica and Beyond Privatization: The Tools ofGovernment Action. He holds a B.A. degree inphilosophy from Augustana College, a B.D. degreefrom Yale Divinity School, and an M.A. degree andPh.D. in political science from the University ofChicago.

Gregory M. McCarthy is director of Public Affairsand Information. Prior to joining the Institute, hewas on the staff of the National Council on U.S.Arab Relations where he created and directedprograms involving grants, teacher training, and avariety of grassroots educational activities. He alsomanaged two academic scholarship programs forhigh school students and college faculty in fiveMiddle Eastern countries. Mr. McCarthy holds a B.S.degree in international economics from GeorgetownUniversity.

Robert Oakley is senior coordinator of the SpecialMiddle East Program in Peacemaking and ConflictResolution. After thirty-four years in the U.S.Foreign Service, he retired in September 1991. Hislast assignment was as ambassador to Pakistan from1988 to 1991. During this period, nuclear prolifera-tion, democratic governance, and South Asiansecurity were important issues in United StatesPakistani relations. Ambassador Oakley was specialassistant to the president and senior director forMiddle East and South Asia affairs at the NationalSecurity Council in 1987 and 1988 and director of theOffice of Combatting Terrorism at the Department ofState in 1986 and 1987. Other assignments haveincluded ambassador to Somalia and Zaire, andsenior positions at the Department of State, the WhiteHouse, and the U.S. mission to the United Nations.Ambassador Oakley holds a B.A. degree fromPrinceton University.

The following individuals also held senior staff positionsbut left the Institute during fiscal years 1990 and 1991

Hume Horan, a career Arabist in the U.S. ForeignService, was senior coordinator of the SpecialMiddle East Program in Peacemaking and ConflictResolution from April to July of 1991, after which hebecame president of the American Foreign ServiceAssociation. Before coming to the Institute, hisassignments included ambassador to Saudi Arabia,

Sudan, and Cameroon and tours at the Americanembassies in Jordan, Libya, Iraq, and Lebanon and atthe U.S. Department of State, including service asspecial assistant to the director general of the U.S.Foreign Service. He was also a congressional fellowin the offices of then-Senator Edward Muskie andRepresentative Bradford Morse and a researchprofessor at Georgetown University. AmbassadorHoran earned a master's degree in Middle EasternStudies from Harvard University and studied atuniversities in Baghdad, Amman, and Tripoli.

John Richardson was director of the Education andTraining Program when he retired in September 199Cafter a career in international exchange, education,and communications that spanned three decades. Hvprevious positions included eight years as presidentof Youth for Understanding, for which he wasdecorated by the governments of Japan and theFederal Republic of Germany; seven years asassistant secretary of state for educational andcultural affairs; and seven years as president of RadicFree Europe. Other related positions includeexecutive director for social policy at the Center forStrategic and International Studies, GeorgetownUniversity; chairman of the board of the NationalEndowment for Democracy; and board membership*in a variety of other organizations. Mr. Richardsonreceived his undergraduate and law degrees fromHarvard University.

Steven R. Schlesinger was director of the Educationand Training Program from January 1991 throughJune 1991, when he left the Institute to accept aposition as director of the Office of Policy Develop-ment at the Department of Justice. Before joining theInstitute staff he was director of curriculum andinstruction at the Close Up Foundation. Prior to thathe was director of the Bureau of Justice Statistics atthe U.S. Department of Justice, a position for whichhe was confirmed by the U.S. Senate. Dr.Schlesinger's teaching career spans more than twodecades; he is currently an adjunct professor atAmerican University's School of Public Affairs. Hehas written more than twenty articles in professionallaw and political science journals and three hooksand is the editor of Venue at the Crossroads. Hereceived a Ph.D. degree from Claremont GraduateSchool.

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APPENDICES

CONTENTS

The United States Institute of Peace Act 160 Articles of Incorporation of Endowmentof the United States Institute of

Bylaws of the United States Institute Peace, Incorporated 175of Peace 169

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THE UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE ACT

Title XVII of the Defense Authorization Act of 1985,Public Law No. 98-525 (Oct. 19, 1984), 98 Stat. 2492,2649, 22 U.S.C. 4601-4611, as amended.

SHORT TITLESec. 1701. This title may be cited as the "UnitedStates Institute of Peace Act".

DECLARATION OF FINDINGS ANDPURPOSES

Section 1702. (a) The Congress finds and declaresthat

(1) a living institution embodying the heritage,ideals, and concerns of the American people forpeace would be a significant response to the deeppublic need for the Nation to develop fully a range ofeffective options, in addition to armed capacity, thatcan leash international violence and manage interna-tional conflict;

(2) people throughout the world are fearful ofnuclear var, are divided by war and threats of war,are experiencing social and cultural hostilities fromrapid international change and rec.1 and perceivedconflicts over interests, and are diverted from peaceby the lack of problem-solving skills for dealing withsuch conflicts;

(3) many potentially destructive conflicts amongnations and peoples have been resolved construc-tively and with cost efficiency at the international,national, and community levels through proper useof such techniques as negotiation, conciliation,mediation, and arbitration;

(4) there is a national need to examine thedisciplines in the social, behavioral, and physicalsciences and the arts and humanities with regard tothe history, nature, elements, and future of peaceprocesses, and to bring together and develop newand tested techniques to promote peaceful economic,political, social, and cultural relations in the world;

(5) existing institutions providing programs ininternational affairs, diplomacy, conflict resolution,and peace studies are essential to further develop-ment of techniques to promote peaceful resolution ofinternational conflict, and the peacemaking activitiesof people in such institutions, government, privateenterprise, and voluntary associations can bestrengthened by a national institution devoted tointernational peace research, education and training,and information services;

(6) there is a need for Federal leadership toexpand and support the existing international peaceand conflict resolution efforts of the Nation and todevelop new comprehensive peace education andtraining programs, basic and applied researchprojects, and programs providing peace information;

(7) the Commission on Proposals for the NationalAcademy of Peace and Conflict Resolution, createdby the Education Amendments of 1978, recom-mended establishing an academy as a highlydesirable investment to further the Nation's interestin promoting international peace;

(8) an institute strengthening and symbolizing thefruitful relation between the world of learning andthe world of public affairs, would be the mostefficient and immediate means for the Nation toenlarge its capacity to promote the peaceful resolu-tion of international conflicts; and

(9) the establishment of such an institute is anappropriate investment by the people of this Nationto advance the history, science, art, and practice ofinternational peace and the resolution of conflictsamong nations without the use of violence.

(b) It is the purpose of this title to establish anindependent, nonprofit, national institute to servethe people and the Government through the widestpossible range of education and training, basic andapplied research opportunities, and peace informa-tion services on the means to promote internationalpeace and the resolution of conflicts among thenations and peoples of the world without recourse toviolence.

DEFINITIONSSec. 1703. As used in this title, the term

(1) "Institute" means the United States Institute ofPeace established by this title; and

(2) "Board" means the Board of Directors of theInstitute.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INSTITUTESec. 1704. (a) There is hereby established the UnitedStates Institute of Peace.

(b) The Institute is an independent nonprofitcorporation and an organization described in section170(c)(2)(B) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954.

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The Institute does not have the power to issue anyshares of stock or to declare or pay any dividends.

(c) As determined by the Board, the Institute mayestablish, under the laws of the District of Columbia,a legal entity which is capable of receiving, holding,and investing public funds for purposes in further-ance of the Institute under this title. The Institutemay designate such legal entity as the "Endowmentof the United States Institute of Peace".

(d) The Institute is liable for the acts of its directors,officers, employees, and agents when acting withinthe scope of their authority.

(e) (1) The Institute has the sole and exclusive rightto use and to allow or refuse others to use the terms"United States Institute of Peace", ");raningsRandolph Program for International Peace", "SparkM. Matsunaga Medal of Peace", and "Endowment ofthe United States Institute of Peace" and the use ofany official United States Institute of Peace emblem,badge, seal, and other mark or recognition or anycolorable simulation thereof. No powers or privi-leges hereby granted shall interfere or conflict withestablished or vested rights secured as of September1, 1981.

(2) Notwithstanding any other provision of thistitle, the Institute may use "United States" or "U.S."or any other reference to the United States Govern-ment or Nation in its title or in its corporate seal,emblem, badge, or other mark of recognition orcolorable simulation thereof in any fiscal year only ifthere is an authorization of appropriations for theInstitute for such fiscal year provided by law.

POWERS AND DUTIESSec. 1705. (a) The Institute may exercise the powersconferred upon a non-profit corporation by theDistrict of Columbia Nonprofit Corporation Actconsistent with this title, except for section 5(o) of theDistrict of Columbia Nonprofit Corporation Act(D.C. Code, sec. 29-1005(o)).

(b) The Institute, acting through the Board, may

(I) establish a Jennings Randolph Program forInternational Peace and appoint, for periods up totwo years, scholars and leaders in peace from theUnited States and abroad to pursue scholarly inquiryand other appropriate forms of communication oninternational peace and conflict resolution and, asappropriate, provide stipends, grants, fellowships,and other support to the leaders and scholars;

(2) enter into formal and informal relationshipswith other institutions, public and private, forpurposes not inconsistent with this title;

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(3) establish a Jeannette Rankin Research Programon Peace to conduct research and make studies,particularly of an interdisciplinary or of a multi-disciplinary nature, into the causes of war and otherinternational conflicts and the elements of peaceamong the nations and peoples of the world,including peace theories, methods, techniques,programs, and systems, and into the experiences ofthe I inited States and other nations in resolvingconflicts with justice and dignity and withoutviolence as they pertain to the advancement ofinternational peace and conflict resolution, placingparticular emphasis on realistic approaches to pastsuccesses and failures in the quest for peace andarms control and utilizing to the maximum extentpossible United States Government documents andclassified materials from the Department of State,the Department of Defense, the Arms Controland Disarmament Agency, and the intelligencecommunity;

(4) develop programs to make international peaceand conflict resolution research, education, andtraining more available and useful to persons ingovernment, private enterprise, and voluntaryassociations, including the creation of handbooksnd other practical materials;

(5) provide, promote, and support peace educa-tion and research programs at graduate and post-graduate levels;

(6) conduct training, symposia, and continuingeducation programs for practitioners, policymakers,policy implementers, and citizens and non-citizensdirected to developing their skills in internationalpeace and conflict resolution;

(7) develop, for publication or other publiccommunication, and disseminate, the carefullyselected products of the Institute;

(8) establish a clearinghouse and other means fordisseminating information, including classifiedinformation that is properly safeguarded, from thefield of peace learning to the public and to govern-ment personnel with appropriate security clearancesand

(9) secure dirertiv, upon request of the presidentof the Institute to the head of any Federal departmenor agency and in accordance with section 552 of title5, United States Code (relating to freedom ofinformation), information necessary to enable theInstitute to carry out the purposes of this title if suchrelease of the information would not undulyinterfere with the proper function of a department ofagency, including classified information if theInstitute staff and members of the Board who haveaccess to such classified information obtain appropriate security clearances from the Department ofDefense and the Department of State.

(c)(1)(A) The Institute, acting through the Board,may each year make an award to such person orpersons who it determines have contributed inextraordinary ways to peace among the nations andpeoples of the world, giving special attention tocontributions that advance society's knowledge andskill in peacemaking and conflict management. Theaward shall include the public presentation to suchperson or persons of the Spark M. Matsunaga Medalof Peace and a cash award in an amount of not toexceed $25,000 for any recipient.

(B)(i) The Secretary of the Treasury shall strikethe Spark M. Matsunaga Medal of Peace withsuitable emblems, devices, and inscriptions whichcapture the goals for which the Medal is presented.The design of the medals shall be determined by theSecretary of the Treasury in consultation with theBoard and the Commission of Fine Arts.

(ii) The Spark M. Matsunaga Medal of Peaceshall be struck in bronze and in the size determinedby the Secretary of the Treasury in consultation withthe Board.

(iii) The appropriate account of the Treasuryof the United States shall he reimbursed for costsincurred in carrying out this subparagraph out offunds appropriated pursuant to section 1710(a)(1).

(2) The Board shall establish an advisory panelcomposed of persons eminent in peacemaking,diplomacy, public affairs, and scholarship, and suchadvisory panel shall advise the Board during itsconsideration of the selection of the recipient of theaward.

(3) The Institute shall inf,,rm the Committee onForeign Relations and the Committee on Labor andHuman Resources of the Senate and the Committeeon Foreign Affairs and the Committee on Educationand Labor of the House of Representatives about theselection procedures it intends to follow, togetherwith any other matters relevant to making the awardand emphasizing its prominence and significance.

(d) The Institute may undertake extension andoutreach activities under this title by making grantsand entering into contracts with institutions ofpostsecondary, community, secondary, and elemen-tary education (including combinations of suchinstitutions), with public and private educationaltraining, or research institutions (including theAmerican Federation of Laborthe Congress ofIndustrial Organizations) and libraries, and withpublic departments and agencies (including Stateand territorial departments of education and ofcommerce). No grant may be made to an institutionunless it is a nonprofit or official public institution,and at least one-fourth of the Institute's annual

appropriations shall be paid to such nonprofit andofficial public institutions. A grant or contract maybe made to

(I ) initiate, strengthen, and support basic andapplied research on international peace and conflictresolution;

(2) promote and advance the study of interna-tional peace and conflict resolution by educational,training, and research institutions, department, andagencies;

(3) educate the Nation about and educate andtrain individuals in peace and conflict resolutiontheories, methods, techniques, programs, andsystems;

(4) assist the Institute in its publication, clearing-house, and other information services programs;

(5) assist the Institute in the study of conflictresolution between free trade unions and Commu-nist-dominated organizations in the context of theglobal struggle for the protection of human rights;and

(6) promote the other purposes of this title.

(e) The Institute may respond to the request of adepartment or agency of the United States Govern-ment to investigate, examine, study, and report onany issue within the Institute's competence, includ-ing the study of past negotiating histories and theuse of classified materials.

(f) The Institute may enter into contracts for theproper operation of the Institute.

(g) The Institute may fix the duties of its officers,employees, and agents, and establish such advisorycommittees, councils, or other bodies, as the efficientadministration of the business and purposes of theInstitute may require.

(h) (1) Except as provided in paragraphs (2) and (3),the Institute may obtain grants and contracts,including contracts for classified research for theDepartment of State, the Department of Defense, theArms Control and Disarmament Agency, and theintelligence community, and receive gifts andcontributions from government at all levels.

(2) The Institute may not accept any gift, contribu-tion, or grant from, or enter into any contract with, aforeign government, any agency or instrumentalityof such government, any international organization,or any foreign national, except that the Institute mayaccept the payment of tuition by foreign nationals forinstruction provided by the Institute. For purposesof this paragraph, the term

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(A) "foreign national" means(i) a natural person who is a citizen of a

foreign country or who owes permanent allegianceto a foreign country; and

(ii) a corporation or other legal entity inwhich natural persons who are nationals of a foreigncountry own, directly or indirectly, more than 50percent of the outstanding capital stock or otherbeneficial interest in such legal entity; and

(B) "person" means a natural person, partner-ship, association, other unincorporated body, orcorporation.

(3) Notwithstanding any other provision of thistitle, the Institute and the legal entity described insection 1704(c) may not obtain any grant or contractor receive any gift or contribution from any privateagency, organization, corporation or other legalentity, institution, or individual.

(i) The Institute may charge and collect subscriptionfees and develop, for publication or other publiccommunication, and disseminate periodicals andother materials.

(j) The Institute may charge and collect fees andother participation costs from persons and institu-tions participating in the Institute's direct activitiesauthorized in subsection (b).

(k) The Institute may sue and be sued, complain, anddefend in any court of competent jurisdiction.

(1) The Institute may adopt, alter, use, and display acorporate seal, emblem, badge, and other mark ofrecognition and colorable simulation thereof.

(m) The Institute may do any and all lawful acts andthings necessary or desirable to carry out theobjectives and purposes of this title.

(n) The Institute shall not itself undertake to influ-ence the passage or defeat of any legislation by theCongress of the United States or by any State or locallegislative bodies, or by the United Nations, exceptthat the personnel of the Institute may testify ormake other appropriate communication whenformally requested to do so by a legislative body, acommittee, or a member thereof.

(o) The Institute may obtain administrative supportservices from the Administrator of General Serviceson a reimbursable basis.

BOARD OF DIRECTORSSec. 1706 (a) The Powers of the Institute shall byvested in a Board of Directors unless otherwisespecified in this title.

(h) The Board shall consist of fifteen voting membersas follows:

(1) The Secretary of State (or if the Secretary sodesignates, another officer of the Department of Statewho was appointed with the advice and consent ofthe Senate).

(2) The Secretary of Defense (of if the Secretary sodesignates, another officer of the Department ofDefense who was appointed with the advice andconsent of the Senate).

(3) The Director of the Arms Control and Disar-mament Agency (or if the Director so designates,another officer of that Agency who was appointedwith the advice and consent of the Senate).

(4) The president of the National Defense Univer-sity (or if the president so designates, the vicepresident of the National Defense University).

(5) Eleven individuals appointed by the President,by and with the advice and consent of the Senate.

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(c) Not more than eight voting members of the Board(including members described in paragraphs (1)through (4) of subsection (b)) may be members of thesame political party.

(d) (1) Each individual appointed to the Board undersubsection (b)(5) shall have appropriate practical oracademic experience in peace and conflict resolutionefforts of the United States.

(2) Officers and employees of the United StatesGovernment may not be appointed to the Boardunder subsection (b)(5).

(e) (1) Members of the Board appointed undersubsection (b)(5) shall be appointed to four yearterms, except that

(A) the term of six of the members initiallyappointed shall be two years, as designated by thePresident at the time of their nomination;

(B) a member may continue to serve until his orher successor is appointed; and

(C) a member appointed to replace a memberwhose term has not expired shall be appointed toserve the remainder of that term.

(2) The terms of the members of the Board initiallyappointed under subsection (b)(5) shall begin onJanuary 20, 1985, and subsequent terms shall beginupon the expiration of the preceding term, regardlessof when a member is appointed to fill that term.

(3) The President may not nominate an individualfor appointment to the Board under subsection (b)(5)prior to January 20, 1985, but shall submit the namesof eleven nominees for initial Board membershipunder subsection (b)(5) not later than ninety daysafter that date. If the Senate rejects such a nomina-

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tion or if such nomination is withdrawn, the Presi-dent shall submit the name of a new nominee withinfifteen days.

(4) An individual appointed as a member of theBoard under subsection (b)(5) may not be appointedto more than two terms on the Board.

(1) A member of the Board appointed under subsec-tion (b)(5) may be removed by the President

(1) in consultation with the Board, for convictionof a felony, malfeasance in office, persistent neglectof duties, or inability to discharge duties;

(2) upon the recommendation of eight votingmembers of the Board; or

(3) upon the recommendation of a majority of themembers of the Committee on Education and Laborof the House of Representatives and a majority of themembers of the Committee on Foreign Relations andthe Committee on Labor and Human Resources ofthe Senate.

A recommendation made in accordance withparagraph (2) may be made only pursuant to actiontaken at a meeting of the Board, which may be closedpursuant to the procedures of subsection (h)(3).Only members who are present may vote. A recordof the vote shall be maintained. The President shallbe informed immediately by the Board of therecommendation.

(g) No member of the Board may participate in anydecision, action, or recommendation with respect toany matter which directly and financially benefits themember or pertains specifically to a.ly public body orany private or nonprofit firm or organization withwhich the member is then formally associated or hasbeen formally associated within a period of twoyears, except that this subsection shall not beconstrued to prohibit an ex officio member of theBoard from participation in actions of the Boardwhich pertain specifically to the public body ofwhich the member is an officer.

(h) Meetings of the Board shall be conducted asfollows:

(1) The President shall stipulate by name thenominee who shall he the first Chairman of theBoard. The first Chairman shall serve for a term ofthree years. Thereafter, the Board shall elect aChairmen every three years from among the direc-tors appointed by the President under subsection(b)(5) and may elect a Vice Chairman if so prov cledby the Institute's bylaws.

(2) The Board shall meet at least semiannually, atany time pursuant to the call of the Chairman, or asrequested in writing to the Chairman by at least fivemembers of the Board. A majority of the members ofthe Board shall constitute a quorum for any Boardmeeting.

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(3) All meetings of the Board shall be open topublic observation and shall be preceded by reason-able public notice. Notice in the Federal Registershall be deemed to be reasonable public notice forpurposes of the preceding sentence. In exceptionalcircumstances, the Board may close portions of ameeting, upon a majority vote of its members presentand with the vote taken in public session, which arelikely to disclose information likely to affect ad-versely any ongoing peace proceeding or activity orto disclose information or matters exempted frompublic disclosure pursuant to subsection (c) ofsection 552b of title 5, United States Code.

(i) A director appointed by the President undersubsection (b)(5) shall be entitled to receive the dailyequivalent of the annual rate of basic pay in effect forgrade GS-18 of the General Schedule under section5332 of title 5, United States Code, for each dayduring which the director is engaged in the perfor-mance of duties as a member of the Board.

(j) While away from his home or regular place ofbusiness in the performance of duties for theInstitute, a director shall be allowed travel expenses,including a per diem in lieu of subsistence, not toexceed the expenses allowed persons employedintermittently in Government service under section5703(b) of title 5, United States Code.

OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEESSec. 1707. (a) The Board shall appoint the presidentof the Institute and such other officers as the Boarddetermines to be necessary. The president of theInstitute shall be a nonvoting ex officio member ofthe Board. All officers shall serve at the pleasure ofthe Board. The president shall be appointed for anexplicit term of years. Notwithstanding any otherprovision of law limiting the payment of compensa-tion, the president and other officers appointed bythe Board shall be compensated at rates determinedby the Board, but no greater than that payable forlevel I of the Executive Schedule under chapter 53 oftitle 5, United States Code.

(b) Subject to the provisions of section 1705(h)(3), theBoard shall authorize the president and otherofficials or employees it designates to receive anddisburse public moneys, obtain and make grants,enter into contracts, establish and collect fees, andundertake all other activities for the efficient andproper functioning of the Institute.

(c) The president, subject to the Institute's bylawsand general policies established by the Board, mayappoint, fix the compensation of, and remove suchemployees of the Institute as the president deter-mines necessary to carry out the purposes of the

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Institute. In determining employee rates of compen-sation, the president shall be governed by theprovisions of title 5, United States Code, relating toclassification and General Schedule pay rates.

(d) (1) The President may request the assignment ofany Federal officer or employee to the Institute by anappropriate department or agency, or congressionalofficial or Member of Congross and may enter into anagreement for such assignment, if the affected officeror employee agrees to such assignment and suchassignment causes no prejudice to the salary,benefits, status, or advancement within the depart-ment, agency, or congressional staff of such officer oremployee.

(2) The Secretary of State, the Secretary ofDefense, the Director of the Arms Control andDisarmament Agency, and the Director of CentralIntelligence each may assign officers and employeesof his respective department or agency, on a rotatingbasis to be determined by the Board, to the Instituteif the affected officer or employee agrees to suchassignment and such assignment causes no prejudiceto the salary, benefits, status, or advancement withinthe respective department or agency of such officeror employee.

(e) No officer or full-time employee of the Institutemay receive any salary or other compensation forservices from any source other than the Instituteduring the officer's or employee's period of employ-ment by the Institute, except as authorized by theBoard.

(f) (1) Officers and employees of the Institute shallnot be considered officers and employees of theFederal Government except for purposes of theprovisions of title 28, United States Code, whichrelate to Federal tort claims liability, and the provi-sions of title 5, United States code, which relate tocompensation and benefits, including the followingprovisions: chapter 51 (relating to classification);subchapters I and Ill of chapter 53 (relating to payrates); subchapter I of chapter 81 (relating to compen-sation for work injuries); chapter 83 (relating to civilservice retirement); chapter 87 (relating to lifeinsurance); and chapter 89 (relating to healthinsurance). The Institute shall make contributions atthe same rates applicable to agencies of the FederalGovernment under the provisions of title 5 referredto in this section.

(2) The Institute shall not make long-termcommitments to employees that are inconsistentwith rules and regulations applicable to Federalemployees.

(g) No part of the financial resources, income, orassets of the Institute or of any legal entity created bythe Institute shall inure to any agent, employee,officer, or director or be distributable to any suchperson during the life of the corporation or upondissolution or final liquidation. Nothing in thissection may be construed to prevent the payment ofreasonable compensation for services or expenses tothe directors, officers, employees, and agents of theInstitute in amounts approved in accordance withthe provisions of this title.

(h) The Institute shall not make loans to its directors,officers, employees, or agents, or to any legal entitycreated by the Institute. A director, officer, em-ployee, or agent who votes for or assents to themaking of a loan or who participates in the makingof a loan shall be jointly and severally liable to theInstitute for the amount of the loan until repaymentthereof.

PROCEDURES AND RECORDSSec. 1708. (a) The Institute shall monitor andevaluate and provide for independent evaluation ifnecessary of programs supported in whole or in partunder this title to ensure that the provisions of thistitle and the bylaws, rules, regulations, andguidelines promulgated pursuant to this title areadhered to.

(b) The Institute shall prescribe procedures to ensurethat grants, contracts, and financial support underthis title are not suspended unless the grantee,contractor, or person or entity receiving financialsupport has been given reasonable notice andopportunity to show cause why the action should notbe taken.

(c) In selecting persons to participate in Instituteactivities, the Institute may consider a person'spractical experience or equivalency in peace studyand activity as well as other formal requirements.

(d) The Institute shall keep correct and completebooks and records of account, including separate anddistinct accounts of receipts and disbursements ofFederal funds. The Institute's annual financial reportshall identify the use of such funding and shallpresent a clear description of the full financialsituation of the Institute.

(e) The Institute shall keep minutes of the proceed-ings of its Board and of any committees havingauthority under the Board.

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(f) The Institute shall keep a record of the names andaddresses of its Board members; copies of this title, ofany other Acts relating to the Institute, and of allInstitute bylaws, rules, regulations, and guidelines;required minutes of proceedings; a record of allapplications and proposals and issued or receivedcontracts and grants; and financial records of theInstitute. All items required by this subsection maybe inspected by any Board member or the member'sagent or attorney for any proper purpose at anyreasonable time.

(g) The accounts of the Institute shall be auditedannually in accordance with generally acceptedauditing standards by independent certified publicaccountants certified or licensed by a regulatoryauthority of a State or other political subdivision ofthe United States on or before December 31, 1970.The audit shall be conducted at the place or placeswhere the accounts of the Institute are normally kept.All books, accounts, financial records, files, and otherpapers, things and property belonging to or in use bythe Institute and necessary to facilitate the audit shallbe made available to the person or persons conduct-ing the audit, and full facilities for verifying transac-tions with the balances or securities held by deposi-tories, fiscal agents, and custodians shall be affordedto such persons or persons.

(h) The Institute shall provide a report of the audit tothe President and to each House of Congress no laterthan six months following the close of the fiscal yearfor which the audit is made. The report shall setforth the scope of the audit and include suchstatements, together with the independent auditor'sopinion of those statements, as are necessary topresent fairly the Institute's assets and liabilities,surplus or deficit, with reasonable detail, including astatement of the Institute's income and expensesduring the year, including a schedule of all contractsand grants requiring payments in excess of $5,000and any payments of compensation, salaries, or feesat a rate in excess of $5,000 per year. The report shallbe produced in sufficient copies for the public.

(i) The Institute and its directors, officers, employ-ees, and agents shall be subject to the provisions ofsection 552 of title 5, United States Code (relating tofreedom of information).

INDEPENDENCE AND LIMITATIONSSec. 1709. (a) Nothing in this title may be construedas limiting the authority of the Office of Managementand Budget to review and submit comments on theInstitute's budget request at the time it is transmittedto the Congress.

(b) No political test or political qualification may beused in selecting, appointing, promoting, or takingany other personnel action with respect to anyofficer, employee, agent, or recipient of Institutefunds or services or in selecting or monitoring anygrantee, contractor, person, or entity receivingfinancial assistance under this title.

FUNDINGSec. 1710. (a)(1) For the purpose of carrying out thistitle (except for paragraph (9) of section 1705 (b)),there are authorized to be appropriated $10,000,000for fiscal year 1989; $10,000,000 for fiscal year 1990;$10,000,000 for fiscal year 1991; $15,000,000 for fiscalyear 1992; and $15,000,000 for fiscal year 1993.

(2) Funds appropriated pursuant to paragraph (1)are authorized to remain available until expended.

(b) The Board of Directors may transfer to the legalentity authorized to be established under section1704(c) any funds not obligated or expended fromappropriations to the Institute for a fiscal year, andsuch funds shall remain available for obligation orexpenditure for the purposes of such legal entitywithout regard to fiscal year limitations. Any use bysuch legal entity of appropriated funds shall bereported to each House of Congress and to thePresident of the United States.

(c) Any authority provided by this title to enter intocontracts shall be effective for a fiscal year only tosuch extent or in such amounts as are provided inappropriation Acts.

DISSOLUTION OR LIQUIDATIONSec. 1711. Upon dissolution or final liquidation ofthe Institute or of any legal entity created pursuant tothis title, all income and assets of the Institute orother legal entity shall revert to the United StatesTreasury.

REPORTING REQUIREMENT ANDREQUIREMENT TO HOLD HEARINGSSec. 1712. Beginning two years after the date ofenactment of this title, and at intervals oftwo years thereafter, the Chairman of the Board shallprepare and transmit to the Congress and thePresident a report detailing the progress the Institutehas made in carrying out the purposes of this titleduring the preceding two-year period. The Presidentshall prepare and transmit to the Congress within areasonable time after the receipt of such report thewritten comments and recommendations of theappropriate agencies of the United States withrespect to the contents of such report and their

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recommendations with respect to any legislationwhich may be required concerning the Institute.After receipt of such report by the Congress, theCommittee on Foreign Affairs and the Committee onEducation and Labor of the House of Representativesand the Committee on Foreign Relations and theCommittee on Labor and Human Resources of theSenate shall hold hearings to review the findings andrecommendations of such report and the writtencomments received from the President.

The United States Institute of Peace Act has beenamended four times. Following is a brief history ofthe changes to the Act to date.

The Higher Education Technical Amendments Act of1986, Pub. L. No. 99-498 (Oct. 17,1986),100 Stat.1612, 20 U.S.C. 4609 note, authorized appropriationsfor fiscal years 1987 and 1988 at the same levelsoriginally provided, which were $6,000,000 for thefiscal year 1985 and $10,000,000 for the fiscal year1986.

SEC. 1601. (a) AUTHORIZATIONS OF APPROPRIA-TIONS.

(1) The first sentence of section 1710(a) of theUnited States Institute of Peace Act (22 U. S. C.4609(a) is amended

(A) by striking out "fiscal year 1985" andinserting in lieu thereof "fiscal year 1987"; and

(B) by striking out "fiscal year 1986" andinserting in lieu thereof "fiscal year 1988".

(2) The amendments made by paragraph (1) shalltake effect on October 1, 1987.

(b) AVAILABILITY OF FUNDS.The secondsentence of section 1710(a) of such Act (22 U.S.C.4609 (a)) is amended to read as follows: "Amountsappropriated under this section are authorized toremain available to the Institute until expended."

The Higher Education Technical Amendments Act of1987, Pub. L. No. 100-418 (Aug. 23, 1988), 102 Stat1523, 22 U.S.C. 4604 (inserting the amendment insection 1705(b)(3)), explicitly authorized an Instituteprogram to be named for Jeannette Rankin.

SEC. 25. UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE.Section 1703 of the United States Institute of PeaceAct is amended by inserting after "(3)" the following:"establish a Jeannette Rankin Research Program onPeace to"...

The Act of October 31,1988, Pub. L. No. 100-569,TITLE III - UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE,102 Stat. 2862, 22 U.S.C. 4606 and 4609, authorizedappropriations for fiscal years 1989 through 1993and, by deleting the provision that "No Federalfunds shall be used to pay for private fringe benefitsprograms", permitted the Institute to offer privatefringe benefits to its employees.

SEC. 301. REAUTHORIZATIONSection 1710(a) of the Department of DefenseAuthorization Act, 1985 (22 U.S.C. 4609(a)) isamended to read as follows:

"SEC. 1710. (a)(1) For the purpose of carrying outthis title (except for paragraph (9) of section 1705(b)),there are authorized to be appropriated $10,000,000for fiscal year 1989; $10,000,000 for fiscal year 1990;$10,000,000 for fiscal year 1991; $15,000,000 for fiscalyear 1992; and $15,00,000 for fiscal year 1993.

"(2) Funds appropriated pursuant to paragraph(1) are authorized to remain available until ex-pended."

(b) Section 1707(f)(2) of the United States Institute ofPeace Act (22 U.S.C. 4606(0(2)) is amended bystriking out the first sentence thereof.

The Act appropriating funds for the LegislativeBranch for Fiscal Year 1991, Pub. L. 101-520 (Nov. 5,1990), provided in section 321 for the Spark M.Matsunaga Medal of Peace.

SEC. 321. (a) IN GENERALSection 1705 of theUnited States Institute of Peace Act (22 U.S.C. 4604)as amended

(1) in subsection (b)(A) by adding "and" after the semicolon at the

end of paragraph (8);(B) by striking out paragraph (9); and(C) by redesignating paragraph (10) as para-

graph (9);

(2) by redesignating subsections (c) through (n) assubsections (d) through (o), respectively; and

(3) by inserting after subsection (b) the following:"(c)(1)(A) The Institute, ,Icting through the Board,may each year make an award to such person orpersons who it determines to have contributed inextraordinary ways to peace among the nations andpeoples of the world, giving special attention wcontributions that advance society's knowledge andskill in peacemaking an I conflict management. Theaward shall include the public presentation to suchperson or persons of the Spark M. Matsunaga Medal

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of Peace and a cash award in an amount of not toexceed $25,000 for any recipient.

"(B)(i) The Secretary of the Treasury shall strikethe Spark M. Matsunaga Medal of Peace withsuitable emblems, devices, and inscriptions whichcapture the goals for which the Medal is presented.The design of the medals shall be determined by theSecretary of the Treasury in consultation with theBoard and the Commission of Fine Arts.

"(ii) The Spark M. Matsunaga Medal of Peaceshall be struck in bronze and in the size determinedby the Secretary of the Treasury in consultation withthe Board.

"(iii) The appropriate account of the Treasuryof the United States shall be reimbursed for costsincurred in carrying out this subparagraph out offunds appropriated pursuant to section 1710(a)(1).

"(2) The Board shall establish an advisory panelcomposed of persons eminent in peacemaking,diplomacy, public affairs, and scholarship, and suchadvisory panel shall advise the Board during itsconsideration of the selection of the recipient of theaward.

"(3) The Institute shall inform the Committee onForeign Relations and the Committee on Labor andHuman Resources of the Senate and the Committeeon Foreign Affairs and the Committee on Educationand Labor of the House of Representatives about theselection procedures it intends to follow, togetherwith any other matters relevant to making the awardand emphasizing its prominence and significance.".

(b) USE OF MEDAL NAME.Section 1704(e)(1) ofthe United States Institute of Peace Act (22 U.S.C.4603(e)(1)) is amended by inserting "'Spark M.Matsunaga Medal of Peace'," after "'InternationalPeace',".

(c) CONFORMING AMENDMENT.Section1707(b) of the United States Institute of Peace Act (22U.S.C. 4606(b)) is amended by striking out "section1705(g)(3)" and inserting in lieu thereof "section1705(h)(3)".

c,

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BYLAWS OF THE UNITED STATESINSTITUTE OF PEACE

(adopted Apri 128, 1988)

ARTICLE I NATURE AND POWERSOF THE CORPORATION

Section 1. Nature of the Corporation.The United States Institute of Peace is the indepen-dent, nonprofit corporation established by Section1704 of the United States Institute of Peace Act, TitleXVII, Public Law 98-525; 98 Stat. 2492, 2649; 22 U.S.C.§ 4601 (1984), as amended. The Corporation willserve the people and the Government through thewidest possible range of education and training,basic and applied research, and information serviceson the means to promote international peace and themanagement and resolution of conflict among thenations and peoples of the world.

Section 2. Powers and Duties.The powers and duties of the Corporation are as setforth in the Act. The powers of the Corporationinclude, to the extent consistent with the Act, thepowers conferred upon a nonprofit corporation bythe District of Columbia Nonprofit Corporation Act.

ARTICLE II DEFINITIONS

Section 1. As used in these Bylaws, exceptwhere the context otherwise requires

(a) "Act" means the United States Institute ofPeace Act, Title XVII of Public Law 98-525; 98 Stat.2492, 2649; 22 U.S.C. §4601 (1984), as it is now or maybe amended;

(b) "Board" means the Board of Directors of theCorporation;

(c) "Chairman" means the Chairman of the Boardof Directors initially appointed and thereafter electedpursuant to Section 1706(h)(1) of the Act;

(d) "Corporation" means the United StatesInstitute of Peace established by Section 1704 of theAct;

(e) "Director" means a voting member of theBoard of Directors appointed pursuit it to Section1706 of the Act;

(f) "Grantee" means an institution or indi yidualwho has received a grant from the Institute;

(g) The pronouns "he," "him," and "his" mean,respectively, "he or she," "him or her," and "his orhers";

(h) "Fellow" means an individual who hasreceived a fellowship or other form of support fromthe Institute as part of the Jennings RandolphProgram for International Peace;

(i) "Member of the Board" means a Director or thePresident of the Corporation;

(j) "Person" means an individual, corporation,association, partnership, trust, or other legal entity;

(k) "President" means the President of theCorporation appointed pursuant to Section 1707 ofthe Act;

(1) "Recipient" means any person receivingfinancial assistance from the Corporation.

AR IICLE III OFFICES

Section 1. Principal Offices.The Corporation shall maintain its principal office inthe District of Columbia.

Section 2. Other Offices.The Corporation may have offices at such otherplaces, either within or without the District ofColumbia, as determined by the Board.

ARTICLE IV BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Section 1. General Powers.The powers of the Corporation are vested in theBoard, subject to the provisions of the Act.

Section 2. Number, Terms of Office, andQualifications.The Board shall consist of fifteen Directors, withappointments, qualifications, and terms of office asprovided in Section 1706 of the Act. Eleven shall beappointed from outside of federal service by thePresident of the United States subject to Senateconfirmation. The Secretary of State, Secretary of

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Defense, Director of the Arms Control and Disarma-ment Agency, and President of the National DefenseUniversity, shall, pursuant to section 1706(b)(1)-(4),be ex officio voting members of the Board. Not morethan eight voting members of the Board may bemembers of the same political party. If the Presidentof the National Defense University is a member ofthe Board and is an active duty military officer, hemay assert the tradition of political neutrality of theAmerican military and no political party member-ship shall be attributed to him. If any of the four exofficio voting members elects not to serve, he ma}designate a Senate-confirmed and otherwise eligiblesubordinate official from his agency or department toserve on the Board. Such designation, in order to beeffective, must be in writing, signed by the agency ordepartment head, and received by the Chairman atthe Institute's office. The Chairman shall transmitinformation on the designation to all other membersof the Board within 30 calendar days or at the nextmeeting of the Board, whichever comes first.Changes .71 the Board's ex officio membership shallbe announced to the public no later than at the firstpublic meeting of the Board of Directors followingreceipt of the letter of designation by the Chairman.The President shall serve as a nonvoting member ofthe Board.

Section 3. The Chairman and Vice Chairman ofthe Board.

(a) Every three years, commencing with theexpiration of the term of the first Chairman ap-pointed by the President of the United States or atsuch other times as there may be vacancies in suchoffice, the Board shall elect a Chairman from amongthe Directors appointed from outside of federalservice under Section 1706(b)(5) of the Act. TheBoard may also elect a Vice Chairman for a term notto exceed three years from among the Directorsappointed from outside of federal service underSection 1706(b)(5) of the Act.

(b) The Chairman shall preside, if present, at allmeetings of the Board; carry out all other functionsrequired of him by the Act and these Bylaws; andrepresent the Board in matters concerning the day-to-day operations of the Institute. The Vice Chairman,if any, shall preside, in the absence of the Chairman,at meetings of the Board and shall perform suchother duties as from time to time may be requestedof him by the Chairman.

Section 4. Outside Interests of Directors andOfficers.

(a) No member of the Board may participate in anydecision, action, or recommendation with respect toany matter which directly and financially benefits

such member or pertains specifically to any publicbody or any private or nonprofit firm or organizationwith which the member is then formally associatedor has been formally associated within a period oftwo years, except that this provision shall not beconstrued to prohibit an ea- officio member of theBoard from participation in actions of the Boardwhich pertain specifically to the public body ofwhich that member is an officer.

(b) Pursuant to reporting procedures establishedfrom time to time by Board resolution, all Directorsand Officers shall, on an annual basis after assumingoffice, file with the Institute's Ethics Officer (orGeneral Counsel if no Ethics Officer has beendesignated) a list of those activities and relationshipswhich might reasonably raise an issue of conflict ofinterest or the appearance of a conflict of interestwith respect to the mandate and activities of theInstitute.

Section 5. Compensation.A Director appointed by the President from outsideof federal service shall be entitled to receive the dailyequivalent of the annual rate of basic pay in effect forgrade GS-18 of the General Schedule under section5332 of title 5, United States Code, for each dayduring which the Director is engaged in the perfor-mance of duties as a member of the Board.

Section 6. Travel.While away from his home or regular place ofbusiness in the performance of duties for theInstitute, a Director shall be allowed travel expenses,including a per diem in lieu of subsistence, not toexceed the expenses allowed persons employedintermittently in Government service under section5703(b) of title 5, United States Code. All travel,other than to attend meetings of the Board, for whicha Director seeks reimbursement from the Instituteshall have the prior authorization of the Chairman orPresident.

ARTICLE V MEETINGS OFDIRECTORS

Section 1. Meetings.Meetings of the Board shall he held at least two timeseach calendar year. Meetings shall be held atintervals and locations determined by the Chairman.If any five members of the Board request in writingthat a meeting be scheduled, the Chairman shallschedule a meeting to occur within 45 days ofreceiving such request.

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Section 2. Agenda.The Chairman shall cause to be prepared the agendafor each meeting, and shall include the agenda in thenotice of the meeting sent to all Directors. Anymatters appearing on the agenda which the Chair-man believes should be discussed in a closed sessionin accordance with Section 1706(h)(3) of the Act shallbe so noted.

Section 3. Quorum; Manner of Acting.(a) A majority of the Directors shall constitute a

quorum for a Board meeting. Except as otherwisespecifically provided by law or these Bylaws, thevote of a majority of the Directors present at the timeof a vote, provided that a quorum is present at suchtime, shall be the act of the Board. A Director who ispresent at a meeting of the Board but who recuses orabstains from participation in the deliberation or voteon any matter, whether he remains in the meetingroom or withdraws therefrom during the delibera-tion or vote, may be counted for purposes of deter-mining whether or not a quorum is present, and if aquorum is present, the vote of a majority of the thenvoting Directors shall be the act of the Board. Afterhaving convened with a quorum, a meeting maycontinue without a quorum, but no vote may betaken unless a quorum is present.

(b) Each Director is entitled to one vote. Votingrights of Directors may not be exercised by proxy.

Section 4. Public Meetings; Executive Sessions.All meetings of the Board shall be open to publicobservation and shall be preceded by reasonablepublic notice, for which purpose notice in the FederalRegister shall be deemed to be reasonable. Asprovided in Section 1706(h)(3) of the Act, the Boardmay close portions of a meeting, upon a majorityvote of its members present and with the voterecorded and taken in public session, which arelikely to disclose information likely to affect ad-versely any ongoing peace proceeding or activity orto disclose information or matters exempted frompublic disclosure pursuant to subsection (C) of theGovernment in the Sunshine Act, Section 552b ofTitle 5, United States Code. The chairman of themeeting shall announce the general subject of theclosed session prior to such a vote.

Section 5. Minutes.The Institute shall keep minutes of the proceedingsof the Board and of any committee having authorityunder the Board. The minutes shad record thenames of the Directors present, subjects addressed,and any actions taken. The minutes of each meeting

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shall be availab:e for inspection by the public in theform approved by the Board.

Section 6. Action by Directors Without aMeeting.

In exceptional circumstances, any action which maybe taken at a meeting of the Board may be takenwithout a meeting, if agreement or ratification inwriting, setting forth the action taken, is signed by allof the Directors. Any such action so taken shall beincluded on the agenda of the next meeting of theBoard for discussion, ratification, or such other actionas may be indicated by the circumstances.

ARTICLE VI COMMITTEES

Section 1. Establishment and Appointment ofCommittees.The Board shall have the following permanentcommittees: Education and Training; Research andStudies; Information Services; Institutional Planning;Organization and Administration; and Personnel.The Board may, by resolution of a majority of the fullBoard, establish (and thereafter dissolve) such otherexecutive, standing, permanent, or temporarycommittees to perform such functions as the Boardmay designate. The authority of any such committeeshall expire at the time specified in such resolution orsubsequently determined by the Board. The Chair-man shall appoint Directors to serve on suchcommittees, as well as the members who shall chairsuch committees. The Chairman shall be a votingmember of each committee. The President shall be anonvoting member of each cc mmittee.

Section 2. Committee Procedures.(a) Except as otherwise provided in these Bylaws

or in the resolution establishing the committee, amajority of the voting members of a committee, orone-half of such members if their number is even,shall constitute a quorum. A Director who is presentat a meeting of a committee but who recuses orabstains from participation in the deliberation or voteon any matter, whether he remains in the meetingroom or withdraws therefrom during the delibera-tion or vote, may be counted for purposes of deter-mining whether or not a quorum is present, and if aquorum is present, the vote of a majority of the thenvoting Directors shall be the act of the committee.The vote of a majority of the voting members presentat the time of a vote, if a qucrum is present at suchtime, shall be the act of the committee. After havingconvened with a quorum, a meeting may continuewithout a quorum, but no vote may be taken unless aquorum is present.

(b) Each voting member of a committee is entitledto one vote. Voting rights of committee membersmay not be exercised by proxy.

Section 3. Public Meetings; Executive Sessions.All meetings of any committee of the Board shall beopen to public observation and shall be preceded byreasonable public notice, for which purpose notice inthe Federal Register shall be deemed to be reason-able. As provided in Section 1706(h)(3) of the Act, acommittee may close portions of a meeting, upon amajority vote of its members present and with thevote recorded and taken in public session, which arelikely to disclose information likely to affect ad-versely any ongoing peace proceeding or activity orto disclose information or matters exempted frompublic disclosure pursuant to subsection (C) of theGovernment in the Sunshine Act, Section 552b ofTitle 5, United States Code. The chairman of themeeting shall announce the general subject of theclosed session prior to such a vote.

ARTICLE VII OFFICERS ANDEMPLOYEES

Section 1. Officers.The officers of the Corporation shall be a President, aVice President, and such other officers as the Boardfrom time to time shall determine to be necessary.The officers shall have such authority and shallperform such duties, consistent with the Act andthese Bylaws, as may be determined by the Board byresolution or, with respect to all officers but thePresident, by the President consistent with policiesestablished by the Board. The President shallsupervise and direct the other officers in the perfor-mance of their duties.

Section 2. Appointment, Term of Office, andQualifications.The President shall be appointed by majority vote ofthe full Board for a specific but renewable term of notless than one year and not more than three years.Each officer of the Corporation other than thePresident shall be appointed by majority vote of thefull Board for a specific term or, if not specified, for aterm that may not exceed three years without theappointment being reaffirmed by the Board. Allofficers shall serve at the pleasure of the Board. Anofficer shall hold office until a successor is dulyappointed in his stead or until he resigns or isremoved in the manner provided in Section 3 of thisArticle.

Section 3. Removal.The officers of the Corporation may be removed by amajority vote of the full Board. Such removal shallbe without prejudice to the contract rights, if any, ofthe person so removed, nor shall the appointmentitself of the officer be construed to create contractrights.

Section 4. Resignation.Any officer may resign at any time by giving awritten notice of his resignation to the Chairman. Anofficer other than the President shall also submitwritten notice of his resignation to the President.Such resignation shall take effect at the time it isreceived by the Chairman, unless another time isspecified therein. The acceptance of such resignationshall not be necessary to make it effective.

Section 5. The President.The President is a nonvoting member of the Boardand the Chief Executive Officer of the Corporation,with the responsibility and authority as provided inthe Act, these Bylaws, policies established by theBoard, and rules and regulations promulgatedpursuant to the Act, these Bylaws, or Board policiesfor (1) the day-to-day administration of the affairs ofthe Corporation, (2) the appointment and removal ofsuch employees of the Corporation as he determinesnecessary to carry out the purposes of the Corpora-tion, and (3) the exercise of such other powersincident to the office of the President and theperformance of such other duties as the Board mayfrom time to tim2 prescribe. These powers includethose emumerated in Section 1707(b), (c), and (d) ofthe Act, which include the receipt and disbursementof public monies, obtaining and making grants,entering into contracts, establishing and collectingfees, and making personnel decisions.

Section 6. Vice President.The Vice President shall have such powers and shallperform such duties as the Board has determinedand as the President may from time to time pre-scribe, consistent with policies of the Board. In theabsence of and upon delegation by the President, aVice President shall perform the duties of thePresident, and when so acting, shall have all thepowers of, and shall be subject to all restrictionsupon, the President.

Section 7. Compensation of Officers andEmployees.

(a) Officers shall be compensated at rates deter-mined by the Board pursuant to Section 1707(a) ofthe Act.

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(b) As provided in Section 1707(e) of the Act, noofficer or other full-time employee of the Corpora-tion may receive any salary or other compensationfor services from any sources other than the Corpora-tion during his period of employment by theCorporation, except as authorized by the Board.

Section 8. Outside Interests of Officers andEmployees.

Consistent with the Act, the Board may from time totime adopt resolutions governing the conduct ofofficers or employees with respect to matters inwhich the officers or employees may have anyinterests that might be perceived as adverse to theinterests of the Corporation.

ARTICLE VIII TRANSFER OF FUNDSTO THE ENDOWMENTThe President periodically shall report to the Boardon the Institute's financial situation, including anystatutory requirements, and shall advise the Boardon transfer ring appropriated funds that have notbeen obligated or expended from the Institute'sTreasury account to the Endowment of the UnitedStates Institute of Peace, in exercise of the Board'sauthority under Section 1710(b) of the Act.

ARTICLE IX PROHIBITIONS

Section 1. Prohibition Against Intervention inOngoing Conflicts.No Director, officer, employee, fellow, grantee, orother individual, acting on behalf of the Institute,shall intervene direct.y in any ongoing internationalconflict without the approval of the Board and theconcurrence of the Department of State.

Section 2. Prohibition Against Lobbying.

The Institute itself shall not undertake nor shall anyfunds of the Institute be used to influence thepassage or defeat of any legislation by the Congressof the United States or by any State or local legisla-tive bodies, or by the United Nations or any otherinternational governmental body, except thatpersonnel of the Institute may testify or make otherappropriate communication when requested to do soby a legislative body, a committee, or a memberthereof.

Section 3. Prohibition Against Political Activity.(a) No Director, officer, employee, or any other

person shall, on behalf of the InstitoL, take a positionfor or against any political party o candidate for

political office. Nothing in this section shall precludethe right of an individual to express his opinion inhis private capacity or in a public capacity separateand distinct from his position with the Institute.

(b) Directors, officers, employees, fellows, andgrantees of the Institute shall exercise due care intheir professional and private activities including,where appropriate, by use of a disclaimer to avoidconveying the impression that their personal viewsor activities are the views or activities of the Institute.

Section 4. Prohibition Against ClassifiedResearch.

The Institute shall not sponsor or support classifiedresearch nor shall any officer or employee of theInstitute engage in classified research, except withthe approval of two-thirds of the full Board. TheBoard may discuss such proposed activity inexecutive session, after indicating the general natureof the proposal in public session. Any decision toengage in classified research in Institute programsshall be reported at the next public session of theBoard.

Section 5. Prohibition Against Political Tests orQualifications.No political test or political qualification may beused in selecting, appointing, promoting, or takingany other personnel action with respect to anyInstitute officer, employee, or agent.

ARTICLE X SEAL

The Corporation shall have a corporate seal in a formadopted by the Board.

ARTICLE XI INDEMNIFICATIONPresent and past Directors, officers, employees, andagents of the Institute may be indemnified for anyand all liabilities and reasonable expenses incurred inconnection with any claim, action, suit, or proceedingarising from present or past service for the Institute,in accordance with resolutions adopted by the Board.

ARTICLE XII FISCAL YEARThe fiscal year of the Corporation shall he that of theFederal Government.

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ARTICLE XIII - AMENDMENTSThese Bylaws may be amended by a recorded vote ofthree-quarters of the full Board, which three-quartersshall include no less than two ex officio Directors, ateach of two public meetings, at least 30 and not morethan 180 calendar days apart, provided that (a) suchamendment is not inconsistent with the Act or otherapplicable provision of federal law, (b) the notice ofthe meeting at which such action is taken shall havestated the substance of the proposed amendment,and (c) the notice of such meeting shall have beenmailed, telegraphed, or delivered to each Director atleast five (5) days before the date of the meeting.

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ARTICLE XIV-EFFECTIVE DATEThese Bylaws are effective when approved by theBoard and shall operate prospectively.

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ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION OF ENDOWMENT OF THEUNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE, INCORPORATED

TO: Department of Consumer and RegulatoryAffairs Corporations Division614 H Street N.W., Washington, DC 20001

We, the undersigned natural persons of the age oftwenty-one ,fears or more, acting as incorporatorsand desiring to form a Nonprofit Corporation underthe DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA NONPROFITCORPORATION ACT (D.C. Code, 1981 edition, Title29, Chapter 5), adopt the following Articles ofIncorporation:

First: The name of the Corporation is Endowment ofthe United States Institute of Peace, Incorporated.

Second: The period of duration of the Corporation isperpetual.

Third: The purpose for which the Corporation isorganized is to receive, hold, invest, and expendpublic funds for exempt purposes in furtherance ofthe United States Institute of Peace as establishedunder the I'nited States Institute of Peace Act, TitleXVII, Public Law 98-525, as it is now or may beamended. Said Corporation is organized exclusivelyfor charitable, educational, and scientific purposes,including, for such purposes, the making of distribu-tions to organizations that qualify as exempt organi-zations under Section 501(c)(3) of the InternalRevenue Code, or corresponding section of anyfuture tax code.

Fourth: The Corporation shall have no members.

Fifth: The manner of appointment of the directors ofthe Corporation shall be provided in the bylaws.

Sixth: The address of the Corporation's initialregistered office is 730 Jackson Place, N.W., and thename of the initial registered agent of such address isCharles Duryea Smith who resides at 4740 Connecti-cut Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008.

Seventh: The number of directors constituting theinitial Board of Directors is fifteen (15), who shallserve as the initial directors until their successors beselected as provided in the bylaws. The names andaddresses of the initial directors are as follows:

Name AddressProf. John Norton Moore University of Virginia

School of LawCharlottesville, VA 22901

Dr. Dennis L. Bark

Dr. William R. Kintner

Dr. Evron M. Kirkpatrick

Morris I. Leibman, Esq.

Rev. Sidney Lovett

Paster RichardJohn Neuhaus

The HonorableRichard Schifter

Dr. W. Scott Thompson

Mr. Bruce Weinrod

Dr. Allen Weinstein

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Hoover Institute of War,Revolution and PeaceStanford UniversityStanford, CA 94305

University ofPennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, PA 19104

4000 Albermarle St., N.W.Suite 310Washington, DC 20016

Sidley & AustinOne First National PlazaChicago, IL 60603

P.O. Box 44.8Holdernes.i. NH 03245

Center onReligion and Society152 Madison Avenue24th FloorNew York, NY 10016

Bureau of Human Rightsand Humanitarian AffairsDepartment of StateRoom 7802Washington, D.C. 20520

Fletcher School of Lawand DiplomacyTufts UniversityMedford, MA 02155

The Heritage Foundation214 Massachusetts Ave.,N.E.Washington, DC 20002

1155 15th Street, N.W.Suite 1010Washington, D.C. 20005

The HonorableKenneth L. Adelman

AmbassadorBrt Laingen

The HonorableRichard N. Per le

Mr. Robert F. Turner(Nonvoting)

U.S. Arms Control andDisarmament Agency320 21st Street, N.W.,Room 5930Washington, D.C. 20451

National DefenseUniversityFort Leslie J. McNairRoom 218, Building 594th and P Streets, S.W.Washington, D.C. 20319

The PentagonRoom 4E848Washington, D.C. 20319

United States Institute ofPeace730 Jackson Place, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20503

Eight: The names and addresses of the incorporatorsare as follows:

Name

Mark D. Schneider

Charles Duryea Smith

Dr. Kenneth M. Jensen

Ms. Bernice Carney

Address

Sid ley & Austin1722 Eye Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20006

United States Institute ofPeace730 Jackson Place, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20503

United States Institute ofPeace730 Jackson Place, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20503

United States Institute ofPeace730 fackson Place, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20503

Ninth: No part of the net earnings of the Corpora-tion shall inure to the benefit of, or be distributable toits directors, officers, or other private persons, exceptthat the Corporation shall be authorized andempowered to pay reasonable compensation forservices rendered and to make payments anddistributions in furtherance of the purposes set forthin Article Third hereof. No substantial part of theactivities of the Corporation shall be carrying on ofpropaganda, or otherwise attempting to influencelegislation, and the Corporation shall not participate

in, or intervene in (including the publishing ordistribution of statements) any political campaign onbehalf of any candidate for public office. Notwith-standing any other provision of these articles, theCorporation shall not, except to an insubstantialdegree, engage in any activities or exercise anypowers that are not in furtherance of the purposes ofthis Corporation.

Tenth: Upon the dissolution of the Corporation,assets shall be distributed for one or more exemptpurposes within the meaning of Section 501(c)(3) ofthe Internal Revenue Code, or corresponding sectionof any future federal tax code, or shall be distributedto the federal government pursuant to Section 1711of the United States Institute of Peace Act, Title XVII,Public Law 98-525, as it is now or may be amended.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, we have hereunto sub-scribed our names this 16th day of September, 1986.

Mark D. Schneider (Signed)INCORPORATOR

Charles Duryea Smith (Signed)INCORPORATOR

Dr. Kenneth M. Jensen (Signed)INCORPORATOR

Bernice Carney (Signed)INCORPORATOR

The signatures above sworn to and subscribed beforeme this 16th day of September, 1986

Linda Morgan Blanchard (Signed)Notary PublicMy Commission Expired July 14, 1990

VERIFICATIONThe undersigned, being duly sworn upon oath,deposes and states that he is an Incorporator of theEndowment of the United States Institute of Peace,and the signature on the attached Articles of Incorpo-ration is genuine.

Mark D. Schneider (Signed)Mark D. Schneider

Sworn and subscribed to before me this 16th day ofSeptember, 1986

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Linda Morgan Blanchard (Signed)Notary PublicMy Commission Expired July 14,1990

The undersigned, being duly sworn upon oath,deposes and states that he is an Incorporator of theEndowment of the United States Institute of Peace,and the signature on the attached Articles of Incorpo-ration is genuine.

Charles Duryea Smith (Signed)Charles Duryea Smith

Sworn and subscribed to before me this 16th day ofSeptember, 1986

Linda Morgan Blanchard (Signed)Notary PublicMy Commission Expired July 14, 1990

The undersigned, being duly sworn upon oath,deposes and states that he is an Incorporator of theEndowment of the United States Institute of Peace,and the signature on the attached Articles of Incorpo-ration is genuine.

Kenneth M. Jensen (Signed)Kenneth M. Jensen

Sworn and subscribed to before me this 16th day ofSeptember, 1986

Linda Morgan Blanchard (Signed)Notary PublicMy Commission Expired July 14,1990

The undersigned, being duly sworn upon oath,deposes and states that he is an Incorporator of theEndowment of the United States Institute of Peace,and the signature on the attached Articles of Incorpo-ration is genuine.

Bernice Carney (Signed)Bernice Carney

Sworn and subscribed to before me this 16th day ofSeptember, 1986

Linda Morgan Blanchard (Signed)Notary PublicMy Commission Expired July 14, 1990

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The United States Institute of Peace logo incorporates several

elements of historical and institutional significance. The dove,

which is derived from George Washington's weathervane at

Mount Vernon, symbolizes the traditional American commit-

ment to the cause of peace. The tree is the Connecticut "Charter

Oak," the ancient site of Indian treaties and hiding place of

Connecticut's charter of liberty in time of trouble, and symbol of

the values of peace and freedom. The logo's circular shape

depicts a globe that represents the international scope of the

Institute's mandate.

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"My first wish is to see

this plague of mankind, war,

banished from the earth."

George Washington

UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE

1550 M Street, N.W.Washington, DC 20005(202) 457-1700Fax: r 202) 429-6063