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Gay, GenevaA Synthesis of Scholarship in MulticulturalEducation. Urban Monograph Series.North Central Regional Educational Lab., Oak Brook,IL.

Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),Washington, DC,94

RP9100200740p.

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1900Spring Road, Suite 300, Oak Brook, IL 60521 ($6.95,order number UMS-SS-94).Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.*Cultural Awareness; Cultural Pluralism; Definitions;*Educational Objectives; Educational Practices;Elementary Secondary Education; Ethnicity;*Multicultural Education; Political Influences;Research Reports; Resource Allocation; Scholarship;Social Change; *Synthesis; *Urban Schools

This synthesis includes various conceptions anddefinitions of multicultural education and outlines the implicationsof these definitions for practice. Definitions of multiculturaleducation vary widely, with some relying on the culturalcharacteristics of diverse groups, and some emphasizing social,political, and economic factors. Most have in common the following:agreement that the content of multicultural programs should include:ethnic identities; cultural pluralism; unequal distribution ofresources and opportunities; and recognition of other sociopoliticalproblems stemming from oppression. Multiculturalists value diversityand agree that content, structures, and practices of multiculturaleducation will vary depending on circumstances. Goal clusters ofmulticultural education are: (1) ethnic and cultural literacy, (2)

personal development, (3) attitude and value. clarification, (4)

multicultural social competence, (5) basic skills proficiency, (6)

educational equity and excellence, and (7) empowerment for socialreform. Although the theoretical conceptualization of multiculturaleducation is progressing, school practice and establishing theeffects of multicultural education are areas where much researchremains to be done. (Contains 55 references.) (SLD)

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Urban Monograph Series

A Synthesis of Scholarshipin Multicultural Education

esU 5 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONte E acetone ;Waseca dm moron rentEDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

CENTER IERIC)X This document has been reproduced asreceived boat the poison or orgarezabonangenahnq

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URBAN EDUCATION PROGRAM

by Geneva GayUniversity of Washington at Seattle

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NCREL.10th ANNIVERSARY

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory1900 Spring Road, Suite 300Oak Brook, LL 60521(708) 5714700, Fax (708) 5714716

Jeri Nowakowski: Executive. Director

Lynn J. Stirmette: Director, Urban Education

Robin LaSota: Program Coordinator, Urban Education

Robin Fleming: Program Assistant, Urban Education

Lenaya Raack: Editor

John Blaser: Editor

Stephanie L. Merrick: Production Coordinator

Melissa Chapko: Graphic Designer

Mary Ann Larson: Desktop Publisher

Holly Jovanovich: Assistant, Urban Education

NCREI., is one of ten federally supported educational laboratories in the country. It works with educationprofessionals in a seven-state region to support restructuring to promote learning for all studentsespecially those most at risk of academic failure in rural and urban schools.

The Urban Education Program's mission is to improve education for nth= children and youth, especiallythose who are underachieving and historically underserved. We provide products and services that con-nect superintendents, principals, and teachers from nearly 5,000 urban schools to research and best practice.We work in partnership with schools and districts to build capacity for (1) teaching advanced skills to allstudent& (2) implementing multicultural education, (3) leading school change and innovation, and (4)supporting professional development that promotes whole school change.

Cr 1994 North Central Regional Educational Laboratory

This publication is based on work sponsored wholly or in part by the Office of Educational Research andImprovement (OERI), Department of Education, under Contract Number RP91002007. The content ofthis publication does not necessarily reflect the views of OERI, the Department of Education, or any otheragency of the U.S. Government.

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NCRELNorth Central Regional Educational laboratory

Dear Colleague:

We are pleased to introduce the Urban Education Monograph Series, a new initiative of the North CentralRegional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) that works to connect practitioners and policymakers toimportant research and promising practices.

Throughout the region's urban centers, children and youth continue to achieve at levels significantly belownational norms. While many urban students complete school and make a successful transition to highereducation, increasing numbers of poor and minority youth in the region's urban centers either drop out ofschool or finish school lacking the skills and knowledge needed to successfully continue their education andparticipate fully in today's high-tech, information-service economy.

NCREL believes that connecting practitioners and policymakerre to-knowledge about what works in urbanschools is an important step in crafting effective solutions to the achievement gap between the region'surban children and others. Traditionally, solutions to problems of urban schools have foamed on isolatedprograms or single subjects, such as reading, and have relied heavily on knowledge from one fieldeducation. The achievement gap between urban children and others is the result of many factors (e.g.,social, cultural, economic). Solutions that draw on a broad knowledge base are more likely to be effectivein attacking the problems that impede urban children's success in school than solutions that rely solely onknowledge about schooling.

The Urban Education Monograph Series connects practitioners and policymakers to important into:nationabout what works in urban schools by drawing on knowledge from the fields of education, sociology,cultural anthropology, and others. The series, planned for publication in 1994 and 1995, addresses suchSues as the following:

Building a Collaborative School Culture (Kent Peterson, University of Wisconsin at Madison withRichard Brietzke, Purdy Elementary School, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin)Raising Expectations to Improve Student Learning (Jerry Bamburg, University of Washington atSeattle)Synthesis of Scholarship on Multicultural Education (Geneva Gay, University of Washington atSeattle)Cultural Diversity and Academic Achievement (Barbara Bowman, Eason Institute with anintroduction by John Attinasi, California State University)Multicultural Education: Challenges to Administrators and School Leadership (Carol Lee,Northwestern University with an introduction by Ian Attinasi, California State Unive sity)Developing Resilience in Urban Youth (Linda Winfield, University of California at has Angeles)Organizational Structures to Promote T acher Engagement n Urban Schools (Karen SeashoreLouis, University of Minnesota at Minneapolis)Getting Ready to Provide School-Linked, Integrated Set-vices (Jeanne Jehl, San Diego PublicSchools)

We welcome your comments on the Urban Education Monograph Series and your suggestions about otherissues that you would like addressed in the future.

sigcerely,.

L J. Sf nnetteDirector, Urban Education

1900 Spring Road, Suite 300 Oak Brook, Illinois 60521-1480 Phone 708-571-4700 Fax 708-571-4716

4

A Synthesis of Scholarshipin Multicultural Education

by Geneva GayUniversity of Washington at Seattle

Introduction

Multicultural education meansdifferent things to different

people. However, the differences arenot as great, confusing, or contradictoryas some critics and analysts claim.Many of these differences are moresemantic than substantive, a reflectionof the developmental level in the fieldand the disciplinary orientation of advo-cates. One should expect people whohave been involved in a discipline oreducational movement for a long time tounderstand and talk about it differentlyfrom those who are new to it. Similarly,educators who look at schooling fromthe vantage point of sociology, psychol-ogy, or economics will have differing-views of the key concerns of schooling.Yet, these disrate analysts may agreeon which issues are the most criticalones. Such differences over means cou-pled with widespread agreement on sub-stance are naturally found in discussionsof multicultural education. But thisdiversity should not be a problem, espe-

cially when we consider that multicul-tural education is all about plurality.

The field includes educational scholars,

researchers, and practitioners from awide variety of personal, professional,

philosophical, political, and pedagogicalbackgrounds. Therefore, we shouldexpect that they will use different pointsof reference in discussing ethnic diver-sity and cultural pluralism. Yet, whenallowances are made for these differences,

a consensus on the substantive compo-nents of multicultural education quicklyemerges. Such agreement is evident inareas such as the key content dimensions,

value priorities, the justification for mul-ticultural education, and its expected out-comes. Only when these fundamentalsare articulated do variations emerge.

Some advocates talk about expectedoutcomes, while others consider themajor determining factor to be the groupbeing studied; the arena of school actionis the primary focus for one set of advo-cates, and still others are most concerned

with distinctions between theory andpractice. Some people are selectiveabout where to begin and what to empha-

size in cultural pluralism. Others aremore inclusive and want its impact to befelt in all dimensions and on every level.Regardless of these variations, all con-ceptions of multicultural educationshare four characteristics: (I) they arebased upon a common set of assump-tions, (2) they evolve out of commonconcerns, (3) they contain common

guidelines for action, (4) they share adesire to make cultural pluralism andethnic diversity inicgral parts of theeducational process.

When planning for multiculturaleducation in school programs, it isimportant to allow different conceptionsof multicultural education to be expressed

in the school decision - making processrather than to insist on one definition.Conceptions of multicultural educationcontain value beliefs and reflect thevarying levels of understanding amongpeople involved in tie school decision-making process. Conceptions of multicul-tural education and the value beliefswithin them delineate the scope, focus,and boundaries of the field of multicul-tural education. These conceptions areguidelines for action and need to beclearly understood early in the processof making educational decisions. Accord-ingly, this synthesis includes variousconceptions and definitions of multicul-tural education and outlines theimplica,dons of these definitions for practice.

Definitions ofMulticultural Education

Definitions of multicultural educationvary. Some definitions rely on the cul-tural characteristics of diverse groups,while others emphasize social problems(particularly those associated withoppression), political power, and thereallocation of economic resources.Some restrict their focus to people ofcolor, while others include all major

groups that are different in any wayfrom mainstream Americans. Otherdefinitions limit multicultural educationto characteristics of local schools, andstill others provide directions for schoolreform in all settings regardless of theircharacteristics. The goals of these diverse

types of multicultural education rangefrom bringing more information aboutvarious groups to textbooks, to combat-ting racism, to restructuring the entireschool enterprise and reforming societyto make schools more culturally fair,accepting, and balanced. For this reason,the field of multicultural education isreferred to interchangeably as multicul-tural education, education that is mul-ticultural, and anti-racist education.

The following are the most frequentlyused definitions of multicultural education:

An idea, an educational reform move-ment, and a process intended tochange the structure of educationalinstitutions so that all students havean equal chance to achieve academicsuccess

A philosophy that stresses the impor-tance, legitimacy, and vitality of ethnic

and cultural diversity in shaping the

lives of individuals, groups, and nations

A reform mov ent that changes allcompone,ntS of the educational enter-prisefincluding its underlying values,procedural rules, curricula, instructionalmaterials, organizational structure,and governance policies to reflectcultural pluralism

62 A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Educadon

An ongoing process that requires long-term investments of time and effortas well as carefully planned and moni-tored actions (Banks & Banks, 1993).

institutionalizing a philosophy ofcultural pluralism within the educa-tional system that is grounded in prin-ciples of equality, mutual respect,acceptance and understanding, andmoral commitment to social justice(Baptiste, 1979)

Structuring educational priorities,commitments, and processes to reflectthe cultural pluralism of the UnitedStates and to ensure the survival ofgroup heritages that make up society,following American democratic ideals

(AACTE, 1973; Hunter, 1974)

An education free of inherited biases,with freedom to explore other per-spectives and cultures, inspired by thegoal of making children sensitive tothe plurality of the ways of life, differ-ent modes of analyzing experiencesand ideas, and ways of looking athistory found throughout the world(Parekh, 1986, pp. 26-27)

A humanistic concept based on thestrength of diversity, human rights,social justice, and alternative life-styles for all people, it is necessaryfor a quality education and includesall efforts to make the full range ofcultures available to students; it viewsa culturally pluralistic society as apositive force and welcomes differences

as vehicles for better understanding

the global society (Af.a) MulticulturalEducation Commission, in Grant,1977b, p. 3)

a An approach to teaching and learningbased upon democratic values thatfoster cultural pluralism; in its mostcomprehensive form, it is a commit-Meat to achieving educational equality,

developing curricula tin tivilds under-standing about ethnic greens, andcombatting oppressive practices(Bennett, 1990)

a A type of education that is concernedwith various groups in American soci-ety that are victims of discriminationand assaults because of their uniquecultural characteristics (ethnic, racial.linguistic, gender, etc.); it includesstudying such key concepts as preju-dice, identity, conflicts, and alienation,

and modifying school practices andpolicies to reflect an appreciation forethnic diversity in the United States(Banks, 1977)

Acquiring knowledge about variousgroups and organizations that opposeoppression and exploitation by studying

the artifacts and ideas that emanatefrom their efforts (Sizemore, 1981)

Policies and practices that showrespect for cultural diversity througheducational philosophy, staffing com-position and hierarchy, instructionalmaterials, curricula, and evaluationprocedures (Frazier, 1977; Grant,1977)

7A Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education 3

Comprehensive school reform andbasic education for all students thatchallenges all forms of discrimination,

permeates instruction and interper-sonal relations in the classroom, andadvances the democratic principles ofsocial justice (Nieto, 1992)

These various definitions containseveral points in common. Advocatesagree that the content of multiculturaleducation programs should includeethnic identities, cultural pluralism,unequal distribution of resources andopportunities, and other sociopoliticalproblems stemming from long historiesof oppression. They believe that, atbest, multicultural education is a philoso-phy, a methodology for educationalreform, and a set of specific contentareas within instructional programs.Multicultural education means learningabout, preparing for, and celebratingcultural diversityor learning to bebicultural. And it requires changes in.school programs, policies, and practices.

Multiculturalists explicitly valuediversity and agree that the specific con-tent, structures, and practices employedin achieving multicultural education will

differ depending on the setting. There-fore, it is useful for educators to developtheir own definitions of multiculturaleducation, within the general boundariesoutlined above, to fit their specificneeds, rather than imposing a universalstructure to implement multiculturaleducation.

Multiculturalists also agree that mul-ticultural education has implications fordecision-making that will affect opera-tions at all level; :.-tf :tdcation, includinginstruction, administration, governance,counseling, program planning, perform-ance appraisal, and school climate.Thus, everyone involved must play anactive role in implementing multicultural

education. Promoting diversity meansacknowledging diveizity, incorporatingdiversity into all levels, and demonstrat-ing pride in cultural pluralism alongwith a sincere belief that diversity isdesirable.

The actions taken in schools to adoptmulticultural education should reflectthe race, language, ethnicity, habits, andcustoms of ethnic groups throughout theglobal community. In order to promotea comprehensive understanding of cultural

groups, we must use a variety of methodsand a composite of various areas ofscholarship, including the humanities,arts, social sciencesrhistory, politics,and sciences.

To implement multicultural educationfully, fundamental changes will need tobe made in the conception, organization,and execution of the educational process.

These changes require modifications inan educational system that has been gov-erned with a monocultural orientation

based on Eurocentric, middle- class cul-tural norms. Thus, implied in the defini-tions given above is another conceptthat fords general agreement among mul-ticulturalists: multiculturalism requires

4 A Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education

simultaneous changes on multiple levelsof schooling. These changes must bedeliberate, long-range, ongoing, andmost importantcomprehensive.

The Net I forMulticultural Education

Multicultural education should become

a regular part of education in the UnitedStates for three major reasons: the socialrealities of U.S. society, the influence ofculture and ethnicity on human growthand development, and the conditions ofeffective teaching and learning. Thesereasons explain not only the need formulticultural education, but also whatits content emphasis should be and howit should be taught. Each reason playsan important and unique role in estab-lishing the justifications, parameters,and directions for multicultural education.

Social Realities

The United States is extremely cultur-ally pluralistic, socially stratified, andracially divided. Poi sat news maga-zines, such as Time and U.S. News andWorld Report, often reiterate this factThe April 9, 1990, issue of Time exam-ined the growing percentage of peopleof color in the U.S. population. ANovember 1993 special edition of thesame magazine explored the effects ofimmigration on the "changing face ofAmerica." Diversity of race, culture,ethnicity, social class, religion, language,

and national origin is a fundamental

feature of interpersonal interactions andcommunity structures.

However, in the more formal aspectsof society, such as institutional policies,practices, and power allocation, Anglo-centric and middle-class cultural valuespredominate_ The organization and gov-ernment of schools provides one illustra-tion of this condition. Most schoolstructures and procedures are groundedin mainstrearircultural conceptions oflaw, order, reason, and rationality.Another illustration of the predominanceof Anglocentric, middle-class culture isthat the significant power positions inpolitics and economics tend to be heidby people from this cultural background.

A third illustration of this predominanceis the extent to which intimate relation-ships are established along ethnic, racial,

and social lines in the United States. Informing marriage partnerships and relig-ious affiliations (two of the most intimate

contexts of interpersonal relations),United States citizens are-predominantlyethnic in their choices.

Despite the pluralism of United Statessociety, most people live in relativelyisolated enclaves, away from others whoare racially, socially, and culturally dif-ferent. Individuals from the same ethnicgroups live in close proximity to oneanother, creating largely single race orethnic group geographic clusters, suchas Anglo suburbs, Hispanic barrios,Chinatowns, Little Italys, and LittleJapans. The population tends to be sepa-rated along economic lines, so that

C

A Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education 5

members of the middle, upper, andlower social classes within and acrossethnic groups do not interact with oneanother on substantive or egalitarianThe divisions between these groups areincreasing instead of diminishing.

Separation along racial and economiclines is pronounced in the United Stateseven in regions that appear to haveracially mixed residential areas. Thismixture only appears on the surface; inreality, these apparently desegregatedcommunities contain insulated ethnicand racial pockets. Similarly, even inmany legally desegregated schools, thestudents tend to resegregate themselvesin social interactions and friendship choices.

The relative physical isolation of eth-nic groups in the United States meansthat individuals in these groups aremuch more likely to engage in qualita-tive interactions with people who arelike themselves than with people fromdifferent ethnic groups. Interactions .

with people who are different are transi-tory and perfunctory. The absence ofclose and significant interactions acrossethnic, social, and cultural lines mayreinforce stereotypes and cause indi-viduals to be suspicious and distrust-fuleven fearfulof those who aredifferent. Multicultural education isneeded to help reverse these trends andattitudes by teaching youth about cultur-ally different groups and by providingopportunities for individuals fromdiverse backgrounds to learn, live, andwork.togetkr.

6

Although laws exist to prohibit discrimi-nation based on race, color, gender. age,

and creed, the society of the UnitedStates continues to be plagued by atti-tudes and behaviors that are derogatoryto some ethnic, cultural, and socialgroups, and preferential to others. Thus,unofficial inequality flourishes, mani-festing itself in racism_ ethnocentrism,prejudices, favoritism, discrimination,cultu ral appropriation, and culturalhegemony. One revealing sign of suchinequality is the frequency with whichracial hostilities are reported in headlinenews. Mother is the absence of someethnic groups, such as Native Americansand Latinos, in leadership positions, andtheir virtual invisibility in the nationalpopular culture.

Many people in the United States stillbelieve that there is a single acceptableway to live, look, and behave as anAmerican and a human being. Thestandards for determining what is appro-priate. derive from the Eurocentric main-stream culture. Anyone who deviatesfrom these standards is considered to beun-American; they become objects ofscorn and are subjected to discrimina-tion, being denied equal access to institu-tional opportunities, political rights,economic rewards, and respect for theirhuman dignity. Multicultural educationis a potential means for correcting thesedistortions and inequities.

The ruient revival of racial hategroups such as the skinheads aliu neo-Nazis; acts of racial hostility such as

1GA Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education

racial slurs directed toward African-Americans, Korean- Americans, andMexican-Americans; cross buntings inAfrican-American neighborhoods; attacks

by groups of ethnic youths against otherethnic groups; and recent cases of blatant

police brutality against African-Americansin Los Angeles and Detroit are symptoms

of the inherent social racism that prevails

in United States society, where citizenshave not learned to understand, respect,and value diversity. Another indicationof this social deficiency is the persistence

of stereotypic attitudes toward ethnic

groups. In arecent study of ethnic images,

Smith (1990) reports that negative per-ceptions of groups of colorespeciallyAfrican-Americans and Hispanicsarecommon in contemporary society. Thesegroups are still considered to be less hard-working, more violent, less intelligent,and more unpatriotic than Angles.

Research being conducted byMargaret Beale Spencer (1984, 1985,1988) indicates that even though Afri- .can-American children between 3 and11 years old obtain high scores onpersonal self-concept measures, societystill shows a preference for whites and atendency to attribute positive traits towhites, while assigning negative traits toblacks. Thus, even young students seemto have a double consciousness, becausethey are able to separate their personalidentities and self-esteem from knowledge

about racial groups in society. They cansimultaneously feel good about themselves

and have negative attitudes toward theirracial and ethnic groups.

Discrimination and racism are evidentin the patterns of unemployment, impris-onment, poor health care, and educa-tional failures, in which the numbers ofindividuals of color are disproportion-ately high. These attitudes and behaviorsdirectly contradict the American demo-cratic ideals of freedom, equality, andjustice for everyone. They also belie theclaim that significant progress is beingmade in correcting social inequalities.Multicultural educed, programs thathelp youths learn to value and celebratediversity and engage in social action toinstitutionalize these values have thepotential to help society live up to boththe letter and spirit of its democratic ideals.

The widely held assumption held inthe United States that American societyshould be a homogenized melting pothas destructive results. This assumptionworks to demean some segments of soci-ety and deny acceptance of diversity.Pluralism is a vital functional force insociety, even though it is not supportedand embraced in institutional policiesand practices (e.g., in housing authori-ties, school districts, and city govern-ment) and in the habits of communities.Many culturally different individualsand groups have stopped trying to denytheir ethnicity for the sake of beingaccepted unconditionally into mainstream

society. They now insist that them is noinherent contradiction between allegianceto their own ethnic and cultural heritages

and being an American. Instead, thesedual identities are complementary andshould be respected and promoted.

11A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education 7

One of the most distinctive and salienttraits of the United States is the way inwhich its incredible diversity has beenfashioned into a unique culture that is amosaic or synergy of elements frommany cultures. Ethnic and cultural plu-ralism is an ever-present influence in allaspects of American history, life, andculture. No significant event in the his-torical and contemporary developmentof the country has occurred withoutsome kind of ethnic influence and contri-bution. This vitalizing presence is evidentin science and technology, economicsand politics, art and literature, businessand industry, entertainment and recrea-tion, and popular culture. If one of theprimary functions of schooling is totransmit the socio-cultural legacy i f thenation to its young citizens, then oureducational system must incorporatemulticulturalism as a persistent androutine component of programs andpractices.

The increasing ethnic diversity of the.United States population makes mul-ticultural education for all students animperative, particularly if education is tofulfill its basic functions by being per-

sonally meaningful, socially relevant,culturally accurate, and pedagogicallysound. Demographic analyses of thepopulation distribution of U.S. citizensindicate that Hispanics and African-Americans account for the highestpercentage of population growth.

The total population of students ofcolor grew between 1980 and 1988 to

almost 30 percent, compared to 24 per-cent in the 1970s (U.S. Department ofEducation, 1992). As with the generalpopulation, these trends are expected tocontinue well into the next century. Thediversity of the student population isfurther increased by the high rare ofAfrican-American and Hispanic youthsliving in poverty (45.1% and 39.3% in1987) and the growing number of immi-grant students from Latin American andAsian countries whose first languagesare not English and whose home culturesare not based on a Eurocentric orWestern model.

The net result of these demographicchanges is that the United States isbecoming a more pluralistic society thanit has ever been. Diversity in education,based on ethnicity, social class, language,

non-Western national origins, economicstatus, cultures, and interests, is nolonger a luxury or a matter of choiceitis a necessity for the survival of society.Unfortunately, while educational policies,

programs, and practices that systemati-cally ignore these demographic realitiesare unethical, immoral, and reprehensi-ble, they are not technically illegal. Ifthe principles of access and availability

that are embedded in desegregation lawswere extended to educational programs,then failure to make the substance ofcurriculum and instruction culturally plu-ralistic would be illegal.

As different ethnic, racial, social, andcultural groups grow in size and politi-cal significance, they will demand that

8 A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education

social policies and programs be respon-sive to their particular needs and interests.

Satisfying these demands will requiremore cultural sensitivity, "rainbow" coa-litions, and pluralistically negotiatedcompromises. Ethnic and special inter-est group tensions may accelerate as aresult of competition for limited resources

such as jobs, housing, and politicalpower; definitions and visions of what itmeans to be American will change; andthere will be greater differences of opin-ion about the sources of the nation's pre-sent success, future potential, and mostdesirable images and symbols (Henry,1990). None of these issues will beresolved without some fundamentalknowledge of, sensitivity to, and respectfor culturally and ethnically diverseexperiences, perspectives, and peoples,and without some power sharing amongthese groups. Multicultural educationcan develop skills to meet these needs.Therefore, the well-being of U.S. societyand education for and about cultural plu-ralism are inextricably linked.

Another feature of American societythat underscores the importance of mul-ticultural education is its growing involve-

ment in global affairs, increased globalinterdependence, and the shifting inter-national balance of power. Some recentexamples of international developmentsthat have direct ramifications for thecontinuous leadership of the UnitedStates in global affairs are the challengeto U.S. dominance of the world's market-place by Japan, Germany, and Korea;military crises in the Middle East that

A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education

affect the oil supply and reserves; theU.S. fiscal resource allocations betweenmilitary and social services expenditures;governmental instability in South andCentral America, which places incredible

demands on U.S. military support andforeign loan capacity; famine anddroughts in Africa and Asia that requireU.S. support in health care and food sup-plies; increasing birth rates and epidemicillnesses; human rights issues around

the globe; and growing foreign invest-ments in the United States.

These developments mean that U.S.citizens must interact in different waysand under different circumstances withunfamiliar peoples at home and abroad.Successful interactions and relationshipsrequire the use of knowledge, attitudes,and skills about cultural diversity withina global context. For example, the success

of U.S. international diplomacy isbecoming increasingly dependent uponknowledge and principles of culturalpluralism. .Multicultural education cancreate a foundation for effective andsuccessful diplomacy in the globalcontext (Bennett, 1990).

Culture andHuman Development

Culture shapes human behavior, atti-tudes, and values. Human behaviorresults from a process of socialization,and socialization always takes placewithin the context of specific culturaland ethnic environments (Kallen, 1970;Novak, 1975; Pai, 1984). As Kimball

139

(1987) states, the basic caretaking prac-tices of human survival are essentiallythe same for everyone, but their pattern,organization, and learning are specific.Hence, humans are social beings whocarry within them their individual bio-logical and psychological traits as wellas the legacies of their ethnic group'shistorical background, collective heritage,

and cultural experiences.

When educators claim that their toppriority is to treat all children like human

beings, regardless of ethnic identity,cultural background, or economic status,they are creating a paradox. A person'shumanity cannot be isolated or divorcedfrom his or her culture or ethnicity. Onecannot be human without culture andethnicity, and one cannot have cultureand ethnicity without being human. AsLisa Delpit states, "If one does not seecolor, one does not really see children"(Delpit, 1992). Therefore, to acknow-ledge and respect one anotherto befully humanrequires mutual under,.standing and appreciation based oncultural understanding (Gay, 1991;Spindler, 1987).

The influences of culture and ethnicity

are established early and thoroughly inthe process of human growth and devel-opment, and they prevail thereafter forthe remainder of one's life. Some secon-dary elements of culture can be modified

over time and with experience, but thecore features continue to be the main-stay of a person's sense of being andidentity throughout life. Kallen (1970,

pp. 184-185) makes this point cogentlyin the following observations:

Deeply ingrained cultural socializa-tion becomes problematic in educationwhen the schooling process operates onone cultural model to the exclusion ofall others, or when culturally differentchildren are expected to set aside alltheir cultural habits as a condition forsucceeding in school. Such a demand isnot only unreasonable, but is impossibleto achieve. Attempts to comply with itmay lead to cultural adaptation, margin-ality, alienation, and isolation. With theexception of adaptation, none of theseresponses is conducive to maximizingthe human well-being and academicsuccess of students. The incompatibili-ties or discontinuities between the cul-ture of the school and those of differentethnic groups need to be major issues ofanalysis in making decisions about edu-cational programs and practices thatreflect and promote cultural diversity(Spindler,.1987b). :These incompatibili-ties :r discontinuities are especiallyimportant to any understanding of theaspects of human behavior that mostdirectly affect teaching and learning,such as values orientation, interpersonalrelations, communication styles, timeusage, performance styles, proceduralrules, and systems of problem solvingand cognitive processing (Boggs,Watson-Gegeo, & McMillen, 1985;Kochman, 1981; Shade, 1981, 1989).

Many of the significant discontinuities

that exist between mainstream culture-

14

10 A Synthesis or Scholarship in Multicultural Education

as displayed in school proceduresandthe cultures of various ethnic groupsoperate on a subconscious level andwithout deliberate intention. The discon-tinuities occur when people behave natu-rally, because their behavior is stronglyinfluenced by cultural conditioning.Responsible education decision-makingin a pluralistic society cannot result ifeducational leaders continue to functionwithout being conscious of how cultureshapes their own and then- students' atti-tudes, values, and behaviors. By becom-ing more aware that they are products oftheir cultures and live within givenvalue and symbol systems and by reflect-ing on this condition, educators can freethemselves from the tyranny of theirown cultures and free children from thedamaging effects of premature, inaccu-rate, and prejudiced interpretations oftheir culturally induced behavior (Spin-dler, 1987a).

Teaching and Learning..

One premise of multicultural educa-tion is that teaching and learning are cul-tural processes that take place in a socialcontext. To make teaching and learningmore accessible and equitable for a widevariety of students, students' culturesneed to be more clearly understood.Such an understanding can be achievedby analyzing education from multiplecultural perspectives and thereby remov-ing the blindness imposed on educationby the dominant cultural experience(Spindler, 1987b).

Schools are microcosms of main-stream society (LaBelle, 1976). In theirprocedural norms, codes of behavior,structural arrangements, and distributionof power, privilege, and responsibility,they mirror Anglocentric cultural values.Just as classroom teachers, school admin-istrators, and policymakers carry theircultural experiences and perspectivesinto their educational decisions andactions, students from various ethnicand cultural backgrounds do likewise intheir learning attitudes and behaviors.The inevitable result when these differ-ent systems encounter each other in plu-ralistic classrooms is cultural conflictthat, when not deliberately mediated,can jeopardize the effectiveness of theinstructional process. Educationalactivities and processes that are not scru-tinized for their cultural content andimplications can inadvertently give pref-erential treatment to students whose cul-tural backgrounds are most like schoolcultural norms:

The way ... in which the teacherresponds to student behavior, the oftensubtle distinctions made between thesexes, the nature of the classroom con-trol mechanisms, the topics and issueschosen for classroom study, the schedule

of activities in terms of the amount oftime devoted to particular aspects of theschool day, the spatial organization ofthe classroom, and the rewards and pun-ishments meted out are ... culturallyloaded and ... transmit messages [that]reinforce certain student behaviors anddiscourage others. (La Belle, 1976, p. 73)

rA Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education Li 11

School leaders often operate on thefaulty assumption that their values,beliefs, and actions are the norm foreveryone, exist beyond any cultural con-straints, or are culturally neutral. Theyassume that their notions of what isdesirable knowledge and how it can bestbe taught and learned are governedentirely by general principles of goodpedagogy, which has nothing to do withany specific culture. This belief is farfrom the truth. Culture influences andshapes all dimensions of the learningand teaching processes employed in

schools.

Schools are expected to serve thehuman needs of cultural socialization,transmission, and self-perpetuation, andteach academic skills. Every action thatthey take is, unavoidably, culture-bound. Effective understanding of theeducational process in a pluralistic soci-ety such as the United States requiresthat teaching and learning be viewed asaspects of various cultural milieux .(Kimball, 1978).

Because ethnic and cultural diversityin U.S. society is not sufficiently reflectedin educational decisions and practices,schools frequently become discontinuous

or out of sync with the populations thatthey are supposed to serve. This discon-tinuity exists most often when schoolsare controlled by individuals from thedominant culture who use only theirstandards to guide actions, but the popu-lation that they serve does not practicesimilar cultural standards (La Belle,

1976). The resulting disjunctures causestudents and teachers to misinterpret oneanother's attitudes and actions. Thesecultural incompatibilities are often mis-taken for intellectual inabilities, andpedagogical decisions are made accord-ingly. Failing to understand the culturalstyle of some African-Americans, forexample, may cause teachers erroneously

to conclude that these students havelimited critical thinking and reasoningabilities. The reluctance of AmericanIndian children to operate on a tightlycontrolled time schedule and engage inhighly individualistic and competitiveactivities may be misinterpreted as lackof initiative, motivation, and responsi-bility. Consequently, educators oftenengage in "miseducating practices"because of their failure to understandthe cultural characteristics of their ethni-cally, racially, socially, and linguisti-cally diverse students.

General theories of learning and prin-ciples of developmental psychology thateducators frequently use as the bases formaking instructional decisions must beoperationalized in the context of culturallypluralistic school situations and studentpopulations. Of particular significanceare the field psychology principles ofcontiguity, similarity, and continuity;the basic idea of Maslow's hierarchy ofneeds, which holds that some psycho-logical needs must be satisfied beforeothers can be addressed; Erikson's prin-ciples of identity development; the notion

that for educational experiences to berelevant they must be perceived as

1612 A Synthesb or Scholarship In Multicultural Education

personally meaningful to students; thedetrimental effects that stress and anxi-ety can have on academic efforts andachievement; and the extent to whichschool learning follows procedural rulesand guidelines that are compatible withthose that students are accustomed to intheir cultural communities. Embeddedin these principles is recognition of thefact that the process of learning involvesmore than intellectual ability and mas-tery of cognitive content. It also includesthe psycho-emotional disposition of thestudents and teachers, and the environ-mental settings or climates in whichteaching and learning take place.

If students feel that the school envi-ronment is alien and hostile towardthem or does not affirm and value whothey are (as many students of colorbelieve), they will not be able to concen-trate as thoroughly as they might on aca-demic tasks. The stress and anxiety thataccompany this lack of support andaffirmation cause their mental.attention,energy, and efforts to be diffusedbetween protecting their psyches fromattack and attending to academic tasks.Thus, stress "adversely affects students'daily academic performances by reducing

their willingness to persist at academictasks and interfering with the cognitiveprocesses involved in learning" (Gougis,

1986, p. 147). Furthermore, learning isa high-risk-taking enterprise that worksbetter when students are made to feelsecure and centered in who they are andwhat they are already capable of doingbefore they are asked to take on new

ventures. Psychological security and apositive feeling of self-worth are prereq-uisites for the more abstract need toknow and learn. These are some of theideas and agruments that undergird thetheory of Afrocentricity and the effortsby some school districts such as Detroit,Milwaukee, Baltimore, and Seattle tocreate Afrocentric schools (Asante,1991/92; Hilliard, 1991/92).

For educational experiences to be rele-vant to culturally different students, theymust reflect and connect with the stu-dents' particular life experiences andperspectives. This need reflects the factthat learning is more effective when newideas are related to prior knowledge andinitially are taught in ways familiar tostudents (e.g., the principles of continuity

and similarity) (Boggs, Watson-Gregeo,& McMillen, 1985; Cazden, John, &Hymes, 1985; Neisser, 1986). It evokestwo other beliefs common to U.S.education philosophy: "start teachingwhere students are" and "expand thesocial, cultural, and intellectual horizonsof students." These beliefs and principlesrequire that cultural diversity be a drivingforce in all educational decision-making,

from determining students' readiness forlearning to designing curricula, selectinginstructional materials, appraising per-formance, and developing appropriateprograms and teaching techniques forculturally different students. The mason,simply stated, is that students learn in dif-ferent ways and under different condi-tions, many of which are governed bytheir cultural socialization.

17A Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education 13

Some of the most salient specificideas embedded in the three general cate-gories of assumptions about the natureof society in the United States and therelationships between culture, humanity,teaching, and learning discussed abovecan be summarized as follows:

IR Multicultural education is a basic forall students in a culturally, ethnically,and socially pluralistic society such asthe United States.

Ethnicity and culture are influentialvariables in shaping individual iden-tity and behavior.

The effects of cultural socialization are

ingrained early and deeply in the hu-

man personality and persist thereafter.

11/ Cultural diversity is a normativedescription of U.S. society.

Multicultural education is compatiblewith U.S. democratic ideals and iscomplementary to quality education:

Because most people in the U.S. livein ethnic and cultural enclaves, theyhave only tangential interactions withand superficial knowledge of peoplewho are culturally different fromthemselves.

Ethnicity, culture, and human-nessare inextricably linked and interrelated.

No one model for being Americanor human is equally applicable toeveryone.

Culture shapes human behavior,values, and beliefs

Culture and ethnicity have both intrin-sic worth and instrumental value forcreating an effective and representativesystem of education that mirrorssocial realities in the United Statesand the world.

The increasing diversification of U.S.society and persistent racial tensionsheighten the need for multiculturaleducation in all schools.

Education decisions made withoutdue consideration of cultural plural-ism cannot serve the needs of thegreatest number of students in thebest possible way.

Application of and knowledge aboutcultural pluralism improve the questfor educational access, equity, andexcellence for all students.

Incompatibilities in cultural.structures,

procedural rules, value orientations,referent points, and performance stylesmay cause school failure more thanintellectual ability for some culturallydifferent students. Thus, maximizingschool success requires social compe-tence, academic capability, andcultural congruity.

Major Goals ofMulticultural Education

The expected outcomes of multicul-tural education are embedded in its defi-

1814 A Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education

nitions, justification, and assumptions,and they exhibit some clearly discerniblepatterns. While specific goals and related

objectives are quite numerousand varyaccording to contextual factors such asschool settings, audiences, timing, pur-poses, and perspectivesthey fall intoseven general clusters. They cover allthree domains of learning (cognitive,affective, and action) and incorporateboth the intrinsic (ends) and instrumental

(means) values of multicultural education.

These goal clusters are ethnic and cul-tural literacy, personal development, atti-tude and values clarification, multiculturalsocial competence, basic skills profi-ciency, educational equity and excellence,

and empowerment for societal reform.

Each one is discussed briefly below.

Developing Ethnicand Cultural Literacy

One of the primary and persistentreasons for the movement to include cul-tural pluralism in school programs is tocorrect what advocates call "sins ofomission and commission." First, wemust provide students with informationabout the history and contributions ofethnic groups who traditionally havebeen excluded from instructional materials

and curricula; and second, we mustreplace the distorted and biased imagesof those groups that were included in thecurricula with more accurate and signifi-cant information. These goals continueto be major concerns of multiculturaleducation, because many students stillknow too little about the history, heritage,

culture, and contributions of groups ofcolor in the United States. Groups thatare highly visible in the popular culture,such as African-Americans and MexicanAmericans, are somewhat more familiarto students than others that are smallerin number and less accessible in thepublic press, such as Asian Americansand Native Americans. The informationabout and images of ethnic group mem-bers and experiences portrayed in popu-lar culture and mass media are ofteninaccurate, distorted, superficial, one-dimensional, and incomplete. Theprominence of African-Americans in themusic and professional athletics indus-tries and their disproportionate repre-sentation in penal institutions may leadsome students to conclude that the onlycontributions to U.S. society by thesegroups has been in these highly visibleareas. Similarly, if students are exposedonly to racist portrayals of NativeAmericans, which cast them as noblesavages caught forever in a historicaltime warp; wearing slcimpyclothes,feathers, and war paint, living inteepees, and riding horses bareback,they have no idea of how to place Indians

accurately in contemporary times, pro-ductively engaged in the wide variety ofactivities that characterize human life.

The persistence of these types of cari-catures about ethnic groups, coupledwith restricted inter-ethnic group interac-tion, reinforces the need for students tolearn accurate information about ethnicgroups' contributions to the history, life,and culture of the United States. Thus,

1cA Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education 15

a major goal of multicultural educationis to learn about the historical back-grounds, languages, cultural charac-teristics, contributions, critical events,significant individuals, and social, politi-cal, and economic conditions of variousmajority and minority ethnic groups,such as African-Americans, Hispanics,Asian Americans, American Indians,and Eastern Europeans. This informationshould be comprehensive, analytical,and comparative, and should includesimilarities and differences within andamong groups.

This goal is appropriate for bothmajority students and for those who aremembers of various ethnic minoritygroups. A mistake frequently made byeducators is to assume either that mem-bers of ethnic minority groups alreadyknow their culture and history or thatthis kind of knowledge is relevant onlyto them. Multicultural education arguesto the contrary. Membership in an ethnic

group does not guarantee self-knowledge or exclusive ownership of knowl-edge about that group. Acquiringknowledge about the history, life, andculture of ethnic groups is appropriatefor all students because they need tolearn more, with greater accuracy, abouttheir own cultural heritages and those ofothers. Furthermore, knowledge aboutethnic pluralism is a necessary founda-tion for respecting, appreciating, valuing,

and celebrating diversity, both nationallyand internationally.

Personal Development

The psychological underpinnings ofmulticultural education explain itsemphasis on developing greater self-understanding, positive self-concepts,and pride in one's ethnic identity.Emphasizing these areas is part of mul-ticultural education's goal of contribut-ing to the personal development ofstudents, which contends that a bettersense of self contributes to the overallintellectual, academic, and socialachievement of students. Students whofeel good about themselves are likely tobe more open and receptive to interac-tion with others and to respect their cul-tures and identities. This argument isfurther justified by claims made aboutthe reciprocal relationship between self-concept, academic achievement, ethnicity,culture, and individual identity.

Many students have internalized thenegative and distorted conceptions oftheir own and other ethnic groups, aprocess that has been promoted in largersociety. Students from groups of colormay be convinced that their heritageshave little of value to offer, while thosefrom dominant groups may have inflated

notions about their significance. Devel-oping a better understanding of theirown and other ethic groups and culturalexperiences can correct these distortions.

Multicultural education also helps educa-tors to fulfill the goals of maximizinghuman potential, meeting individualneeds, and teaching the whole child byenhancing feelings of personal worth,confidence, and competence. It creates

16 A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education

a psycho-social state of readiness in indi-viduals and learning environments,which has a positive effect upon academic

efforts and task mastery.

Attitudes and Value Clarification

Strong ethnic prejudice and ethnocen-tric values persist in U.S. society, basedupon and driven by beliefs that have nobasis in fact, but are commonly evoked.Several examples illustrate this point.The high unemployment rates amongAfrican-Americans, Puerto Ricans,Mexican Americans, and AmericanIndians lead some people to believe thatthese groups are lazy and have no workethic. The control of most major institu-tions and power positions by EuropeanAmericans cause some people to thinkthat these positions were acquired because

European Americans have innate intel-lectual superiority and are destined to beleaders. The prominence of recent immi-grants and racial group members in low-level service jobs cause some people toconclude that their economic status issynonymous with their human worth,and to act accordingly. Asian Americansare thought to be highly intelligentbecause Japanese and Chinese Americans

often perform well on selected measuresof intellectual ability.

The tendency to ascribe attributes andbehaviors of individuals to the entire eth-nic group to which they belong is thebasis for perpetuating stereotypes, preju-dices, and racism. This tendency, alongwith the disparities in distribution of

opportunities and rewards in Americansociety, supports multicultural educa-tion's goal of clarifying ethnic attitudesand values. It includes confrontingprejudices, stereotypes, ethnocentrism,and racism directly; critical analysis ofthe sources, expressions, and effects ofnegative ethnic attitudes and values;reconciling differences between ethnicbeliefs and truth, supported by docu-mented facts; and developing new, morepositive, and enriched ethnic attitudes,beliefs, and values to replace the old,negative ones.

Multicultural education also promotesthe core values that stem from the princi-ples of human dignity, justice, equality,freedom, self-determination, and democ-racy. The intent is to teach youths torespect and embrace ethnic pluralism, torealize that cultural differences are notsynonymous with deficiencies or inferi-orities, and to recognize that diversityan integral part of the human conditionand U.S. life.. Clarifying ethnic attitudesand values is designed to help studentsunderstand that some conflict of valuesis unavoidable in ethnically and raciallypluralistic societies; that conflict doesnot have to be corrosive and divisivewhen managed well it can be a catalystfor social progress; that there is strengthin ethnic and cultural pluralism; thatethnic allegiance and national loyaltyare not irreconcilable; and that coopera-tion and coalition among ethnic groupsare not dependent upon having identicalbeliefs, values, and behaviors (NCSS,1992). Analyzing and clarifying ethnic

21,

A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education 17

attitudes and values are key steps in theprocess of unleashing the creative poten-tial of individuals for self-renewal andof society for continuous growth anddevelopment.

Multicultural Social Competence

It is imperative that students learnhow to interact with and understandpeople who are ethnically, racially, andculturally different from themselves.The United States and the world arebecoming increasingly more diverse,compact, and interdependent. Yet, formost students, the formative years oftheir lives are spent in ethnically and cul-turally isolated or encapsulated enclaves.

This existence does not adequately pre-pare them to function effectively in eth-nically different environments andmulticultural settings. Attempts at cross-cultural interactions are often stymiedby negative attitudes, values, and expec-tations; cultural blunders; and by tryingto impose rules of social etiquette fromone cultural system onto another. Theresults are often heightened interracialand interethnic group frustrations,anxiety, fears, failures, and hostilities.

Multicultural education can easethese tensions by teaching skills in cross-cultural communication, interpersonalrelations, perspective taking, contextualanalysis, understanding alternativepoints of view and frames of reference,and analyzing how cultural conditionsaffect values, attitudes, beliefs, prefer-ences, expectations, and behaviors. It

also can help students learn how tounderstand cultural differences withoutmaking hasty and arbitrary value judg-ments about their intrinsic worth.Attaining these goals can be expeditedby providing wide varieties of opportuni-ties for students to practice their culturalcompetence and to interact with differ-ent ethnic peoples, experiences, andsituations.

Basic Skill Proficiency

A major goal of multicultural educa-tion is to facilitate the teaching andlearning of basic literacy skills of ethni-cally different students. Its importanceevolves from the persistence and magni-tude of school failure of Hispanics,African-Americans, and AmericanIndians; the relationships among relevanceof instructional materials, academicefforts, and achievement; and the factthat multicultural educationincludzs con-tent and process, ideology and methodol-ogy. It builds on the premise that some.of this failure is due to methodologicalor pedagogical inadequacies of schoolsand teaching instead of the intellectualabilities of students of color.

Multicultural education can improvemastery of reading, writing, and mathe-matical skills; subject matter content;and intellectual process skills such asproblem solving, critical thinking, andconflict resolution by providing contentand techniques that are more meaningfulto the lives and frames of reference ofethnically different students. Using

r`

18 A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education

ethnic materials, experiences, and exam-ples as the contexts for teaching, practic-ing, and demonstrating mastery ofacademic and subject matter skillsincreases the appeal of the tools ofinstruction, heightens the practical rele-vance of the skills to be learned, andimproves students' time on task. Thiscombination of conditions leads togreater focused efforts, task persistence,skill mastery, and academic achievement(Cazden, John, & Hymes, 1985; Garcia,1982; Boggs, Watson-Gregeo, &McMillen, 1985).

Another aspect of multicultural educa-tion that contributes directly to theattainment of higher levels of basicskills achievement is matching teachingand learning styles. Disjunctures in howdifferent students learn in their culturalcommunities and how they are expectedto learn in school cause much time andattention to be devoted to resolvingthese conflicts instead of concentratingon academic tasks. Teaching students ..as they are accustomed to learning mini-mizes these conflicts and channels moreenergy and effort directly into the aca-demic tasks to be acromplished (Boggs,Watson-Gregeo, & McMillen, 1985;Spindler, 1987; Neisser, 1986). Thus,culturally contextualized teaching formaking the educational process moreeffective for ethnically diverse studentsis a fundamental principle of multi-cultural education.

The kinds of social climates that existin classrooms also affect students' per-

formances on academic tasks. Thisinfluence is particularly true for ethnicgroups that consider social relationshipsand informal settings imperative to thelearning process. When teachers respondto thew; needs by including ethnic sym-bols, im and information in theclassroon. uecorations, curriculum con-tent, and interpersonal interactions, ethnic

students feel validated, at ease, and havegreater affiliation with the school.These feelings of personal affirmationand comfort create the backdrop of per-sonal connectedness that is essential tostudents' taking ownership in learning,which, in turn, leads to more sustainedattention, effort, time on task, andimproved task mastery and academicachievement.

Educational Equityand Excellence

This goal of multicultural equity isclosely related to the goal of basic skillmastery, but is much broader and morephilosophical. It derives from the notion

that educational excellence is unattainablefor any student when certain groups aredenied a fair chance to receive the highest

quality education possible and whensome contributions are systematicallyexcluded from the U.S. and human stories.

It builds upon the idea that comparability

instead of sameness is the key to providing

equitable educational opportunities for

ethnically different students (Gay, 1988).

In order to determine what constitutescomparability of learning opportunities,

4J

A Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education 19

educators must thoroughly understandhow culture shapes learning styles,teaching behaviors, and educationaldecisions. They must then develop avariety of means to accomplish commonlearning outcomes that reflect the prefer-ences and styles of a wide variety ofgroups and individuals. By giving all

s more choices about how theywill learnchoices that are compatiblewith their cultural stylesnone will beunduly advantaged or disadvantaged atthe procedural levels of learning. Thesechoices will lead to closer parallelism(e.g., equity) in opportunities to learnand more comparability in students'achieving the maximum of their ownintellectual capabilities (e.g., excellence).

Other aspects of this goal includeteaching accurate information about allsegments of U.S. society; developing asense of e)cial consciousness, moralcourage, and commitment to equality;and acquiring skills in political activismfor reforming society to make it morehumane, sympathetic toward culturalpluralism, morally just, and egalitarian.Therefore, the multicultural goal ofachieving educational equity and excel-lence encompasses cognitive, affective,and behavioral skills, as well as the prin-ciples of democracy (Banks, 1990,1991, 1992).

Personal Empowermentfor Social Reform

The ultimate goal of multiculturaleducation is to begin a process ofchange in schools that will ultimately

extend to society. This goal will beaccomplished by cultivating in studentsattitudes, values, habits, and skills so

that they can become social changeagents who are committed to reformingsociety in order to eradicate ethnic andracial disparities in opportunities and arewilling to act upon this commitment.To do so, they need to improve theirknowledge of ethnic issues as well asdevelop decision-making abilities, social

action skills, leadership capabilities, asense of political efficacy, and a moralcommitment to human dignity andequality (Banks, 1991b; NCSS, 1992).That is, they not only need to under-stand and appreciate why ethnicity andcultural pluralism are salient features ofhuman life and U.S. society, but alsohow to translate this knowledge intodecisions and actions related to keysocio-political issues, events, concerns,

and situations.

This goal and related skill develop-ment are designed to- make society moregenuinely egalitarian and more accepting

of cultural pluralism. They also areintended to ensure that ethnic and cul-tural groups that traditionally hay,: beenvictimized and excluded will becomefull-fledged participants at all levels ofsociety, with all of the attendant rights,privileges, and responsibilities. Multicul-

tural education contributes directly todeveloping skills for democratic citizen-ship in the United States and the globalvillage. This function of multicultural-ism is what Banks (1990, 1991/92,1993a) meant by his proposal to use a

2,1

20 A Synthesis of Scholarship in Mukicultural Education

social action approach to multiculturaleducation, which teaches students howto become social critics, political activists,

change agents, and competent leaders ina culturally pluralistic and ethnicallydiverse society and world. It is alsosimilar to Sleeter and Grant's (1988)conception of multicultural educationfor social reconstruction. This approachfocuses on oppression and social structureinequalities, with the intention of creating

a society that better empowers and serves

the needs and interests of all groups of peo-

ple. It builds personal empowerment in

students by establishing relevance between

school learning and social living, provid-ing practice in applying knowledge and

taking action to direct their own lives,and demonstrating the power of knowl-edge, collaborative efforts, and politicalaction in effecting social change.

Approaches toMulticultural Education

Advocates of multicultural educationoffer many different suggestions forhow it can be accomplished in schoolpractice. Christine Bennett, JamesBanks, Ricardo Garcia, Sonia Nieto,Geneva Gay, Christine Sleeter, CarlGrant, and Margaret Gibson are amongthe leaders in tile field who have devel-

oped models for implementing multicul-tural education. These models tend tobe developmental and cumulative, aswell as somewhat historical in nature.They start with the simplest techniquesand proceed to more complex ones.They also tend to indicate how current

efforts to implement multiculturaleducation have evolved from those thatappeared when the movement began inthe late 1960s. For example, Banks(1993a) identifies four approaches tomulticultural education, each increasingly

more significant and comprehensive:(1) teaching about contributions of cul-turally different groups and individuals;(2) an additive approach in which mul-ticultural lessons and units of study aresupplements or appendages to existingcurricula; (3) a transformation approachin which the basic nature of curriculumand instruction are changed to reflect theperspective and experiences of diversecultural, ethnic, racial, and social croups;

and (4) a decision-making and socialaction approach that teaches studentshow to clarify their ethnic and culturalvalues, and to engage in socio politicalaction for greater equality, freedom, andjustice for everyone.

Sleeter and Grant (1988; Grant &Sleeter,.1993) reviewed the publishedliterature on multicultural education todetermine how the field was being con-ceptualized. Their analysis generatedfour common approaches: (I) teachingculturally different students to fit intomainstream society; (2) a human rela-tions approach that emphasizes diversepeoples lying together harmoniously;(3) the single group studies approach,which concentrates on developingawareness, respect, and acceptance ofone group at a time; (4) focusing onprejudice reduction, providing equal

opportunities and social justice for all

rt.egg U

A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education 21

groups, and the effects of inequitablepower distribution on ethnic or cultural

groups. To this list they added a fifth:education that is multicultural and socialreconstructionist and teaches students tobecome analytical and critical thinkersand social reformers who are committedto redistribution of power and otherresources among diverse groups.

Since other proposed approaches tomulticultural education are variations onthese suggestions by Banks and Grantand Sleeter, there is no need to elaborateupon them here. However, three general

approaches can be extrapolated fromthese more specific approaches: (1)teaching content about cultural plural-ism, (2) teaching culturally differentstudents, and (3) using cultural pluralism

to teach other academic subjects andintellectual skills. Teaching about cul-tural pluralism is the most traditionaland common approach. It is primarilycontent-centered, with an emphasis ondeveloping units of instruction .(lessons,modules, courses) about the history,heritage, contributions, and social issuesof ethnic groups. These units may bedesigned to be included in any schoolsubject, but most often appear in socialstudies, language arts, and fine arts.Another manifestation of this approachis analyzing textbooks and other instruc-tional materials for their treatment ofpeople of color and revising them whennecessary to increase their accuracy andoverall representation of cultural diver-sity. Regardless of the particular strategyused, teaching about cultural diversity

tends to concentrate on providing morefactually correct information about ethnic

and cultural groups that traditionallyhave been under-represented in U.S.society and educational programs orhave been treated with prejudice and bias,

Teaching the culturally different ismore process-oriented than content-oriented. Its center of attention is estab-lishing more effective instructionalrelationships and rapport with studentsfrom different ethnic, cultural, and racialbackgrounds as a basis for improvingeducational opportunities and outcomes.Teachers, administrators, counselors,and supervisors learn about the culturalvalues and experiences of different cul-tural groups to determine how they mayaffect attitudes and actions in teaching-learning situations. The new insightsgained are then used tr, Jetermine thekinds of changes that are needed in theeducational process to make learning

opportunities for ethnically differentstudents more comparable in kind andquality to their middle-class, Anglocounterparts.

The underlying premise of thisapproach to multicultural education isthat an interactive relationship existsbetween culture and cognition, educa-tion and ethnicity, and teaching-learningstyles and cultural conditioning. Theextent to which these concepts are madeexplicit in educational decision-makinghas a significant impact on culturallydifferent students' access to equal statusknowledge. Whereas teaching about

26

22 A Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education

cultural pluralism emphasizes materialsdevelopment and curriculum design,teaching , .e culturally different givespriority to teacher education, staff devel-opment, and classroom instruction. Theidea behind it is that if the attitudes,values, and knowledge teachers haveabout culturally different students areimproved, then the decisions they makeand actions they take in planning andimplementing programs will reflectthese changes. That is, teachers will beable to provide more culturally relevantinstruction for students from differentethnic, racial, and social backgrounds.

The third approach to multiculturaleducation combines content and process,

and is often referred to as infusion. Inpractice, it means using culturally plural-istic content, experiences, and perspec-tives in teaching other knowledge andskills. Ethnic and cultural materials pro-vide the contexts for students to practiceand demonstrate mastery of more general

academic and subject.matter skills. Forexample, ethnic novels, poetry, stories,and folklore are used in the process ofteaching various reading skills, such ascomprehension, vocabulary, and inferring

meaning. Patterns of ethnic migrationand settlement might be used to teachgeographic directions and locations.Ethnic and gender employment trendscould be used for students to practiceand demonstrate such mathematicalskills as ratio, percentages, proportions,and probabilities. Critical thinking,problem solving, and values analysisskills might be developed as students

examine issues, events, and situationsparticularly gentane to the historicaland contemporary expenences of differ-ent groups of color and social class inthe United States, such as their imagesand portrayals in mass media, affirm-ative action, economic exploitation, andpolitical oppression. Additionally, theknowledge that teachers and otherschool leaders acquire about how culturalconditioning affects behavior in learningsituations is employed in making decisions

about what instructional strategies, per-formance appraisal, curricular materials,needs assessment, and learning climates

are most appropriate to maximize theeducational opportunities of culturallydifferent students.

Using cultural pluralism in all teachingand learning activities as a way to imple-ment multicultural education is based onfour major premises: (1) using diversi-fied means to achieve common learningoutcomes is the best way to give cultur-ally different students an equal chance atcomparable quality educational opportu-nities; (2) cultural diversity is a charac-teristic trait of American society, andsince a major function of schooling issocialization into the national culture,ethnic and cultural pluralism should be acore element of the educational process;(3) it is more pedagogically sound forthe study of cultural pluralism to permeate

all dimensions of the educational process,

rather than being taught as a separateand isolated entity; and (4) effectivemulticultural education requires compre-hensive efforts that integrate attitudes,

27A Synthesis or Scholarship in Multicultural Eduoation 23

values, content, and actions and involveall aspects of the education system

simultaneously.

Key Principles ofMulticultural Education

Multicultural education is based on

some commonly asserted principles.The frequency and consistency withwhich these principles are declaredacross time and advocates are otherstrong indications of the consensus thatexists about some essential, baselinefeatures of multicultural education and aconvincing counter-argument to claimsthat the field lacks conceptual clarity.

A principle is a basic or essentialquality that determines the intrinsicnature of something. Multicultural edu-cation includes several characteristics ortraits that, as a composite, distinguish itsinherent nature and quality from othereducational innovations. Parekh (1986)sets the overall tone of multicultural tdu.cation in his judgment that multiculturaleducation is good education for all chil-dren. To endorse multicultural educationis not to imply that the entire educationsystem should be destroyed or that theAnglocentric cultural dominance existingin schooling should merely be replacedwith the dominance of other ethnic cul-tures; neither is it to deny the need for acommon national culture. Rather, it sim-ply says that the education system needsto be improved by becoming less cultur-ally monolithic, rigid, biased, hegemonic,and ethnocentric. The prevailing norm

in educational decision-making andoperating procedures should be culturalpluralism and heterogeneity, instead ofcultural hegemony or homogeneity.Asante (1991/92) captures this intentand orientation in his explanation thatthe goal is to achieve cultural pluralismwithout hierarchy.

The general principles of multiculturaleducation are supported by several morespecific ones. Multiculturalists describethe most salient "personality traits" ofmulticultural education as follows:

a A personally empowering, sociallytransformative, and pedagogicallyhumanistic process

Correcting and rehabilitating some ofthe mistakes that schools have madein educating culturally differentchildren, especially those of colorand poverty

A search for scholarly honesty andtruth by giving due recognition to thecontributions of diverse groups andcultures to the collective accomplish-ments of humankind and the UnitedStates

Fundamentally an affective andhumanistic enterprise that aims toachieve greater understanding andappreciation of diverse cultures and

peoples

Both content and process, structureand substance, action and reflection,knowledge and values, philosophy

25

A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education

and methodologyan educationalmeans and an end

For all students in all grades, subjects,and school settings

A means of achieving parity in educa-tional opportunities for diverse students

A process of systematic and systemicchange that is developmental, progres-sive, and ongoing

A confluence of diverse culturalheritages, experiences, perspectives,and contributions

Has inherent merit for its own sake,as well as instrumental value forfacilitating other educational goals

A bridge for making meaningful con-nections between the abstractions ofschooling and the actual life experi-ences of ethnically and culturallydifferent students

A vehicle for and conduit of relevance,

equity, excellence, and personal mean-ingfulness in education for culturallydiverse students

An acceptance and celebration ofdiversity as a normal fact of humanlife, U,S. society, and schooling

A personification of the U.S, demo-cratic ideal of equality as practiced inschool programs that accept allpeoples' contributions, cultures, issues,and experiences as worth educationalcontent

Effects ofMulticultural Education

Research findings that verify the con-ceptual claims about the effects of mul-ticultural education are rather sparse.This relative lack of research is duelargely to the nature and relative youthof the field. During the 25 or so yearsof multicultural education's existence,most research and scholarship have beendevoted.to defining the conceptualparameters of the field, documentingcultural characteristics, and developingsample curricula and instructional strate-gies for classroom practice. The factthat multicultural education is a veryheavily affective endeavor means that itdoes not lend itself easily to traditionalempirical research methods and para-digms. Furthermore, since the field isstill emerging, defining itself, and chart-ing its directions, much of the scholarlyactivities deal with various segments orcomponents of the. field rather than thefield as an entity. The empirical researchthat does exist deals with separate seg-ments of the field, such as self-concepts,literacy, cooperative learning, and ethnicidentity development.

Some of the most compelling verifica-tions of the overall benefits of multicul-tural education are autobiographical andanecdotal stories that leaders in the fieldshare among themselves in their inter-personal interactions. Invariably, theytestify to the positive effect of the princi-ples and experiences they accrued relative

to their self-concepts, self-esteem, senseof personal confidence and competence,

C

A Synthesis or Scholarship in Multicultural Education 25

social and interpersonal skills, and aca-demic performance. These benefits,however, are not readily accessible toaverage audiences, since they are not

included in formal disseminations suchas conference presentations and scholarlypublications. Consequently, researchfindings on the effects of multiculturaleducation are still largely preliminary,tentative, and inconclusive. Much of itdeals with identifying and describingculturally pluralistic variables such ascultural values, learning styles, commu-nication styles, and presentation/per-formance styles of various ethnic groups(Kochman, 1981; Neisser, 1985; Shade,1989; Treuba, Guthrie, & Au, 1981).These findings, summarized hem,should be understood accordingly.

Reviews of research compiled byBanks (1991a, 1993b) and Gay (1991)are useful summaries for discerning thedirections and trends that are emergingabout the effects of multicultural educa-tion. The Banks reviews focus on.modi,fication of racial attitudes through theuse of curriculum units and courses,instructional materials, reinforcements,and teaching methods. Many of thesestudies were conducted in the 1970s.While the results are not unequivocallyconclusive, they do indicate the following:

The racial, ethnic, and gender attitudesof students can be positively affectedby curriculum and instructional inter-ventions.

The effects of instructional interven-tion on student racial, ethnic, and

26

gender attitudes are influenced by thenature, structure, and direction of theintervention and the characteristics ofthe students, teachers, school environ-ment, and local community.

Cooperative learning leads to morepositive racial attitudes for all students,more interracial friendship choices,and academic gains for students ofcolor (especially Hispanics and Afri-can-Americans). It has no apparenteffects on the academic achievementof Anglo students, since they performabout the same in cooperative andcompetitive learning environments.Cooperative, cross-racial learningalso increases student instruction, self-esteem, and ability to empathize.

To be most effective, cooperativelearning experiences should engagemembers in common goals and equalstatus relationships and should allowindividuals to get to know each otherand be reinforced by institutionalsupport.

Teaching interventions that reinforcepositive attributes of African-Ameri-cans can reduce young black children'spreferences for whites. Deliberatelydesigned instructional interventionalso can reduce prejudices toward allgroup members.

Multicultural materials, vicariousexperiences, role playing, and simula-tions can help students develop morepositive racial attitudes and percep-tions. Two cases in point are "TheEye of the Storm" and "A ClassDivided."

3 0

A Syntheab of Scholarship In Multicultural Education

The research on cultural diversity andlearning reviewed by Gay (1992) reveals

some findings of particular aspects ofmulticultural education that were notincluded in the Banks review. One ofthe most compelling findings to emergefrom the Gay review is the effects ofmodifying teaching styles to match thecultural characteristics and learning styles

of different ethnic groups. One graphicillustration of these effects is the Kame-hameha Early Education Program (KEEP).

Several researchers have been document-ing the effects of this language arts pro-gram for young native Hawaiianchildren. The results have been phenome-nal. When the communication, interper-sonal, and learning styles of nativeHawaiian students were employed in the

classroom, both their social and academic

skills (including time on task, attentionspan, quality and quantity of participa-tion, school attendance, reading ability,and language arts skills) improved signifi-

cantly. Reading test scores increasedfrom the 13th to the 67th percentile in.four years.

Some other studies produce similarresults with other ethnic groups, although

the research is not as comprehensiveand longitudinal as that of KEEP. WithAfrican-American students, the researchshows that their engagement in instruc-tional activities and academic achieve-ment improves when (1) different andfrequently varied formats are used topresent learning tasks; (2) activities andphysical participation are routine elements

of learning; (3) features of their corn-

munication styles are incorporated intothe teaching process; (4) African-Ameri-can content is a part of the curriculum;and (5) the instuctional materials andactivities have high interest appeal(Boykin, 1982; Hale, 1982). Severalstudies involving Native Americans inthe United States and Canada indicatethat when teachers adapt their instructional

classroom interactional styles to approxi-mate more closely those of the students,participation results are positive. Using

cognitive frameworks (patterns ofthought, frames of reference, styles of in-

formation processing, procedural rules,content materials) familiar to culturallydifferent, poor, and female students hasbeen shown to improve their readingskills, comprehension of learning tasks,

and recall of factual information(Banks & Banks, 1993, Cazden, John,& Hymes, 1985; Greenbaum, 1985).

While findings from empirical research

on the effects of multicultural educationare sparsethose.that do exist are veryencouraging:

Negative racial and ethnic attitudestoward others can be changed throughdeliberate intervention, but the proc-ess is long-range.

Establishing a closer fit betweenteaching style and culturally differentlearning styles has positive social andacademic consequences.

Alternative instructional means canbe used to achieve common outcomeexpectations without compromizing

3.1

A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education 27

the educational standards and qualityof anyone.

m Some instructional techniques aremore effective than others for somemembers of ethnic and cultural groups.

Instructional initiatives that work wellfor groups of color generally benefitAnglo students, too. However, theconverse is not true. Educationalinterventions that are successful with

Anglo students often have negativeconsequences for culturally different

students,

The procedures of teaching and learn-ing are important targets of interven-tion for multicultural change. Theyare as significant as the content andsubstance of teaching, if not more so.

Culturally sensitive teaching techniques

that work well with diverse studentsappear to be effective across age,gender, school settings, and subjects.

Reform Implications

Advocates agree on some commonfeatures of multicultural education.These features provide the conceptualdirections and parameters of reforminitiatives for implementation of mul-ticultural education in school practice.Effective multicultural education (1)requires total school reform; (2) is forall students in all grades and subjects;(3) involves acquiring knowledge, clari-fying attitudes and values, and develop-ing social actions and skills about ethnic

and cultural pluralism; and (4) includesrecognizing, accepting, and celebratingdiversity as a fundamental fact and sali-ent feature in human life, U.S. society,and world communities.

These conditions are necessary ifschools are to prepare all students for therealities of living in a racially, ethnically,

socially, and culturally pluralistic world,and to become change agents to trans-form society so that it will be morehumane, egalitarian, and openly receptive

to pluralism of all kinds. In content,spirit, intent, and emphasis, multiculturaleducation is highly compatible with thedemocratic ideals of the United States,principles of good pedagogy, and con-ceptions of educational equity. It hasboth intrinsic and instrumental value forimproving the overall quality, relevance,and effectiveness of education in theUnited States for all students.

The following are more specific instruc-tional messages gleaned from this syn-thesis for multicultural-education 1summarized above:

Efforts undertaken to implementmulticultural education should bedevelopmentally appropriate for theteachers, students, subjects, andschool community contexts.

Multiple techniques are required tomake multicultural education effective.

Both the content and processes ofeducation should be changed toreflect cultural diversity.

3228 A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education

Efforts for change need to be targetedfor specific dimensions of the educa-tional enterprise and guided by delib-erate and intentional purposes andactivities.

Students and teachers should beallowed to engage in the process ofreform at multiple levels and in

various ways.

Cooperative learning efforts thatengage culturally diverse students inequal status interactions and relation-ships should be a common feature ofreform initiatives.

Teaching styles should be modified toincorporate sensitivity to a widervariety of learning styles.

Diverse formats of classroom organi-zations and activity structures shouldbe frequently used to allow for vari-ability, active participation, andnovelty in learning

A conceptual orientation to multicul-tural education should be selected ordeveloped to use as a guideline fordetermining appropriate action strate-

gies and as a yardstick to determineprogress.

Much remains to be done before thepromise and potential of multiculturaleducation are fully realized. Its theo-retical conceptualization is progressingnicely. School practice and establishingthe effects of multicultural education arenot nearly as advanced. Both of thesesteps offer numerous challenges andopportunities for committed educationto make a difference. Many action andresearch possibilities are embedded inthe theory of multicultural education.Their potential is virtually limitless onmany different levels as a way to reformU.S. education; as a means of renewingand revitalizing society; as a mechanism

for making democratic ideals moremeaningful in a culturally pluralisticsocietal context; and as a tool for making

education more effective for culturallydifferent students. The question now iswhether we have the courage and will torise to the challenge.and.embrace theinvitation to transform U.S. education sothat it really does serve the needs of allchildren.

A Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education 29

eneva Gay, Ph.D., professor of education and faculty associate of the Center for

Ulf Multicultural Education, at the University of Washington-Seattle is anestablished lecturer and prolific writer on issues n. multicultural education. Dr. Gay

has served as a consultant to school districts, state education agencies, colleges and

universities, regional service centers, and professional organizations nationwide. Her

areas of expertise include: (1) the meanings and needs for multicultural education;

(2) professional development for multicultural education; (3) curriculum design and

implementation strategies for multicultural education; (4) general principles,

foundations, and strategies for instructional program planning; and (5) Black cultural

characteristics and implications for educational policies, practices, and programs. In

1991, Dr. Gay worked to revise the Curriculum Guidelines for Multicultural

Education for the National Council for the Social Studies. She has published articles

since 1970, and recent efforts include: "Effective Teaching Practices forMulticultural Classrooms," "Ethnic Minorities and Educational Equality," and"Building Cultural Bridges: A Bold Proposal for Teacher Education.' In 1994, she

authored, essence of Learning: Multicultural Education (West Lafayette, IN:

Kappa Delta Pi). She also received the 1994 Multicultural Educator Award, the first

to be presented by the National Association of Multicultural Education.

34

30 A Synthesis of Scholarship In Multicultural Education

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