document resume ed 431 310 - eric · document resume. ed 431 310 fl 025 625. author khubchandani,...
TRANSCRIPT
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 431 310 FL 025 625
AUTHOR Khubchandani, L. M.TITLE Language Ideology and Language Development.
PUB DATE 1997-00-00NOTE 23p.; Reprinted with permission in "The International
Journal of the Sociology of Language", vol. 13, 1997, pages33-51. An earlier version of this paper was presented at theDiscussion Forum of the Indian Institute of Advanced Study(Simla, India, April 1974).
PUB TYPE Journal Articles (080) -- Reports Descriptive (141) --
Speeches/Meeting Papers (150)JOURNAL CIT Grammer, Language and Society; p282-303 1997EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS *Colonialism; Diachronic Linguistics; Educational History;*Educational Policy; Elementary Secondary Education; ForeignCountries; Higher Education; Indigenous Populations;Language Maintenance; Language Minorities; *Language ofInstruction; *Language Role; Multilingualism; Public Policy;Uncommonly Taught Languages
IDENTIFIERS Asia (South); *India
ABSTRACTAn examination of the language-related educational policies
of South Asia, and particularly of India, finds that language policies amongcolonial administrators and the native elite for over a century has left adeep imprint on contemporary language ideologies of different nations. Thediscussion begins with a look at the Indian dual education system before theconsolidation of British rule on the subcontinent at the beginning of thenineteenth century, with instruction given in Sanskrit and Arabic-Persian.The rival British educational system later eclipsed the traditional systems,and as it evolved, it effectively ignored all mediums of instruction exceptEnglish. The struggle for Indian independence brought with it substantialconflict over the British education system, and the issue of language ofinstruction became politicized. Patterns of native language use and languagepolicy in India and other South Asian areas are described, and the problemsfacing many multilingual developing nations as a result of current languageusage and strategies are discussed briefly. Contains 47 references. (MSE)
********************************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.********************************************************************************
U.S
. DE
PA
RT
ME
NT
OF
ED
UC
AT
ION
Offi
ce o
f Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
and
Impr
ovem
ent
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
RE
SO
UR
CE
S IN
FO
RM
AT
ION
CE
NT
ER
(E
RIC
)tl
Thi
s do
cum
ent h
as b
een
repr
oduc
ed a
sre
ceiv
ed fr
om th
e pe
rson
or
orga
niza
tion
orig
inat
ing
it.
0 M
inor
cha
nges
hav
e be
en m
ade
toim
prov
e re
prod
uctio
n qu
ality
.
Poi
nts
of v
iew
or
opin
ions
sta
ted
in th
isdo
cum
ent d
o no
t nec
essa
rily
repr
esen
tof
ficia
l OE
RI p
ositi
on o
r po
licy.
1
PE
RM
ISS
ION
TO
RE
PR
OD
UC
E A
ND
DIS
SE
MIN
AT
E T
HIS
MA
TE
RIA
L H
AS
BE
EN
GR
AN
TE
D B
Y
I\D
alrf
ion
Khu
beh
opci
anT
O T
HE
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
RE
SO
UR
CE
SIN
FO
RM
AT
ION
CE
NT
ER
(E
RIC
)
Lang
uage
Ideo
logy
and
Lang
uage
Dev
elop
men
t
L.M
. Khu
bcha
ndan
i
I: A
n A
ppra
isal
of I
ndia
nE
duca
tion
Pol
icy
The
roo
ts o
f in
tens
e la
ngua
geco
ntro
vers
ies
in S
outh
Asi
aca
n be
fou
ndin
the
'sch
izop
hren
ic' h
andl
ing
of e
duca
tion
by th
e B
ritis
hru
lers
.V
ario
us 'n
ativ
e' p
ress
ure
grou
ps c
ham
pion
ing
the
caus
e of
dif
fere
ntla
ngua
ges
wer
e m
obili
zed
duri
ngth
e ni
nete
enth
cen
tury
larg
ely
due
toth
e ru
ler's
pol
icie
s of
arb
itrar
ilydi
stri
butin
g fa
vour
sor
pre
judi
ces
thro
ugh
lang
uage
con
cess
ions
or c
onst
rahu
s (a
war
ding
or
with
draw
ing
reco
gniti
on to
one
or
anot
her
vern
acul
aror
wri
ting
syst
em),
to b
ring
som
e or
der
into
the
'cha
otic
' div
ersi
ty,
or a
t tim
es to
ser
ve im
peri
alin
tere
sts.
Var
ious
inst
ant,
but o
ften
vaci
llatin
g, d
ecis
ions
with
reg
ard
to
Ack
now
ledg
men
ts: R
eprin
ted,
with
per
mis
sion
,fr
om T
he In
tern
atio
nal J
ourn
al o
f the
Soc
iolo
gy o
f Lan
guag
e, 1
3.19
77. P
p. 3
3-51
.A
n ea
rlier
ver
sion
of t
his
pape
rw
as p
rese
nted
at t
he D
iscu
ssio
n F
orum
of t
heIn
dian
Inst
itute
of A
dvan
ced
Stu
dy, S
imla
in A
pril
1974
. The
aut
hor
expr
esse
s hi
sth
anks
to P
rofe
ssor
B.B
. Mis
hra
and
Dr
Joan
Rub
info
r th
eir
com
men
ts.
2
Lang
uage
Ideo
logy
and
Lan
guag
e D
evel
opm
ent
283
lang
uage
edu
catio
n on
the
part
of
Bri
tish
rule
rs p
laye
d a
vita
l rol
e in
shak
ing
the
trad
ition
al f
luid
mod
es o
f la
ngua
ge lo
yalty
in S
outh
Asi
a.T
he g
reat
deb
ate
abou
t lan
guag
e po
licie
s am
ong
colo
nial
adm
inis
trat
ors
and
the
'nat
ive'
elit
e fo
r ov
er a
cen
tury
has
left
a d
eep
impr
int o
nco
ntem
pora
ry la
ngua
ge id
eolo
gies
of
diff
eren
t nat
ions
on
the
sub-
cont
inen
t (D
as G
upta
197
0; K
hubc
hand
ani 1
971,
197
3c).
11: E
duca
tion
Sys
tem
Bef
ore
the
Brit
ish
Lan
guag
e in
form
al c
omm
unic
atio
n ge
ts c
ondi
tione
d by
the
ad-
min
istr
ativ
e an
d ed
ucat
iona
l sys
tem
s pr
evai
ling
in a
soc
iety
. Bef
ore
the
cons
olid
atio
n of
Bri
tish
rule
on
the
Indi
an s
ubco
ntin
ent a
t the
turn
of
the
nine
teen
th c
entu
ry, t
here
wer
e tw
o co
mpe
ting
syst
ems
of e
duca
tion:
the
path
shal
a (s
choo
l) a
nd a
shra
m (
resi
dent
ial s
choo
l) s
yste
m o
f th
eB
rahm
ins;
and
mak
tab
(pri
mar
y sc
hool
) an
d m
adra
sah
(col
lege
) sy
stem
of th
e M
uslim
s.A
s in
med
ieva
l Eur
ope,
whe
re th
e la
ngua
ge o
f ed
ucat
ion
was
Lat
in(t
he la
ngua
ge o
f sa
cred
liter
atur
e),
inIn
dia,
until
the
nine
teen
thce
ntur
y, th
e la
ngua
ge o
f ed
ucat
ion
was
San
skri
t for
the
Hin
dus
and
Ara
bic-
Pers
ian
for
the
Mus
lims.
Und
er M
uslim
rul
e, c
erta
in H
indu
elite
s m
ade
them
selv
es c
onve
rsan
t with
bot
h sy
stem
s of
edu
catio
n.Si
gnif
ican
t cha
ract
eris
tics
of th
e tr
aditi
onal
edu
catio
nal s
et-u
p in
Ind
iaca
n be
des
crib
ed a
s fo
llow
s:
1E
duca
tion
was
reg
arde
das
anex
tens
ion
of'p
rim
ary'
soci
aliz
atio
n im
bibe
d th
roug
h th
e im
med
iate
env
iron
men
ts o
f fa
mily
,ca
ste,
cre
ed, a
nd tr
aditi
on, p
rovi
ding
a s
uper
stru
ctur
e to
the
soci
ety
inw
hich
an
indi
vidu
al o
pera
tes.
It e
mph
asiz
ed th
e pe
rson
al 'd
isci
ple'
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
pupi
l and
teac
her.
It w
as r
estr
icte
d to
mem
bers
of
the
clas
ses
that
pro
vide
d th
e pr
iest
hood
, the
rul
ers,
and
the
mer
chan
ts.
Tw
o pa
ttern
s, s
hape
d by
voc
atio
nal r
elev
ance
, wer
e pr
omin
ently
reco
gniz
ed in
, the
edu
catio
n sy
stem
: (a)
OR
DIN
AR
Y T
RA
DIT
ION
repr
esen
ting
the
'pra
ctic
al' e
duca
tion
prov
ided
to th
e ad
min
istr
ator
san
d m
erch
ants
to c
ope
with
the
day-
to-d
ay n
eeds
of
soci
ety
(suc
h as
,fo
r us
e in
low
er c
ourt
s, f
or m
aint
aini
ng a
ccou
nts)
thro
ugh
loca
llydo
min
ant v
erna
cula
rs; a
nd (
b) A
DV
AN
CE
D T
RA
DIT
ION
rep
rese
ntin
gth
e 'e
lega
nt' e
duca
tion
prov
ided
to th
e el
ite (
prie
sts,
rul
ing
clas
s, a
ndad
min
istr
ator
s) b
y re
adin
g of
scr
iptu
res
and
hist
oric
al te
xts,
thro
ugh
Sans
krit
or A
rab'
c-Pe
rsia
n.
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
3
284
L.M
. Khu
bcha
ndan
i
2T
he e
duca
tion
syst
emw
asor
ient
edto
war
dspr
eser
ving
segm
enta
l ide
ntiti
es in
the
soci
etj,
thro
ugh
lang
uage
hie
rarc
hy b
yca
terin
g to
the
need
s of
the
'ord
inar
y' a
nd 'a
dvan
ced'
trad
ition
s. A
built
-inhi
erar
chic
al s
truc
turin
g of
ling
uist
icsk
ills
inth
e so
ciet
ypr
omot
ed a
cha
in o
f mut
ually
inte
lligi
ble
spee
ch v
arie
tiesf
rom
loca
ldi
alec
ts to
sub
-reg
iona
l dia
lect
s, to
a s
uper
-reg
iona
l net
wor
k of
dia
lect
sof
lang
uage
s, a
nd `
high
brow
' sty
lesi
n di
ffere
nt d
iglo
ssic
situ
atio
ns.'
The
edu
catio
nal s
et-u
p pr
ovid
ed a
mea
sure
of f
luid
ity in
the
use
ofla
ngua
ge a
ccor
ding
to c
onsi
dera
tions
of c
onte
xt a
nd p
urpo
se, w
hich
isa
char
acte
ristic
str
engt
h of
a p
lura
listic
soc
iety
.' S
ansk
rit a
nd A
rabi
cP
ersi
an-s
peak
ing
elite
s ac
ted
as L
IAIS
ON
bet
wee
n th
e ru
lers
and
the
mas
ses.
To
som
e ex
tent
, Hin
dust
ani i
n th
e no
rth,
Tam
il in
the
sout
h,B
enga
li in
the
east
als
o se
rved
this
pur
pose
for
som
e of
the
prin
cely
stat
es, a
nd c
ater
ed to
the
need
s of
`or
dina
ry' t
radi
tion.
3M
any
regi
onal
sys
tem
s of
writ
ing,
var
ying
acc
ordi
ng to
loca
lity
and
prof
essi
onal
gro
up, f
or th
e sa
me
lang
uage
wer
e in
use
.B
esid
es, t
he r
egio
nal v
arie
ties
of D
evan
agar
i and
the
NA
SK
HI a
ndN
AS
TA
LIK
cha
ract
ers
of th
e P
erso
-Ara
bic
scrip
t, th
ere
wer
e m
any
varia
nts
of M
AH
AJA
NI w
ritin
g pr
eval
ent a
mon
g m
erch
ants
. The
scho
lars
hips
, tho
ugh
limite
d to
the
priv
ilege
d fe
w, h
ad to
be
acqu
aint
edw
ith a
var
iety
of w
ritin
g sy
stem
s, d
istin
guis
hed
acco
rdin
g to
loca
lity,
soci
al g
roup
, and
dom
ain
of u
se. S
ansk
rit o
f the
'adv
ance
d' tr
aditi
onw
as in
vog
ue in
mor
e th
an o
ne w
ritin
g sy
stem
. Apa
rt fr
om th
e D
eva-
naga
ri w
ritin
g sy
stem
, San
skrit
was
writ
ten
in G
rant
ha, M
alay
alam
, Tel
ugu
char
acte
rs in
the
sout
h; in
Bho
ti sc
ript i
n T
ibet
; in
Sha
rada
scr
ipt i
nK
ashm
ir; in
Ben
gali,
Mai
thili
var
iatio
ns o
f Nag
ari w
ritin
g in
the
east
;an
d ot
her
regi
onal
var
iatio
ns o
f Dev
anag
ari s
crip
t in
diffe
rent
are
as.
HI:
Lang
uage
in C
olon
ial E
duca
tion
The
riv
al B
ritis
h ed
ucat
iona
l sys
tem
kno
wn
as s
chO
ols
soon
ecl
ipse
dth
e tr
aditi
onal
pat
hsha
la a
nd m
akta
b ed
ucat
ion
syst
ems
in m
ost p
arts
of
Brit
ish
Indi
a, th
ough
man
y pr
ince
ly s
tate
s co
ntin
ued
thei
r pa
tron
age
totr
aditi
onal
edu
catio
nal i
nstit
utio
ns. T
he c
olon
ial e
duca
tion
polic
y fo
rov
er o
ne-a
nd-a
-hal
f cen
turie
s ch
ange
d th
roug
h di
ffere
nt p
hase
s de
-pe
ndin
g on
the
polit
ical
exp
edie
ncy
of th
e tim
es.
Brit
ish
adm
inis
trat
ors
coul
d no
t res
olve
the
thre
e ba
sic
issu
es o
fed
ucat
ion
:th
e co
nten
t, th
e sp
read
, and
the
med
ium
(D
akin
196
8:
Lang
uage
Ideo
logy
and
Lan
guag
e D
evel
opm
ent
285
5-12
). M
acau
lay,
in h
is fa
mou
s M
inut
e of
183
5, to
ok a
har
d lin
eco
ncer
ning
the
trip
lequ
estio
n,w
hich
ech
oed
inth
eed
ucat
ion
prog
ram
mes
of t
he B
ritis
h th
roug
hout
thei
r st
ay o
n th
e su
bcon
tinen
t.H
e re
com
men
ded
a po
licy
of im
part
ing
Wes
tern
kno
wle
dge
thro
ugh
aW
este
rn to
ngue
(E
nglis
h) a
nd th
en o
nly
to a
min
ority
.
It is
impo
ssib
le fo
r us
with
our
lim
ited
mea
ns to
atte
mpt
to e
duca
teth
e bo
dy o
f the
peo
ple.
We
mus
t at p
rese
nt d
o ou
r be
st to
form
acl
ass
who
may
be
inte
rpre
ters
bet
wee
n us
and
the
mill
ions
who
mw
e go
vern
a cl
ass
of p
erso
ns In
dian
in b
lood
and
col
our,
but
Eng
lish
in ta
stes
, in
opin
ions
, in
mor
als
and
in in
telle
ct. T
o th
atcl
ass
we
may
leav
e it
to r
efin
e th
e ve
rnac
ular
dia
lect
s of
the
coun
try,
to e
nric
h th
ose
dial
ects
with
term
s of
sci
ence
bor
row
edfr
om th
e W
este
rn n
omen
clat
ure,
and
to r
ende
r th
em b
y de
gree
s fit
vehi
cles
for
conv
eyin
g kn
owle
dge
toth
e gr
eat m
ass
of th
epo
pula
tion
(Sha
rp 1
920:
116
).4
Gov
erno
r-G
ener
al B
entin
ck (
1835
), c
oncu
rrin
g w
ith th
e se
ntim
ents
of M
acau
lay,
mad
e it
expl
icit
that
'the
gre
at o
bjec
t of t
he B
ritis
hG
over
nmen
t oug
ht to
be
the
prom
otio
n of
Eur
opea
n lit
erat
ure
and
scie
nce
amon
g th
e na
tives
of I
ndia
; and
that
all
the
fund
s ap
prop
riate
dfo
r th
e pu
rpos
e of
edu
catio
n w
ould
be
best
em
ploy
ed o
n E
nglis
hed
ucat
ion
alon
e' (
Sha
rp 1
920:
130
-31)
.5 T
he H
ardi
nge
Pro
clam
atio
n of
1844
furt
her
divo
rced
the
obje
ctiv
es o
f edu
catio
n fr
om th
e en
viro
nmen
tby
spe
lling
out
pre
fere
ntia
l tre
atm
ent i
n re
crui
tmen
t for
ser
vice
inpu
blic
offi
ces
'to th
ose
who
wer
e ed
ucat
ed in
Eng
lish
scho
ols'
(In
dia
1953
: 8).
With
the
accr
uing
priv
ileg'
es o
f eco
nom
ic s
tatu
s an
d so
cial
stra
tific
atio
n, th
e H
indu
and
Mus
lim e
lites
wer
e lu
red
to a
ccep
t Eng
lish
as th
eir
liais
on la
ngua
ge, a
band
onin
g th
e us
e of
San
skrit
or
Per
sian
for
such
pur
pose
s!'
In 1
854
the
Brit
ish
rule
rs m
odifi
ed th
eir
polic
y by
acc
eptin
g th
ere
spon
sibi
lity
for
the
educ
atio
nof
the
who
lepo
pula
tion,
as
reco
mm
ende
d in
Woo
d's
Des
patc
h (R
iche
y 19
22: 3
67-9
2). I
t sug
gest
edth
e us
e of
the
vern
acul
ar m
ediu
m 't
o te
ach
the
far
larg
er c
lass
who
are
igno
rant
of,
or im
perf
ectly
acq
uain
ted
with
, Eng
lish'
. But
the
intr
o-du
ctio
n of
ver
nacu
lar
educ
atio
n w
as e
xtre
mel
y sl
ow, a
s in
act
ual
impl
emen
tatio
n w
hen
assi
gnin
g re
sour
ces,
the
prio
rity
cont
inue
d to
be
give
n to
Eng
lish
seco
ndar
y sc
hool
s in
citi
es a
nd to
wns
to th
e ne
glec
t of
the
rura
l ver
nacu
lar
scho
ols.
Tho
ugh
the
rule
rs o
ften
proc
laim
ed th
eir
polic
y of
sec
ular
and
ver
nacu
lar
educ
atio
n, in
divi
dual
adm
inis
trat
ors
at
45
286
L.M
. Khu
bcha
ndan
i
the
dist
rict
leve
l wer
e of
ten
enth
usia
stic
in le
ndin
g di
rect
or
indi
rect
supp
ort t
o pr
omot
ing
Eng
lish
educ
atio
n un
der
mis
sion
ary
patr
onag
e.'
With
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of
Cal
cutta
, Bom
bay,
and
Mad
ras
Uni
-ve
rsiti
es in
185
7, p
rim
ary
and
seco
ndar
y ed
ucat
ion
beca
me
mer
ely
ast
ep to
ful
fill
the
requ
irem
ents
of
univ
ersi
ty p
ursu
its. T
hese
uni
vers
ities
adop
ted
Eng
lish
as th
e ex
clus
ive
med
ium
of
inst
ruct
ion,
and
the
stud
yof
ori
enta
l lea
rnin
g as
wel
l as
of th
e m
oder
n In
dian
lang
uage
s w
asto
tally
neg
lect
ed. A
shi
ft in
the'
rule
rs' p
olic
y to
run
thei
r ad
min
istr
atio
nat
the
low
er le
vel i
n th
e ve
rnac
ular
req
uire
d th
e se
tting
up
of th
e co
mm
-itt
ees
to e
volv
e a
sing
le s
crip
t and
est
ablis
hing
a s
ingl
e st
anda
rd v
arie
tyfo
r In
dian
lang
uage
s, f
or u
se in
for
mal
com
mun
icat
ion.
The
Edu
catio
nC
omm
issi
on in
1902
rec
omm
ende
d m
othe
r to
ngue
as
the
prop
erm
ediu
m o
f in
stru
ctio
n fo
r al
l cla
sses
up
to th
e hi
gher
sec
onda
ry le
vel.
In a
ctua
l ter
ms,
the
Bri
tish
reco
gniz
ed th
ree
type
s of
edu
catio
n
I. E
nglis
h m
ediu
m, i
n ur
ban
cent
res
for
the
educ
atio
n of
the
elite
,ri
ght f
rom
the
prim
ary
stag
e.2.
Tw
o-tie
r m
ediu
m, v
erna
cula
r m
ediu
m f
or p
rim
ary
educ
atio
n,an
d E
nglis
h m
ediu
m f
or a
dvan
ced
educ
atio
n in
tow
ns.
3. V
erna
cula
r m
ediu
m, i
n ru
ral a
reas
for
pri
mar
y ed
ucat
ion.
Thu
s, b
y th
e tu
rn o
f th
e tw
entie
th c
entu
ry, '
alth
ough
the
offi
cial
polic
y w
as th
at o
f th
e D
espa
tch
of 1
854,
it w
as M
acau
lay'
s po
licy
ofse
lect
ive
high
er e
duca
tion
in E
nglis
h th
at h
ad a
chie
ved
com
para
tivel
yth
e gr
eate
r su
cces
s', u
nder
the
plea
of
devo
ting
the
inad
equa
te f
inan
cial
reso
urce
s to
impr
ovin
g th
e qu
ality
of
educ
atio
n (D
akin
196
8: 8
).D
urin
g th
e lo
ng s
trug
gle
for
Indi
an in
depe
nden
ce, t
he s
elec
tive
educ
atio
n st
ruct
ure
was
veh
emen
tly c
ritic
ized
by
the
lead
ers
of th
eIn
dian
Nat
iona
l Con
gres
s. G
okha
le a
nd o
ther
inte
llect
uals
, inf
luen
ced
by th
e W
este
rn li
tera
ture
or
the
eigh
teen
th c
entu
ry E
nlig
hten
men
t, sa
wth
e ne
ed f
or u
nive
rsal
ele
men
tary
edu
catio
n,' a
nd a
lso
pul f
orw
ard
plea
s fo
r th
e us
e of
mot
her
tong
ue in
adm
inis
trat
ion.
But
the
Har
tog
Rep
ort (
1929
) w
ante
d 'a
dra
stic
re-
orga
niza
tion
of th
e el
emen
tary
syst
em [
to]
prec
ede
any
wid
e ap
plic
atio
n of
com
puls
ion'
.In
193
8 M
ahat
ma
Gan
dhi p
ropo
sed
a sc
hem
e fo
r B
asic
Edu
catio
nw
hich
was
pra
ctic
ally
the
antit
hesi
s of
Mac
aula
y's
polic
y co
ncer
ning
the
ques
timis
of
cont
ent,
spre
ad, a
nd m
ediu
m. I
t atte
mpt
ed to
res
olve
the
conf
lict b
etw
een
qual
ity a
nd q
uant
ity in
edu
catio
n, b
y pr
opos
ing
tobr
ing
it in
to c
lose
r to
uch
with
the
child
's e
nvir
onm
ent a
nd to
ext
end
itth
roug
hout
rur
al a
reas
with
out i
ncre
asin
g th
e co
st b
y in
tegr
atin
g it
to
Lang
uage
Ideo
logy
and
Lan
guag
e D
evel
opm
ent
287
the
rura
l han
dicr
afts
. Tag
ore
also
rej
ecte
d bo
th th
e m
anne
r an
d th
eco
nten
t of
Eng
lish
educ
atio
n.A
s is
evi
dent
fro
m th
is r
evie
w, t
he B
ritis
h po
licie
s m
ade
asi
gnif
ican
t im
pact
on
the
conc
ept o
f ed
ucat
ion
itsel
f an
d al
so o
n th
ero
le o
f la
ngua
ge in
edu
catio
n fo
r pl
ural
soc
ietie
s of
the
subc
ontin
ent:
Con
trar
y to
the
'mod
ern'
val
ues
attr
ibut
ed to
Hum
anis
m, t
heco
untr
y w
as a
lmos
t con
fron
ted
with
a d
elib
erat
e po
licy
of s
elec
tive
high
er e
duca
tion
totr
ain
an e
lite
clas
sto
med
iate
bet
wee
n th
ete
chno
logi
cally
sup
erio
r 'c
aste
' or
clas
s. T
he E
nglis
h la
ngua
ge, .
whi
chw
as la
rgel
y re
spon
sibl
e fo
r in
ject
ing
'mod
ern'
thou
ght i
nto
Ori
enta
llif
e, to
ok o
ver
the
dom
inan
t pos
ition
hith
erto
enj
oyed
by
'cla
ssic
al'
Sans
krit
and
Pers
ian.
The
Bri
tish
syst
em o
f ed
ucat
ion
in I
ndia
thus
per
petu
ated
the
DIC
HO
TO
MY
of
the
priv
ilege
d la
ngua
ge (
Eng
lish)
ver
sus
vern
acul
ars,
whe
reas
acc
eler
atin
g m
oder
niza
tion
proc
esse
s du
ring
the
peri
ods
ofR
enai
ssan
ce a
nd E
nlig
hten
men
t in
Eur
ope
had
resu
rrec
ted
mod
ern
Eur
opea
n la
ngua
ges
from
the
dom
inan
ce o
f cl
assi
cal l
angu
ages
Lat
inan
d G
reek
(K
hubc
hand
ani 1
973
b).
2T
he W
este
rn E
nlig
hten
men
t im
bibe
d th
roug
h E
nglis
h co
ntac
tra
dica
lly c
hang
ed th
e co
ncep
t of
educ
atio
n fo
r th
e In
dian
elit
e. T
he'm
oder
n' c
onvi
ctio
n of
the
supr
emac
y of
mot
her
tong
ue b
roug
htde
man
ds f
rom
the
lang
uage
elit
es f
or th
e us
e of
Ind
ian
vern
acul
ars
for
form
al c
omm
unic
atio
n (i
.e.,
adm
inis
trat
ion,
aca
dem
ic a
chie
vem
ent,
etc.
). D
ayan
and
Sara
swat
i in
the
latte
r pa
rt o
f th
e ni
nete
enth
cen
tury
follo
wed
by
Tag
ore
(190
6) a
nd G
andh
i (19
16)
wer
e am
ong
the
lead
ing
cham
pion
s of
the
stru
ggle
for
ver
nacu
lari
zatio
n in
edu
catio
n. T
hese
tren
ds, t
o a
cert
ain
exte
nt, s
hook
the
dich
otom
ous
stru
ctur
e of
the
liais
on b
etw
een
the
elite
s an
d th
e m
asse
s w
hich
exi
sted
in th
e m
edie
val
peri
od a
nd w
as a
lso
perp
etua
ted
by th
e E
nglis
h ru
lers
.3
Div
ersi
fica
tion
of la
ngua
ge u
se p
reva
iling
in th
e tr
aditi
onal
educ
atio
nal s
et-u
p of
Sou
th A
sia
was
reg
arde
d by
the
colo
nial
rul
ers
asa
'han
dica
p'. M
any
Bri
tish
adm
inis
trat
ors
resp
onde
d w
ith a
sen
se o
fba
ffle
men
t to
rela
tivel
y fl
uid
segm
enta
tion
patte
rns
in la
ngua
ge b
e-ha
viou
r of
the
Indi
an s
ocie
ty, a
nd o
ften
exp
ress
ed th
eir
anno
yanc
eco
ncer
ning
'the
wan
t of
prec
isio
n of
the
peop
le in
iden
tifyi
ng th
eir
lang
uage
'.9 A
xiom
atic
ally
cor
rela
ting
thei
r ow
n va
lues
of
soci
al h
omo-
geni
zatio
n th
e ru
lers
laid
gre
at e
mph
asis
on
clea
r-cu
t cat
egor
izat
ion
and
mon
istic
sol
utio
ns -
conc
erni
ng la
ngua
ges
and
scri
pts.
Man
y ad
min
istr
ator
sen
gage
d th
emse
lves
in s
tand
ardi
zing
a s
ingl
e w
ritin
g sy
stem
, a s
ingl
e
288
L.M
. Khu
bcha
ndan
i
stan
dard
gra
mm
ar, a
nd a
sin
gle
styl
e fo
r ev
ery
dom
ain
of u
se, i
n th
ena
me
of b
ringi
ng o
rder
into
a 'c
haot
ic' s
ituat
ion.
")4
Indi
an la
ngua
ges
have
trad
ition
ally
bee
n ch
arac
teriz
ed b
y'lo
an p
rone
ness
' fro
m th
e cl
assi
cal a
s w
ell a
s sp
oken
. lan
guag
es.
Bili
ngua
l con
tact
s w
ith E
nglis
h ha
ve b
een
grea
tly in
stru
men
tal i
ncu
ltiva
ting
vario
us s
tyle
s of
exp
ress
ion
in In
dian
lang
uage
s to
cat
er fo
rth
e ne
eds
of m
oder
n so
ciet
y. T
he A
nglic
izat
ion
tend
ency
in m
any
lang
uage
s is
evi
dent
in th
e 'h
ighb
row
' spo
ken
styl
es a
mon
g ur
ban
spee
ch c
omm
uniti
es w
hich
are
mar
kedl
y di
ffere
nt fr
om th
e 'h
ighb
row
'w
ritte
n st
yles
(K
hubc
hand
ani 1
968,
I969
c). T
he in
trod
uctio
n of
the
prin
ting
pres
s al
so p
laye
d a
sign
ifica
nt r
ole
in d
evel
opin
g In
dian
pro
seth
roug
h th
c pu
blic
atio
n of
ref
eren
ce w
orks
, gra
mm
ars,
dic
tiona
ries,
ency
clop
edia
s, a
nd tr
ansl
atio
ns o
f cre
ativ
e lit
erat
ure
and
wor
ks o
fkn
owle
dge
from
diff
eren
t Eur
opea
n la
ngua
ges.
IV: M
othe
r T
ongu
e M
ediu
m
The
pol
itici
zatio
n of
the
lang
uage
issu
e in
Indi
a du
ring
the
stru
ggle
for
inde
pend
ence
dom
inat
ed th
e. m
ediu
m c
ontr
over
sy, p
ushi
ng in
to th
eba
ckgr
ound
the
ideo
logi
cal i
ssue
s co
ncer
ning
the
cont
ent o
f edu
catio
n.T
he d
eman
d fo
r ve
rnac
ular
izat
ion
by th
e 'n
ativ
e' e
lite
was
ass
ocia
ted
with
the
cultu
ral a
nd n
atio
nal r
esur
genc
e, a
nd e
vent
ually
with
the
grow
th o
f dem
ocra
cy p
rom
otin
g eq
ualit
y of
opp
ortu
nity
thro
ugh
educ
atio
n (T
agor
e 19
06; G
andh
i 191
6). A
ll th
e m
alad
ies
of 'i
n-ef
fect
ive'
edu
catio
nlac
k of
res
pons
iven
ess,
imita
tive
goal
s, p
over
tyof
orig
inal
thin
king
,pr
eval
ence
ofpa
rrot
lear
ning
and
othe
rim
bala
nces
in th
e tr
aditi
onal
soc
ietie
s w
hich
gen
erat
ed fr
om th
e al
ien
syst
em w
ere
rom
antic
ally
attr
ibut
ed to
the
alie
n (i.
e., E
nglis
h) m
ediu
m.
One
of t
he m
ost i
ntric
ate
char
acte
ristic
s in
the
med
ium
deb
ate
ofm
any
deve
lopi
ng n
atio
ns h
as b
een
the
uncr
itica
l acc
epta
nce
of W
este
rnth
eorie
s of
edu
catio
n of
the
early
twen
tieth
cen
tury
, mos
tly d
eriv
edfr
om th
e ex
perie
nces
of t
ackl
ing
the
issu
es o
f rel
ativ
ely
mor
e ho
mo-
geni
zed
soci
etie
s, a
nd a
lso
at a
tim
e w
hen
the
thru
st o
f tec
hnol
ogy
was
less
per
vasi
ve th
an in
pre
sent
tim
es. M
any
mod
ern
educ
atio
n ex
pert
sre
gard
it a
s ax
iom
atic
that
the
best
med
ium
for
teac
hing
a c
hild
is h
ism
othe
r to
ngue
. Sev
eral
psy
chol
ogic
al, e
duca
tiona
l, so
ciop
oliti
cal,
and
hist
oric
al a
rgum
ents
hav
e be
en a
dvan
ced
in s
uppo
rt o
f thi
s co
nten
tion.
In th
is v
ein,
a U
NE
SC
O r
epor
t (19
53: 1
1) r
ecom
men
ded:
'Psy
chol
ogic
ally
,it
[mot
her
tong
ue] i
s th
e sy
stem
of m
eani
ngfu
l sig
ns th
at in
his
min
d
Lang
uage
Ideo
logy
and
Lan
guag
e D
evel
opm
ent
289
wor
ks a
utom
atic
ally
for
expr
essi
on a
nd u
nder
stan
ding
. Soc
iolo
gica
lly,
it is
a m
eans
of i
dent
ifica
tion
amon
g th
e m
embe
rs o
f the
com
mun
ityto
whi
ch h
e be
long
s. E
duca
tiona
lly, h
e le
arns
mor
e qu
ickl
y th
roug
h it
than
thro
ugh
an u
nfam
iliar
ling
uist
ic m
ediu
m'.
The
Indi
an S
econ
dary
Edu
catio
n C
omm
issi
on (
GO
I 195
3) a
lso
endo
rsed
this
vie
w: '
Lear
ning
thro
ugh
the
mot
her
tong
ue is
the
mos
tpo
tent
and
com
preh
ensi
ve m
ediu
m fo
r th
e ex
pres
sion
of t
he s
tude
nt's
entir
e pe
rson
ality
'. In
the
thru
st fo
r ca
nvas
sing
mot
her
tong
ue m
ediu
mfo
r ed
ucat
ion,
Indi
an e
xper
ts d
id n
ot fu
lly c
ompr
ehen
d th
epl
ural
char
acte
r of
Indi
an s
ocie
ty a
t lar
ge, w
here
a c
hild
's e
arlie
st fi
rsth
and
expe
rienc
es o
f life
do
not n
eces
saril
y sh
ow s
embl
ance
with
the
form
al's
choo
l ver
sion
' of h
is m
othe
r to
ngue
. In
soci
etie
s w
here
spe
ech
habi
tsar
e no
t con
sist
ently
iden
tifie
d w
ith a
par
ticul
ar la
ngua
ge la
bel,
este
emfo
r a
part
icul
ar id
eal o
f spe
ech
or m
any
soci
opol
itica
l bel
iefs
may
lead
indi
vidu
als
to id
entif
y w
ith a
pre
stig
ious
maj
or la
ngua
gegr
oup
whi
chne
ed n
ot n
eces
saril
y be
one
's n
ativ
e sp
eech
.
The
vas
t Hin
diU
rduP
unja
bi (
HU
P)
regi
on, c
ompr
isin
g 46
per
cent
of t
he c
ount
ry's
tota
l pop
ulat
ion,
rep
rese
nts
a ty
pica
l cas
e w
here
iden
tific
atio
nal c
onsi
dera
tions
of C
omm
unic
atio
n ov
errid
e th
e lin
guis
ticch
arac
teris
tics,
and
the
Hin
di, U
rdu,
and
Pun
jabi
lang
uage
loya
lties
inth
e th
rust
for
rival
cla
ims
of s
olid
arity
inco
rpor
ate
man
y ve
rnac
ular
s of
the
regi
onP
ahar
i, La
hnda
, Raj
asth
ani,
Mai
thili
, Bho
jpur
i,A
wad
hi,
Chh
atis
garh
iin th
eir
over
all s
peec
h m
atric
es. A
mon
g th
em
othe
rto
ngue
cla
iman
ts o
f Hin
di in
the
regi
on, o
ne p
rom
inen
t cat
egor
y is
of
thos
e m
onol
ingu
als
(mos
tly r
ural
) w
ho, t
houg
h sp
eaki
ngve
rnac
ular
sal
toge
ther
diff
eren
t fro
m H
indi
, cla
im 'H
indi
'as
thei
r m
othe
r to
ngue
,as
they
reg
ard
them
selv
es a
s pa
rt o
f the
gre
at 'H
indi
trad
ition
'. T
heir
spee
ch, i
n th
e st
rict f
orm
al s
ense
, will
be
clas
sifie
das
a d
istin
ctla
ngua
ge d
iffer
ent f
rom
the
so-c
alle
dH
indi
(i.e.
,K
harib
oli)
as
unde
rsto
od b
y st
ruct
ural
ists
, aca
dem
icia
ns, a
nd o
ther
cus
todi
ans
ofla
ngua
ge s
tand
ardi
zatio
n (K
hubc
hand
ani 1
972;
197
4a).
Man
yso
cio-
polit
ical
and
psy
chol
ogic
al g
ener
aliz
atio
ns a
bout
the
supr
emac
y of
mot
her
tong
ue m
ade
durin
g th
e in
depe
nden
cem
ovem
ent h
ave,
to a
grea
t ext
ent,
obsc
ured
the
pict
ure.
The
issu
es c
once
rnin
g th
e fa
cilit
y of
expr
essi
on in
the
mot
her
tong
ue h
ave
been
hig
hlig
hted
inra
ther
sim
plis
tic te
rms,
by
juxt
apos
ing
mot
her
tong
ue a
gain
st th
efo
reig
nla
ngua
ge (
Eng
lish)
. In
this
reg
ard,
it is
take
n fo
r gr
ante
d th
ata
fore
ign
med
ium
ham
pers
the
grow
th o
f cre
ativ
ity a
nd ta
lent
s."
In th
is c
onfli
ctan
ti-H
indi
lobb
ies
rega
rd e
ven
Hin
di, a
long
with
Eng
lish,
as a
fore
ign
lang
uage
. The
sup
port
ers
of m
othe
r to
ngue
idec
!Igy
have
not c
ared
to
290
L.M
. Khu
hcha
ndan
i
defi
ne th
e bo
unds
of
mot
her
tong
ue: n
or h
as a
dequ
ate
atte
ntio
n be
enpa
id to
acc
ount
ing
for
the
dive
rse
patte
rns
of la
ngua
ge h
iera
rchy
pre
-va
iling
in m
ultil
ingu
al p
lura
l soc
ietie
s. O
ne n
otic
es s
ever
al in
hibi
tions
amon
g ed
ucat
ioni
sts
conc
erni
ng th
e pr
oble
ms
of th
e w
ide
gap,
bet
wee
nth
e hi
nter
land
var
ietie
s an
d th
e 'e
lega
nt' u
rban
-bas
ed s
tand
ard
lang
uage
sbe
ing
impo
sed
as s
choo
l mot
her
tong
ue.'2
In
seve
ral e
lem
enta
ryed
ucat
ion
curr
icul
a on
e of
ten
notic
es a
r. o
vere
mph
asis
'on
care
ful
drill
ing
in th
e 'c
orre
ct' f
orm
s of
sta
ndar
d re
gion
al s
peec
h an
d pr
o-nu
ncia
tion.
Thu
s th
e ac
quis
ition
of
liter
acy
in la
ngua
ges
like
Hin
di,
Urd
u, P
unja
bi, M
arat
hi, T
amil
beco
mes
mor
e lik
e le
arni
ng a
'sec
ond'
lang
uage
.So
far
ther
e do
es n
ot s
eem
to b
e m
uch
real
izat
ion
of th
e di
ffic
ultie
sw
hich
the
rura
l pop
ulat
ion
face
due
to th
e un
inte
lligi
bilit
y of
the
inst
ant
'hig
hbro
w' s
tand
ards
pro
ject
ed in
mot
her
tong
ue te
xtbo
oks.
Thi
s la
ckof
rec
ogni
tion
of th
e pr
oble
m r
esul
ts in
the
was
:age
and
sta
gnat
ion
inlit
erac
y pr
ogra
mm
es. M
ost s
tand
ardi
zatio
n de
vice
s in
Ind
ian
lang
uage
sto
day
serv
e on
ly to
ext
end
the
'trad
ition
-ins
pire
d' v
alue
sys
tem
of
smal
l elit
es o
ver
all d
omai
ns in
the
entir
e sp
eech
com
mun
ity. T
he p
leas
of la
ngua
ge le
ader
sfo
r de
velo
ping
pur
istic
'aca
dem
ic',
'off
icia
l'st
anda
rds
of la
ngua
geal
ong
the
lines
of
the
nine
teen
th c
entu
ryL
atin
ized
Eng
lish,
and
the
Sans
kriti
zed
or P
erso
-Ara
bize
d 'h
ighb
row
'lit
erar
y st
yles
of
Indi
an la
ngua
gesp
ut a
hea
vy s
trai
n on
the
user
s of
lang
uage
and
con
trad
ict i
n th
emse
lves
the
conc
erns
for
the
faci
lity
ofex
pres
sion
ofst
uden
tsth
roug
hm
othe
rto
ngue
educ
atio
n.T
heca
thol
icity
abo
ut th
e el
ite-a
ccep
tabl
e di
ctio
n of
one
's o
wn
spee
ch o
ften
mak
es n
ativ
e sp
eake
rs'a
lien'
and
'han
dica
pped
'in
thei
r ow
nsu
rrou
ndin
gs, u
nabl
e to
cop
e ev
en w
ith s
impl
e co
mm
unic
atio
n ne
eds
beca
use
of th
e ne
w v
alue
s an
d no
rms
proc
laim
ed f
or th
eir
spee
chbe
havi
our,
espe
cial
lyin
_th
e do
mai
ns o
f pu
blic
com
mun
icat
ion
(adm
inis
trat
ion,
edu
catio
n, m
ass
med
ia, e
tc.)
.In
mul
tilin
gual
and
mul
tidia
lect
al s
ocie
ties
ther
e ar
e sp
eech
gro
ups
whi
ch h
ave
virt
ual n
ativ
e co
ntro
l ove
r m
ore
than
one
lang
uage
or
Jial
ect.
One
see
s an
inev
itabl
e m
easu
re o
f fl
uidi
ty in
cer
tain
reg
ions
inIn
dia
and
Paki
stan
and
amon
g sm
alle
r gr
oups
thro
ugho
utth
e
subc
ontin
ent.
In s
uch
situ
atio
ns o
ne's
tota
l rep
erto
ire
is in
flue
nced
by
mor
e th
an o
ne n
orm
ativ
e sy
stem
, and
lang
uage
labe
ls a
re n
ot r
igid
lyid
entif
ied
with
fix
ed 's
tere
otyp
es'.
A s
peec
h gr
oup
asso
ciat
es th
edi
vers
ity o
f sp
eech
(st
yles
, reg
iste
rs, d
iale
cts,
lang
uage
s, e
tc.)
, aro
und
itw
ith d
iffe
rent
val
ues
in s
ocia
l int
erac
tion.
In
hete
roge
neou
s pl
ural
envi
ronm
ents
, a c
hild
acq
uire
s la
ngua
ge f
rom
eve
ryda
y lif
e si
tuat
ions
10
Lang
uage
Ideo
logy
and
Lan
guag
e D
evel
opm
ent
291
whe
re s
peec
h be
havi
our
is g
uide
d by
var
ious
impl
icit
pres
sure
s ba
sed
on c
lose
-gro
up, r
egio
nal,
supr
a-re
gion
al, o
utgr
oiip
, urb
an, a
nd p
an-
Indi
an id
entit
ies.
A la
rge
gap
betw
een
the
spee
ch p
atte
rns
of ty
pica
lill
itera
te c
omm
uniti
es a
nd th
e so
cial
izat
ion
valu
es p
rom
oted
thro
ugh
scho
ol e
duca
tion
isev
iden
t fro
mth
e su
mm
arie
s of
two
case
s(K
hubc
hand
ani I
973
d; I
974b
) (s
ee T
able
I).
V: L
angu
age
Iden
tity
In P
lura
l Soc
iety
In li
ngui
stic
and
edu
catio
nal j
argo
n, th
e te
rms
'mot
her
tong
ue' a
nd'n
ativ
e sp
eech
' are
oft
en u
sed
indi
stin
guis
habl
y, w
hich
lead
s to
som
ein
dete
rmin
acy
whe
n ap
plie
d in
dif
fere
nt c
onte
xts.
The
term
nat
ive
spee
ch c
an b
e di
stin
guis
hed
as 't
he f
irst
spe
ech
acqu
ired
in in
fanc
y,th
roug
h w
hich
a c
hild
get
s so
cial
ized
.'It
cla
ims
som
e be
arin
g on
'intu
itive
' com
pete
nce,
and
pot
entia
lly it
can
be
indi
vidu
ally
iden
ti-fi
able
. The
term
'mot
her
tong
ue' i
s m
ainl
y 'c
ateg
oriz
ed b
y on
e's
alle
gian
ce to
.a p
artic
ular
trad
ition
, and
it is
soc
ieta
lly id
entif
iabl
e'. I
nth
e in
grou
p/ou
tgro
up d
icho
tom
y, a
spe
ech
vari
ety
whi
ch m
embe
rs o
fa
grou
p (o
r, in
ext
rem
e ca
ses,
eve
n an
indi
vidu
al)
rega
rd a
s th
eir
'ow
n' is
acce
pted
as
thei
r m
othe
r to
ngue
. Tho
ugh
the
actu
al s
peec
h of
anin
divi
dual
is m
arke
d by
var
ious
div
erse
and
het
erog
eneo
us c
hara
cter
-is
tics
reve
alin
g st
ratif
icat
iona
l dem
ands
of
the
cont
ext,
peop
le p
erce
ive
thei
r ow
n an
d ot
her's
spe
ech
in c
ateg
oric
al te
rms
as d
iscr
ete
lang
uage
A o
r la
ngua
ge B
, as
if it
wer
e un
ifor
m a
nd h
omog
eneo
us. T
his
para
dox
of 'h
eter
ogen
eous
' per
form
ance
and
'hom
ogen
ized
' per
cept
ion
(i.e
.,ca
tego
riza
tion)
is o
ne o
f th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
fea
ture
s of
spe
ech
beha
viou
r(K
hubc
hand
ani 1
974a
).In
var
ious
reg
ions
in S
outh
Asi
a di
ffer
ent s
ocia
lizat
ion
proc
esse
sid
entif
yth
ech
arac
teri
stic
sof
asp
eech
stra
tum
loca
lsp
eech
.su
b-re
gion
al,
supr
a-re
gion
alva
riet
ies,
lingu
afr
anca
,hi
ghbr
owdi
ctio
nsas
soci
atin
g th
em w
ith a
var
iety
of
inte
ract
ions
on th
e cl
ine
:
clos
e in
grou
p ->
wid
er in
grou
p ->
inte
rgro
up -
> m
obili
tym
ass
com
mun
icat
ion
-> u
rban
con
trac
t ->
for
mal
(m
odel
for
pres
tige)
.
In s
uch
dive
rsif
ied
spee
ch a
reas
, edu
catio
n pr
ogra
mm
es n
eed
to b
ege
ared
to f
acili
tate
the
scop
e of
com
mun
icat
ion
with
the
prev
ailin
gso
cial
izat
ion
valu
es in
a c
omm
unity
ext
endi
ng f
rom
one
's n
ativ
e sp
eech
11
292
LM
.K
hubc
hand
ani
TA
BL
E I
(A)
SPE
EC
H B
EH
AV
IOU
R A
ND
LA
NG
UA
GE
ED
UC
AT
ION
RU
RA
L I
MA
rkl:0
14%
CV
MM
VN
IT'Y
AZ
OV
') N
AC
-PV
A
Typ
ical
ver
bal r
eper
toir
eLa
ngua
ge v
alue
s pr
omot
ed th
roug
h ed
ucat
ion
Spe
ech
varie
ties
Nag
puri
Mar
athi
Com
mun
icat
ion
Lang
uage
s ta
ught
situ
atio
nscl
ose
ingr
oup
Sup
ra-d
iale
ctal
wid
er in
grou
pM
arat
hiS
tand
ard
Mar
athi
ingr
oup
mas
s
com
mun
icat
ion
Nei
ghbo
urin
gop
tiona
lva
rietie
s of
fam
iliar
ityM
arat
hith
roug
h m
obili
tyN
agpu
riin
terg
roup
Hin
dust
ani
Sta
ndar
din
terg
roup
mas
s
Hin
di/U
rdu
com
mun
icat
ion
Reg
iona
l Eng
lish
usag
e (a
few
phra
ses)
San
skrit
or
Ara
bic
(a fe
wph
rase
s)
Loca
l San
ta li
optio
nal
mod
erni
stic
acqu
aint
ance
optio
nal
ritua
listic
acqu
aint
ance
M th
h
Hin
di
Eng
lish
San
skrit
,A
rabi
c/P
ersi
an
Sch
ool v
alue
s
deni
ed p
rest
ige,
and
use
dm
inim
ally
ass
ubst
anda
rdva
rietie
s
prom
oted
thro
ugh
'aut
o-no
my'
valu
esin
all
situ
atio
nsre
gard
ed a
s no
n-pr
estig
ious
and
thei
r us
eno
t pro
mot
edits
use
sig
nifie
sno
n-pr
estig
ious
upbr
ingi
ngle
arnt
as
an 'e
xcer
cise
'for
even
tual
use
afte
rth
e
scho
ol c
aree
r (n
ot r
elat
edto
imm
edia
te u
se)
lear
nt a
s op
tiona
l cla
ssic
alla
ngua
ges
for
relig
ious
and
liter
ary
scho
lars
hip
Use
of r
egio
nal a
nd h
ybrid
var
ietie
s (p
atio
s,pi
dgin
s cr
eole
s, e
tc.)
is r
egar
ded
as a
sig
n of
infe
rior
soci
aliz
atio
n.
(B)
RU
RA
L S
AN
T-A
LI
CO
MM
UN
ITY
IN
BIH
AR
clos
e in
grou
p
Sup
ra-d
iale
ctal
wid
er in
grou
pS
anta
li
Oth
er tr
ibal
lan-
guag
es (
Mun
da.
Ho,
etc
.)
optio
nal
fam
iliar
ityth
roug
h m
obili
ty
deni
ed p
rest
ige,
and
use
d
min
imal
ly a
s su
bsta
ndar
d
San
ta li
(st
anda
rd:
med
ium
for
prim
ary
set b
yed
ucat
ion
lang
uage
-elit
e)re
gard
ed a
s no
n-pr
estig
ious
, and
thei
r us
cno
t pro
mot
ed Tab
le C
ontd
.
12B
ES
T C
OP
Y A
VA
ILA
BLE
Lang
uage
Ideo
logy
and
Lan
guag
e D
evel
opm
ent
293
Tab
le c
ontd
Sad
ri(S
adan
)-tr
ibal
inte
rgro
upa
hybr
id B
ihar
ila
ngua
geB
ihar
i lan
guag
esno
n-tr
ibal
(Mai
thili
,in
terg
roup
Mag
ahi,
etc.
),R
egio
nal B
enga
lior
Oriy
aR
egio
nal
urba
n co
ntac
t
Hin
dust
ani
Sta
ndar
dH
indi
/Urd
u;st
anda
rd B
enga
li
or O
riya
Reg
iona
l Eng
lish
Usa
ge (
a fe
wph
rase
s
mas
ico
mm
unic
atio
n
optio
nal
mod
erni
stic
acqu
aint
ance
Hin
di
its u
se s
igni
fies
ano
n-pr
estig
ious
upbr
ingi
ngre
gard
ed a
s no
n--
pres
tigio
us, a
nd th
eir
use
not p
rom
oted
its u
se s
igni
fies
ano
n-pr
estig
ious
upbr
ingi
ng-
med
ium
for
furt
her
educ
atio
n
Eng
lish
lear
nt a
s an
'exc
erci
se'
for
even
tual
use
afte
r th
esc
hool
car
eer
(not
rel
ated
to im
med
iate
use
)
San
skrit
lear
nt a
s an
opt
iona
l cla
s-
sica
lla
ngua
gefo
rre
-
ligio
us'a
nd li
tera
ry s
cho-
lars
hip
Gra
ssro
ots
'folk
' mul
tilin
gual
ism
is d
enie
dpr
estig
e, a
nd th
e us
e of
reg
iona
l and
hyb
ridva
rietie
sdi
scou
rage
din
form
al c
omm
uni-
catio
n
to 'a
ssoc
iate
nat
ive'
spe
ech,
sec
ond
lang
uage
, and
sub
sequ
ently
toto
tally
unf
amili
ar la
ngua
ge.
Man
y sp
eake
rs o
f th
e no
rth-
cent
ral H
UP
regi
on o
f In
dia,
who
are
not n
ativ
e sp
eake
rs o
f H
indi
or
Urd
u in
the
stri
ct li
ngui
stic
sen
se b
utcl
aim
Hin
di o
r U
rdu
as th
eir
mot
her
tong
ue in
the
cens
us r
etur
ns, h
ave.
by a
nd la
rge,
nat
ive-
like
com
man
d ov
er H
indi
or
Urd
u, a
nd it
is
virt
ually
an
'ass
ocia
te n
ativ
e' s
peec
h to
them
. The
y ar
e al
so c
alle
d'a
dher
ent'
spea
kers
, dis
tingu
ishi
ng th
em f
rom
'nat
ive'
and
'for
eign
'sp
eake
rs (
Kel
kar
1968
). F
or s
uch
peop
le H
indi
or
Urd
u re
pres
ents
apa
rtic
ular
trad
ition
. Mos
t of
the
spea
kers
in th
e re
gion
, par
ticul
arly
thos
e in
Utta
r Pr
ades
h, M
adhy
a Pr
ades
h, a
nd B
ihar
, are
qui
te u
naw
are
of th
eir
bilin
gual
or
mul
tilin
gual
beh
avio
ur (
Khu
bcha
ndan
i 197
2). F
orth
em s
witc
hing
of
lingu
istic
cod
es f
rom
nat
ive
spee
ch to
Hin
di/U
rdu
is
13
294
L.M
. Khu
hcha
ndan
iLa
ngua
ge Id
eolo
gy a
nd L
angu
age
Dev
elop
men
t29
5
sim
ilar
to th
e sw
itchi
ng o
f sty
les
(suc
h as
, inf
orm
al/fo
rmal
) in
a
mon
olin
gual
situ
atio
n.K
loss
(19
67)
calls
suc
h ve
rnac
ular
s'n
ear
dial
ectiz
ed' l
angu
ages
:'F
unct
iona
lly a
s w
ell a
s ps
ycho
logi
cally
they
are
acce
pted
by
thei
r sp
eake
rs a
s di
alec
t-lik
eto
ols
of o
ral c
omm
uni-
catio
n (p
lus,
at b
est,
of u
nass
umin
g po
etry
).'
One
not
ices
a su
perim
pose
d ho
mog
enei
tyin
com
mun
icat
ion
patte
rns
on th
e cl
ine
of u
rban
izat
ion
in th
e en
tire
Hin
diU
rdu-
-Pun
jabi
regi
on d
ivid
ed b
etw
een
Indi
a an
d P
akis
tan.
The
spe
ech
beha
viou
r of
thes
e pe
ople
rep
rese
nts
a pa
ttern
of t
he 'd
ivid
ed jo
int f
amily
', w
here
diffe
rent
ver
nacu
lars
Pun
jabi
, Lah
nda,
Pah
ari,
seve
ral l
angu
ages
be-
long
ing
to R
ajas
than
i and
Bih
ari g
roup
senj
oy h
iera
rchi
cal p
ositi
ons
unde
r a
sing
le u
mbr
ella
, but
onc
e ag
ain
are
split
in d
iam
etric
ally
oppo
site
cam
ps, n
amel
y H
indi
and
Urd
u (in
som
e re
gion
s th
e -s
plit
betw
een
Hin
di.a
nd P
unja
bi is
als
o m
ore
ideo
logi
cal t
han
lingu
istic
).In
the
cour
se o
f his
tory
, lan
guag
e bo
unda
ries
get s
tabi
lized
not
so
muc
h on
acc
ount
of t
he b
arrie
rs o
f int
ellig
ibili
ty b
etw
een
two
spee
chva
rietie
s, a
s on
the
cons
ider
atio
ns o
f ide
ntity
and
val
ue s
yste
ms
amon
gth
e sp
eake
rs o
f tho
se v
arie
ties.
The
'hig
hbro
w' r
egis
ters
of H
indi
and
Urd
u ar
e sh
arpl
y m
arke
d by
the
pola
rizat
ion
in th
e pa
ttern
s of
bor
row
-in
g, w
here
as a
t the
'low
brow
' lev
el, d
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n th
e tw
o is
not
rega
rded
as
so s
igni
fican
t. Id
entif
icat
ion
thro
ugh
a pa
rtic
ular
lang
uage
labe
lis
ver
y m
uch
a m
atte
r of
soc
ial a
war
enes
s on
the
part
of a
nin
divi
dual
. 'It
is a
cat
egor
ical
ly d
eter
min
ed in
stitu
tiona
l attr
ibut
e, n
otne
cess
arily
hav
ing
exac
t par
alle
l with
str
uctu
ral c
hara
cter
istic
s in
one
'ssp
eech
mat
rix' (
Khu
bcha
ndan
i 197
6). I
n m
ultil
ingu
al s
ocie
ties
the
idea
l
clai
m a
nd th
e re
al fu
nctio
n of
a la
ngua
ke m
ight
be
atva
rianc
e."
Dur
ing
the
initi
al p
ost-
colo
nial
per
iod,
diff
eren
t exp
ert b
odie
s on
educ
atio
n su
ch a
s th
e C
entr
al A
dvis
ory
Boa
rd o
f Edu
catio
n (1
948)
,U
nive
rsity
Edu
catio
n C
omm
issi
on (
1949
), a
nd O
ffici
al L
angu
age
Com
mis
sion
(19
56)
gave
gre
ater
Wei
ght t
o th
e br
oad
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
mot
her
tong
ue, i
.e.,
rega
rdin
g al
l min
ority
lang
uage
s rio
t hav
ing
any
writ
ten
trad
ition
as
'dia
lect
s' o
f the
dom
inan
t lan
guag
e in
the
regi
on, b
yw
hich
ther
e w
as im
plic
it de
nial
of e
qual
rig
hts
to li
ngui
stic
min
oriti
eson
the
grou
nd o
fpra
ctic
abili
ty."
Man
y pr
otag
onis
ts o
f maj
or la
ngua
ges
poin
ted
out t
he il
logi
calit
y of
lite
racy
in la
ngua
ges
that
hav
e no
liter
atur
e."
In a
crit
ical
app
rais
al o
f the
rol
e of
mot
her
tong
ue in
educ
atio
n, a
stu
dy c
ondu
cted
at t
he N
atio
nal C
ounc
il fo
r E
duca
tion
Res
earc
h an
d T
rain
ing
(NC
ER
T)
high
light
s w
ide
disp
'arit
ies
in th
eso
cioc
ultu
ral t
radi
tions
of s
tate
s an
d co
nseq
uent
ly n
otes
that
lang
uage
s
14
diffe
r in
thei
r st
ages
of d
evel
opm
ent.
Itpo
ints
out
that
edu
catio
nth
roug
h th
e m
inor
ity la
ngua
ges
whi
ch h
old
a su
bord
inat
e po
sitio
n in
soci
ety
and
are
rela
tivel
y le
ss c
ultiv
ated
, is
likel
y to
pro
duce
une
ven
leve
ls o
f ach
ieve
men
ts, a
nd th
us w
ill c
reat
e un
equa
l opp
ortu
nitie
s fo
rhi
gher
edu
catio
n an
d em
ploy
men
t for
min
ority
com
mun
ities
(G
oel a
ndS
aini
197
2).
But
dur
ing
the
past
thre
e de
cade
s, th
e lin
guis
tic m
inor
ities
hav
esh
own
grea
ter
vigi
lanc
e in
saf
egua
rdin
g th
eir
right
s fo
r m
othe
r to
ngue
educ
atio
n, a
nd h
ave
prac
tical
ly s
ucce
eded
in g
ettin
g th
e au
thor
ities
toac
cept
the
narr
ow in
terp
reta
tion
of m
othe
r to
ngue
, by
whi
ch th
e ho
me
lang
uage
of e
ach
child
, 'th
e la
ngua
ge s
poke
n fr
om th
e cr
adle
',is
acce
pted
as
mot
her
tong
ue (
1951
Cen
sus
of In
dia.
195
4:1)
. Mos
t of t
hest
ate
gove
rnm
ents
now
sho
w a
sen
se o
f tol
eran
ce to
the
hete
roge
neity
of e
duca
tion
med
ia in
thei
r m
ultil
ingu
al p
ocke
ts. T
he s
afeg
uard
s of
mot
her
tong
ue e
duca
tion
at th
e pr
imar
y sc
hoO
l sta
ge fo
r lin
guis
ticm
inor
ities
wer
e sp
elle
d ou
t in
the
Thr
ee L
angu
age
For
mul
a in
195
6.''
Som
e co
nces
sion
s w
ere
even
mad
e fo
r th
e co
ntin
uanc
e of
sec
onda
ryed
ucat
ion
thro
ugh
trib
al la
ngua
ge m
edia
whe
reve
r po
ssib
le. B
ut th
epa
ce o
f im
plem
enta
tion
has
been
rat
her
slow
. No
doub
t, th
e in
itial
relu
ctan
ce in
acc
eptin
g th
e na
rrow
def
initi
on o
f mot
her
tong
ue is
now
over
com
e bu
t sev
eral
obj
ectio
ns a
re s
till
rais
ed fo
rits
full
impl
e-m
enta
tion
and
man
y st
ates
wai
t for
the
extin
ctio
n of
min
ority
lang
uage
son
thei
r ow
n.
Vl:
Ass
umpt
ions
of L
angu
age
Dev
elop
men
t
The
sim
plis
tic p
roje
ctio
n of
mot
her
tong
ue e
duca
tion
as a
mea
ns o
fes
tabl
ishi
ng e
qual
ity o
f opp
ortu
nity
for
indi
vidu
al s
elf-
adva
ncem
ent
has
led
to d
isca
rdin
g th
e pr
inci
ple
of la
ngua
ge h
iera
rchy
in e
duca
tion.
Itha
s gi
ven
way
to th
e de
man
ds o
f lan
guag
e au
tono
my,
i.e.,
'the
prom
otio
n of
full
fledg
ed o
r au
tono
mou
s st
atus
for
a la
ngua
ge a
s an
excl
usiv
e ve
hicl
e fo
r fu
ll ex
pres
sion
, in
diffe
rent
fiel
ds o
f kno
wle
dge
and
in a
ll w
alks
of l
ife' (
Khu
bcha
ndan
i 197
3c; 1
974h
). It
is ta
ken
for
gran
ted
that
the
'hig
hbro
w'
valu
esof
spe
ech
com
mun
icat
ion
unifo
rmity
, pre
cisi
on, e
lega
nce,
pur
ity o
f for
m, a
llegi
ance
to li
tera
rytr
aditi
on, e
labo
ratio
n of
lang
uage
thro
ugh
coin
age
of te
chni
cal t
erm
sar
e es
sent
ial p
aths
for
deve
lopi
ng a
lang
uage
(K
hubc
hand
ani 1
975a
;19
75h)
.
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE15
296
L.M
. Khu
bcha
ndan
iLa
ngua
ge Id
eolo
gy a
nd L
angu
age
Dev
elop
men
t29
7
So
perv
asiv
e in
our
tim
e is
the
dist
inct
ion
betw
een
deve
lope
d an
dun
derd
evel
oped
(eup
hem
istic
ally
calle
dde
velo
ping
)st
ages
ofec
onom
ies,
soc
ietie
s an
d ev
en c
ultu
res,
that
man
y la
ngua
ge e
xper
ts a
rele
d to
em
ploy
the
sam
e di
chot
omy
for
lang
uage
s to
o (N
eust
upny
197
4).
Man
y la
ngua
ge-e
lites
, gui
ded
by p
ost-
Ren
aiss
ance
Eur
opea
n tr
ends
such
as
crea
tion
of n
ew s
tand
ard
lang
uage
s, a
ssim
ilatio
n of
nei
ghbo
ur-
ing
dial
ects
and
unw
ritte
n la
ngua
ges
of m
inor
ities
rega
rd s
uch
hom
ogen
izat
ion
proc
esse
s as
inev
itabl
e in
the
cont
empo
rary
mod
ern-
izat
ion
stag
es o
f Asi
a an
d A
fric
a as
wel
l. In
thei
r th
rust
for
'mod
erni
ty',
they
eith
er s
eek
toge
t, th
eir
spee
ch r
ecog
nize
d as
a d
evel
oped
'abs
olut
e' la
ngua
ge o
r ab
ando
n th
e 'h
andi
capp
ed s
peec
h al
toge
ther
infa
vour
of t
he o
ne b
elie
ved
to b
e th
e 'p
rivile
ged'
var
iety
.In
this
dic
hoto
mou
s pr
oces
s, m
any
less
favo
urab
ly p
lace
d sp
eech
varie
tiesw
hich
may
be
dial
ects
, ver
nacu
lars
, min
ority
lang
uage
s or
may
hav
e no
n-el
ite s
tyle
ssta
nd th
e da
nger
of b
ecom
ing
tota
llyex
tinct
:7 A
s th
e ag
e-ol
d, h
arm
onio
us h
iera
rchi
c pa
ttern
ing
of d
iffer
ent
spee
ch v
arie
ties
(or
lang
uage
s) in
one
's v
erba
l rep
erto
ire g
ets
dist
urbe
d,it
give
s bi
rth
to d
isha
rmon
y am
ong
diffe
rent
spe
ech
grou
ps (
such
as,
issu
es o
f lan
guag
e pr
ivile
ges
in e
duca
tion,
sta
te b
ound
ary
disp
utes
ove
rla
ngua
ge id
entit
y in
Indi
a). T
he d
icho
tom
ous
appr
oach
in 'l
angu
age
deve
lopm
ent',
in a
way
, dep
icts
the
futil
e ra
ce o
f cat
chin
g up
with
the
Jone
ses,
as
is e
vide
nt fr
om a
mor
e th
an c
entu
ry-o
ld p
rogr
amm
e of
'refin
ing
the
vern
acul
ar d
iale
cts'
(exp
ound
edin
the
'Mac
aula
y's
Min
utes
', 18
35),
and
als
o th
e B
ritis
h ru
lers
'ta
rget
s of
ver
nacu
lar
deve
lopm
ent i
n re
spon
se to
the
dem
and
for
a V
erna
cula
r U
nive
rsity
in18
67."
The
Brit
ish
rule
rs r
ejec
ted
the
vern
acul
ar m
ediu
m fo
r hi
gher
educ
atio
n on
the,
plea
that
'the
ver
nacu
lars
of t
he c
ount
ry d
o no
t as
yet
affo
rd th
e m
ater
ials
for
conv
eyin
g in
stru
ctio
n of
the
com
para
tivel
y hi
ghor
der'
(Doc
umen
t 7, N
aik
1963
: 29-
32).
As
such
, in
this
une
ndin
gch
ase
of th
e m
irage
, by
the
time
the
vern
acul
ars
stru
ggle
thei
r w
ay to
acqu
iring
the
cred
ibili
ty o
f 'de
velo
ped'
lang
uage
s, th
e la
tter
will
hav
em
oved
hig
her
with
add
ition
al h
onou
rs, s
uch
as u
sabi
lity
with
com
-pu
ters
, or
spac
e sa
telli
ties
and
so o
n. T
he is
sue
of 'l
angu
age
deve
lop-
men
t' m
erits
clo
se s
crut
iny
to c
onsi
der
the
chan
ces
of s
ucce
ss o
f the
pres
ent a
spira
tions
of l
angu
age-
élite
s in
new
ly-in
depe
nden
t nat
ions
,sh
aped
in th
e 'la
ngua
ge a
uton
omy'
mol
d, to
mee
t the
nee
ds o
f the
irhe
tero
gene
ous
plur
alis
tic c
omm
uniti
es. T
he m
ain
prob
lem
s co
nfro
ntin
gm
any
deve
lopi
ng n
atio
ns a
s a
resu
lt of
pre
sent
lane
uage
str
ateg
ies
are
as fo
llow
s:
1T
he h
arm
onio
us m
utua
l acc
omm
odat
ion
of h
eter
ogen
eous
spee
ch c
omm
uniti
es h
as g
iven
way
to a
tens
e an
d, r
igid
insi
sten
ce o
ndi
ffere
nt n
orm
ativ
e sy
stem
s an
d a
perv
asiv
e co
mpe
titio
n fo
r la
ngua
gepr
ivile
ges
in d
iffer
ent d
omai
ns a
nd r
egio
ns. V
ario
us d
evel
opm
enta
lac
tions
aim
ed a
t tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e co
nver
gent
, 'si
tuat
ion-
boun
d' s
peec
hbe
havi
ours
into
div
erge
nt,,
pseu
do-a
uton
omou
s, p
uris
tic'tr
aditi
on-
insp
ired'
lang
uage
sand
ass
ocia
ted
soci
etie
sare
lead
ing
thes
e
natio
ns in
to s
erio
us p
robl
ems
in r
elat
ion
to n
atio
nal i
nteg
ratio
n. T
he'e
litis
tic' e
duca
tion
syst
em d
oes
not t
ake
acco
unt o
f the
com
plex
ity o
fdi
alec
ts in
flux
at t
he fo
lk le
vel,
and
links
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f lan
guag
ew
ith th
e cl
ear-
cut d
emar
catid
n of
lang
uage
use
. Thu
s a
cont
inuu
m o
fla
ngua
ge h
iera
rchy
get
s co
mpa
rtm
enta
lized
, and
the
digl
ossi
e co
mpl
e-m
enta
tion
of d
iffer
ent l
angu
ages
sig
nify
ing
diffe
rent
com
mun
icat
ive
task
s do
es n
ot r
ecei
ve e
nthu
sias
tic s
uppo
rt fr
om th
e la
ngua
ges
expe
rts.
2T
heor
etic
ally
, the
arg
umen
ts fo
r m
othe
r' to
ngue
sup
rem
acy
base
d on
'ele
gant
' urb
an s
tand
ards
hol
d ve
ry li
ttle
subs
tanc
e as
far
asth
e fa
cilit
y af
exp
ress
ion
is c
once
rned
. The
sud
den
impo
sitio
n of
ast
anda
rd v
arie
ty b
y a
lang
uage
-elit
e on
a c
omm
unity
cre
ates
ser
ious
com
mun
icat
ion
gaps
(P
andi
t 197
2). S
uch
an 'i
nsta
nt s
tand
ard'
long
rem
ains
uni
ntel
ligib
le to
the
hint
erla
nd c
omm
uniti
es, a
s se
en in
Tab
le1,
and
its
tyra
nny
ham
pers
mas
s lit
erac
y pr
ogra
mm
es.
Man
y la
ngua
geex
pert
sha
ve n
ow s
tart
edqu
estio
ning
the
supr
emac
y of
the
mot
her
tong
ue m
ediu
m s
tret
ched
ove
r th
e en
tire
educ
atio
n ca
rree
r. U
nder
var
ious
pol
itica
l pre
ssur
es, i
tis
now
bei
ngco
nced
ed th
at th
e m
othe
r to
ngue
can
not b
e th
e on
ly la
ngua
ge o
fed
ucat
ion.
The
sco
pe o
f mot
her
tong
ue e
duca
tion
and
of im
posi
ngur
ban
elite
sta
ndar
ds in
'sch
ool'
lang
uage
, the
refo
re, n
eeds
to h
ere
asse
ssed
in th
e lig
ht o
f rec
ent i
nsig
hts
gain
ed fr
om th
e st
udie
s of
plur
al s
ocie
ties
(Khu
bcha
ndan
i I97
4a).
3D
eman
ds o
f act
ive
bilin
gual
ism
in a
plu
ral s
ocie
ty e
xpos
e an
indi
vidu
alto
'doi
ng' l
angu
age
activ
ityby
acc
ompl
ishi
ng d
iver
seco
mm
unic
ativ
e ta
sks
thro
ugh
a va
riety
of s
peec
h st
yles
,re
gist
ers,
dial
ects
, and
eve
n la
ngua
ges.
The
pol
icy
requ
iring
eve
ry li
tera
te p
erso
nto
mas
ter
two,
thre
e or
four
dis
tinct
nor
mat
ive
syst
emsn
urtu
red
inhi
stor
ical
ly o
r ge
ogra
phic
ally
unr
elat
ed `
trad
ition
s'is
like
ly to
res
ult
in s
tiflin
g th
e fle
xibl
e an
d cr
eativ
e ro
le o
f con
tact
lang
uage
s in
a
com
mun
ity a
nd th
ese
cont
act l
angu
ages
may
sur
vive
mer
ely
as 'w
orld
','n
atio
nal',
or
'cla
ssic
al' l
ibra
ry la
ngua
ges
for
refe
renc
e pu
rpos
es.
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE17
298
L.M
. Khu
bcha
ndan
i
An
indi
vidu
al o
r a
spee
ch c
omm
unity
res
pond
s to
the
verb
al n
eeds
of h
eter
ogen
eous
situ
atio
ns s
pont
aneo
usly
by
the
proc
esse
s of
con
-ve
rgen
ce, a
ssim
ilatio
n, m
aint
enan
ce, a
nd c
reat
ivity
, kno
wn
in li
ngui
stic
parla
nce
as a
nalo
gy, i
nter
fere
nce,
pid
gini
zatio
n, c
ode-
switc
hing
, etc
.S
killf
ul m
aste
ry o
ver
seve
ral s
harp
ly 'i
nsul
ated
' sta
ndar
d la
ngua
ges
is a
rem
arka
ble
feat
whi
ch o
nly
a fe
w m
otiv
ated
pro
fess
iona
ls c
an b
eex
pect
ed to
ach
ieve
. The
mov
es fo
r la
ngua
ge a
uton
omy
in e
duca
tion
prog
ram
mes
hav
e pr
ovid
ed, r
athe
r, d
isin
cent
ives
to th
e ac
tive
bilin
g-ua
lism
pre
vaili
ng in
man
y re
gion
s in
Sou
th A
sia.
Req
uire
men
ts o
f `el
egan
ce' i
n ed
ucat
ion,
apa
rt fr
om s
low
ing
dow
nth
e pa
ce o
f sw
itch
over
from
dev
elop
ed m
edia
to e
mer
ging
med
ia, a
lso
inhi
bit t
he in
trod
uctio
n of
lite
racy
ih a
n ec
onom
ical
man
ner.
'9 T
heco
mm
on m
an h
as to
be
educ
ated
to u
se th
e la
ngua
ge, q
uite
unr
elat
ed to
the
faci
lity
in c
omm
unic
atio
n of
the
acad
emic
. So
far,
ver
y lit
tleex
perim
enta
tion
has
been
enc
oura
ged
to te
st th
e va
lidity
of t
hese
assu
mpt
ions
for
a co
mpl
ex p
lura
l soc
iety
suc
h as
Indi
a.T
he m
agni
tude
of v
ario
us li
ngui
stic
and
edu
catio
n pr
oble
ms
inne
wly
-inde
pend
ent c
ount
ries
appe
ars
to b
e ou
tsid
e th
e ex
perie
nce
ofm
ost E
urop
ean
coun
trie
s ei
ther
in th
e pa
st o
r in
the
pres
ent.
In m
ost o
fth
e W
este
rn h
omog
eniz
ed n
atio
n-st
ates
, ide
ntifi
catio
n of
the
stan
dard
core
and
dem
arca
tion
of b
ound
arie
s of
a m
othe
r to
ngue
are
no
long
erso
urce
s of
tens
ion.
Tex
tboo
k st
anda
rds
of d
iffer
ent l
angu
ages
, dra
wn
from
res
pect
ive
liter
ary
trad
ition
s, w
ere
stab
ilize
d al
ong
with
the
cont
i-nu
ing
proc
esse
s of
urb
aniz
atio
n. O
ne d
oes
not f
ind
any
appa
rent
conf
lict b
etw
een
the
stab
ilize
d st
anda
rd a
nd a
ctua
l spe
ech
varia
tions
ina
lang
uage
are
a. B
y an
d la
rge,
a s
peec
h co
mm
unity
's im
age
of la
ng-
uage
, its
iden
tity
post
ures
thro
ugh
lang
uage
, and
act
ual u
se o
f lan
guag
eha
ve a
cqui
red
som
e co
ngru
ity w
ithin
a la
ngua
ge te
rrito
ry. B
ut th
ein
tric
acie
s of
lang
uage
beh
avio
w in
the
Indi
an c
onte
xt r
evea
l app
aren
tam
bigu
ities
in d
efin
ing
the
conc
ept o
f mot
her
tong
ue it
self.
Mot
her
tong
ue id
entit
y an
d its
imag
e do
not
nec
essa
rily
clai
m c
ongr
uity
with
actu
al u
sage
, and
thes
e ar
e ag
ain
not r
igid
ly id
entif
ied
with
spe
cific
lang
uage
terr
itorie
s (K
hubc
hand
ani 1
976)
.H
ence
, sim
ilar
to th
e B
ritis
h am
biva
lenc
e in
acc
eptin
g th
e pr
inci
ple
of u
nive
rsal
edu
catio
n bu
t dire
ctin
g th
eir
reso
urce
s to
war
d se
lect
ive
educ
atio
n, th
e pr
esen
t pol
icie
s of
the
stat
e go
vern
men
ts a
lso
seem
to b
eam
biva
lent
as
far
as p
ayin
g lip
ser
vice
to th
e 'n
arro
w' d
efin
ition
of
mot
her
tong
ue b
ut d
irect
ing
thei
r at
tent
ion
and
ener
gies
, alo
ng w
ithth
cir
reso
urce
s, to
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f mot
her
tong
ues
qual
ifyin
g
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
18
Lan
guag
e Id
eolo
gy a
nd L
angu
age
Dev
elop
men
t29
9
acco
rdin
g to
the
'bro
ad' d
efin
ition
, i.e
., re
gion
al la
ngua
ges,
Hin
di. a
ndev
en to
the
piom
otio
n of
Eng
lish.
No'
s-E
s
For
a d
etai
led
acco
unt o
f the
pat
tern
s of
hie
rarc
hy in
lang
uage
loya
lties
in th
e B
road
Hin
dust
ani R
egio
n, s
ee G
umpe
rz a
nd N
airn
(19
60),
Khu
bcha
ndan
i (19
74a)
.
2 T
he C
olle
ctor
of B
e Ila
ry d
istr
ict (
pres
ently
in K
arna
taka
sta
te)
in 1
823
repo
rted
that
out o
f 533
sch
ools
in th
e di
stric
t, 23
5 sc
hool
s em
ploy
ed C
amat
aca
(Kan
nada
), 2
26T
eloo
goo
(Tel
ugu)
. 23
Mah
arat
ta (
Mar
athi
), 2
1 P
ersi
an, 4
Tam
il. o
ne E
nglis
h m
ediu
m:
besi
des.
23
scho
ols
wer
e ex
clus
ivel
y fo
r B
rahm
ins,
teac
hing
'som
e of
the
Hin
doo
scie
nces
, suc
h as
theo
logy
, ast
rono
my,
logi
c an
d la
w, s
till i
mpe
rfec
tly ta
ught
in th
eS
ansk
rit la
ngua
ge' (
Sha
rp 1
920:
65).
Bur
ton
(185
1: 1
34-5
7) g
ives
an
elab
orat
e ac
coun
t of t
he m
ultil
ingu
al p
atte
rn o
fed
ucat
ion
in S
indh
bef
ore
its c
onqu
est b
y th
e B
ritis
h in
184
3. A
ccor
ding
to h
im, a
Hin
du c
hild
sta
rted
lear
ning
with
the
Dev
anag
ari s
crip
t fro
m a
Bra
hmin
teac
her
for
stud
ying
rel
igio
us te
xts
in S
indh
i and
als
o ac
quire
d ru
dim
ents
of S
ansk
rit. H
e al
so le
arnt
Gur
muk
hi c
hara
cter
s to
rea
d th
e G
rant
ha s
acre
d te
xt o
f the
Sik
hs a
nd H
indu
s in
nort
hern
Indi
a. A
n A
rnil
boy
(bel
ongi
ng to
the
'cou
rtly
' Hin
du c
lass
) th
en m
oved
to a
nA
khun
d (a
Mus
lim o
r H
indu
ped
agog
ue u
nder
the
mak
tab
syst
em)
and
was
intr
oduc
edto
pop
ular
Per
sian
poe
try.
A fe
w s
tudi
ed A
rabi
c al
so. T
he A
mil
boy
is th
en ta
ken
toso
me
duffl
e (s
ecre
taria
t) b
y a
rela
tion
to b
e in
itiat
ed in
the
mys
terie
s of
Arz
i (pe
titio
nw
ritin
g in
Per
sian
), s
impl
e ca
lcul
atio
n, e
tc. (
p. 1
49).
Arg
uing
the
intr
insi
c su
perio
rity
of th
e E
nglis
h la
ngua
ge. M
acau
lay
clai
med
with
apu
ngen
t rhe
toric
: 'W
e ha
ve to
edu
cate
a p
eopl
e w
ho c
anno
t at p
rese
nt b
e ed
ucat
ed b
ym
eans
of t
heir
mot
her
tong
ue. W
e m
ust t
each
them
som
e fo
reig
n la
ngua
ge. T
he c
laim
sof
Our
ow
n la
ngua
ge it
is h
ardl
y ne
cess
ary
to r
ecap
itula
te. I
t sta
nds
pre-
emin
ent e
ven
amon
g th
e la
ngua
ges
of th
e W
est..
.. W
hat t
he G
reek
and
Lat
in w
ere
to th
e co
ntem
-po
rarie
s of
Mor
e an
d A
seha
m, o
ur to
ngue
is to
the
peop
le o
f Ind
ia' (
Sha
rp 1
920:
110
-11)
.
Prin
cep,
who
rep
rese
nted
the
Orie
ntal
ists
' vie
w in
adm
inis
trat
ion,
reg
iste
ring
his
prot
est t
o th
e R
esol
utio
n ca
lls it
'a r
ash
act'
and
'a d
ecla
ratio
n of
the
mis
chie
vous
and
inju
rious
tend
ency
'. P
rince
p fa
vour
ed th
e re
tent
ion
of th
e tr
aditi
onal
edu
catio
n sy
stem
.D
ocum
ent n
o.34
, quo
ted
in S
harp
(19
20: 1
39).
Roy
in h
is p
etiti
on (
1823
) to
the
Prim
e M
inis
ter
Will
iam
Pitt
, citi
ng th
c m
erits
of t
heB
acon
ian
philo
soph
y w
hich
dis
plac
ed th
e sy
stem
of c
lass
ical
scho
ols,
'the
best
calc
ulat
ed to
per
petu
ate
igno
ranc
e', p
oint
s ou
t tha
t: 'In
the
sam
e m
anne
r S
angs
crit
Isic
lsy
stem
of e
duca
tion
wou
ld b
e th
e be
st c
alcu
late
d to
kee
p th
is c
ount
ry in
dar
knes
s, if
such
had
bee
n th
e po
licy
of th
e B
ritis
h Le
gisl
atur
e.' D
ocum
ent n
o. 2
6. q
uote
d in
Sha
rp(1
920:
98-
101)
.
John
ston
e, th
e P
oliti
cal A
gent
of N
agal
and
(187
3-74
). o
ppos
ed th
e ad
optio
n of
the
'effe
min
ate
way
s an
d re
ligio
us c
hara
cter
istic
s of
the
Ass
ames
e (la
ngua
ge)',
and
des
ired
that
Nag
as s
houl
d be
inst
ruct
ed in
Eng
lish
lang
uage
and
the
Chr
istia
n re
ligio
n un
der
thc
cler
gy o
f the
Chu
rch
of E
ngla
nd. Q
uote
d in
Bar
puja
ri (1
973:
24-
30).
19
300
L.M
. Khu
bcha
ndan
i
Ple
adin
g fo
r a
self-
gove
rnin
g In
dia
alon
g W
este
rn li
nes,
Gok
hale
. the
lead
er o
f the
Mod
erat
es in
the
Con
gres
s M
ovem
ent,
argu
ed: '
the
qual
ity o
f edu
catio
n as
sum
essi
gnifi
canc
e on
ly a
fter
illite
racy
is li
quid
ated
'. Q
uote
d in
Sai
yida
in, N
aik,
and
Abi
dH
usai
n (1
952:
65)
.
One
find
s th
e la
ngua
ge q
uest
ion
in e
very
dec
enni
al c
ensu
s fr
om 1
881
to g
ive
rise
tova
rious
dou
bts
and
mis
inte
rpre
tatio
ns in
the
min
ds o
f peo
ple
of d
iffer
ent r
egio
ns, a
s w
ell
as to
baf
fle th
e al
ien
rule
rs. T
he C
ensu
s C
omm
issi
oner
Gai
t, in
his
Rep
ort (
1913
: 320
).re
mar
ks: '
Iln th
e U
nite
d P
rovi
nces
l sim
ply
beca
use
they
ref
used
to d
efin
e th
eir
term
sbe
fore
they
arg
ued,
or
rath
er b
ecau
se th
ey w
ould
not
take
the
trou
ble
to u
nder
stan
d th
ete
rms
as u
sed
by th
e ce
nsus
aut
horit
ies,
the
cont
rove
rsia
lists
, who
wer
e re
ally
quar
relli
ng a
bout
the
resp
ectiv
e m
erits
of c
erta
in s
tyle
s as
veh
icle
s of
inst
ruct
ion,
succ
eede
d in
utte
rly fa
lsify
ing
a se
t of i
mpo
rtan
t sta
tistic
s re
latin
g to
som
ethi
ng e
ntire
lydi
ffere
nt'.
The
Sin
dh g
over
nmen
t in
1852
set
up
a co
mm
ittee
for
reco
gniz
ing
a si
ngle
scr
ipt f
orS
indh
i in
the
mid
st o
f div
erse
usa
ge. T
houg
h th
e ph
ilolo
gist
s lik
e S
tack
and
Tru
mpp
agre
ed u
pon
a m
odifi
ed v
ersi
on o
f Dev
anag
ari t
o su
it th
e ne
eds
of th
e S
indh
i lan
guag
e,th
e ru
lers
, bec
ause
of p
oliti
cal c
onsi
dera
tions
, ulti
mat
ely
deci
ded
in fa
vour
of a
mod
ified
Per
so-A
rabi
c sc
ript.
But
stil
l tod
ay th
e S
indh
i mig
rant
s in
Indi
a co
ntin
ue to
be
divi
ded
over
the
form
al r
ecog
nitio
n of
one
or
anot
her
scrip
t. T
his
cont
rove
rsy,
goi
ng o
n fo
r ov
era
cent
ury
amon
g th
e S
indh
i dite
, pro
vide
s us
eful
insi
ghts
into
the
cons
eque
nces
of s
uch
mon
istic
ass
ertio
ns (
Khu
bcha
ndan
i I 9
69a)
.
" T
he O
ffici
alLa
ngua
ge C
omm
issi
on (
1956
:89)
reg
arde
d ed
ucat
ion
thro
ugh
a fo
reig
nm
ediu
m a
s 'a
wea
risom
e bu
rden
ing
of th
e M
emor
y, a
sac
rific
e of
the
facu
lty o
fin
depe
nden
t thi
nkin
g, a
nd a
blu
ntin
g of
inte
llect
'.
" T
he C
entr
alA
dvis
ory
Boa
rd o
f Edu
catio
n in
its
1948
Ann
ual M
eetin
g ha
d ac
cept
edth
e lit
erar
y la
ngua
ge o
f the
reg
ion
as th
e m
ediu
m o
f edu
catio
n an
d m
ade
it qu
ite c
lear
that
dia
lect
s w
ere
unac
cept
able
as
med
ia o
f ins
truc
tion
(Ind
ia 1
960:
39-
40).
"'In
wel
l-for
mal
ized
spe
ech
grou
ps, i
t is
basi
cally
the
resu
lt of
exp
licit
stan
dard
izat
ion
proc
ess
(thr
ough
pre
stig
e gr
oup
pres
sure
s an
d/or
edu
catio
n)th
at a
llegi
ance
to a
part
icul
ar m
othe
r to
ngue
labe
l, an
d to
a p
artic
ular
set
of "
ster
eoty
pes"
in s
peec
h is
take
nfo
r gr
ante
d by
its
mem
bers
: e.g
., "E
nglis
h" w
ith th
e ge
nera
l acc
epta
nce
of R
P (
Rec
eive
dP
ronu
ncia
tion)
mod
el b
y th
e B
ritis
h ...
. Lac
k of
sta
ndar
diza
tion
or o
f ove
rtne
ss o
f apa
rtic
ular
trai
l lea
ds to
the
fluid
ity in
iden
tifyi
ng a
bstr
act a
ttrib
utes
, the
sel
ectio
n of
whi
ch is
larg
ely
base
d on
var
ious
pre
stig
e fa
ctor
s, r
efer
ence
gro
up p
ress
ures
and
soci
o-po
litic
al c
limat
e' (
Khu
ticha
ndan
i 197
2).
Thi
s vi
ew s
eem
s to
hav
e do
min
ated
in th
e po
st-R
enai
ssan
ce p
erio
d in
Eur
ope
as w
ell.
whe
n la
ngua
ge w
as c
laim
ed a
s a
maj
or c
riter
ion
for
stab
ilizi
ng n
atio
nalis
tic s
tate
s, e
.g..
Fre
nch
view
of m
inor
ity la
ngua
gesP
rove
ncal
(an
othe
r R
oman
ce),
Bre
ton
(a C
eltic
)an
d B
asqu
e (a
non
-Ind
o-E
urop
ean)
--tr
eatin
g th
em a
s di
alec
ts o
f the
dom
inan
t Fre
nch
(a
Rom
ance
lang
uage
).
The
Uni
vers
ity E
duca
tion
CoM
mis
sion
(19
49)
and
the
Offi
cial
Lan
guag
e C
omm
issi
on(1
956)
felt
that
'the
lang
uage
s of
the
larg
e ad
vanc
ed g
roup
s w
ith a
cur
rent
lite
ratu
re,
prac
tice
and
trad
ition
' wer
e th
e on
ly fi
t med
ia o
f ins
truc
tion
(OLC
: 27)
.
" T
he fo
rmul
a re
com
men
ds th
e st
ates
to p
rovi
de th
e te
achi
ng o
f the
mot
her
tong
ue,
Hin
di, a
nd E
nglis
h fo
r th
e no
n-H
indi
pop
ulat
ion.
and
Hin
di o
r an
y ot
her
Indi
anla
ngua
ge. a
nd E
nglis
h fo
r th
e H
indi
-spe
akin
g po
pula
tion.
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
Lang
uage
Ideo
logy
and
Lan
guag
e D
evel
opm
ent
301
"D
iscu
ssin
g th
e la
ngua
ge p
robl
ems
of th
e B
lack
s an
d S
pani
sh-A
mer
ican
s. S
polk
sy(1
971:
1-5
) po
ints
out
the
case
s w
here
'lan
guag
e is
use
d as
an
excu
se, l
ike
race
or
skit:
.co
lor
or s
ex, f
or n
ot h
iring
som
eone
. No
amou
nt o
f lan
guag
e tr
aini
ng w
ill c
hang
e th
isfo
r th
e di
scrim
inat
ion
exis
ts in
the
hear
ers
and
not i
n th
e sp
eake
rs...
. A c
hild
goi
ng to
scho
ol m
ust b
e ta
ught
the
stan
dard
lang
uage
if h
e is
to h
ave
acce
ss to
the
gene
ral c
ultu
rean
d th
e ec
onom
y. A
t the
sam
e tim
e, h
e ha
s a
right
to b
e ta
ught
in h
is o
wn
lang
uage
whi
le h
e is
lear
ning
eno
ugh
Eng
lish
to h
andl
e th
e re
st o
f the
cur
ricul
um'.
The
Brit
ish
Indi
an A
ssoc
iatio
n of
the
Nor
th-W
este
rn P
rovi
nces
in a
'mem
oria
l'(1
867)
urg
ed th
e G
over
nmen
t of I
ndia
to c
reat
e a
'Ver
nacu
lar
Uni
vers
ity' i
n w
hich
'the
arts
, sci
ence
s, a
nd o
ther
bra
nche
s of
lite
ratu
re m
ay b
e ta
ught
thro
ugh
the
inst
rum
enta
lity
of th
e ve
rnac
ular
; and
exa
min
atio
n in
the
vern
acul
ar b
e an
nual
ly h
eld
in th
ose
very
subj
ects
in w
hich
the
stud
ent i
s no
w e
xam
ined
in E
nglis
h in
the
Cal
cutta
Uni
vers
ity*
(Doc
umen
t no.
6. N
aik
1963
: 21-
28).
The
rul
ers.
thou
gh c
once
ding
that
the
view
s of
the
mem
oria
lists
wer
e 'fu
ndam
enta
lly s
ound
', fe
lt th
e pr
opos
al w
as 't
oo r
adic
al' (
Doc
umen
tno
. 7, i
bid.
29-
32).
The
sta
te o
f affa
irs c
an h
e vi
sual
ized
from
a r
epor
t of t
he D
irect
orat
e of
Edu
catio
n in
Nag
alan
d (1
971)
sta
ting
that
text
book
s (e
ven
for
prim
ary
educ
atio
n) a
re b
eing
'orig
inal
ly w
ritte
n in
Eng
lish
and
then
tran
slat
ed in
loca
l lan
guag
es' a
s 'a
utho
rs in
the
loca
l lan
guag
es a
re n
ot a
vaila
ble'
(S
harm
a 19
71).
RE
FE
RE
NC
ES
.
Bur
puja
ri, S
.K. 1
973.
Nag
a E
duca
tion
in th
e N
inet
eent
h C
entu
ry. H
ighl
wul
er I:
I: P
p24
-30.
Bur
ton,
Ric
hard
F. 1
851.
Sin
dh a
nd th
e R
aces
that
Inha
bit t
he V
alle
y of
the
Indu
s w
ithN
otic
es o
f the
Top
olog
y an
d H
isto
ry o
f the
Pro
vinc
e. L
ondo
n: W
.H: A
llen.
Dak
in, J
ulia
n. 1
968.
Lan
guag
e an
d E
duca
tion
in In
dia.
pp.
1-6
1. In
J. D
akin
. B. T
iffen
and
H.G
. Wid
dow
son,
eds
., T
he L
angu
age
inE
duca
ticn:
The
Pro
blem
inC
wnm
onw
ealth
Afr
ica
and
the
Indo
-Pak
ista
n S
ub-i.
ontin
ent (
Lang
uage
and
Lang
uage
Lea
rnin
g se
ries
no. 2
0). L
ondo
n: O
xfor
d U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss.
Das
Gup
ta, J
yotir
indr
a. 1
970.
Lan
guag
e C
onfli
ct a
nd N
atio
nal D
evel
opm
ent:
Gro
upP
olic
ies
and
Nat
iona
l Lan
guag
e P
olity
inIn
dia.
Ber
kele
y:U
nive
rsity
ofC
alifo
rnia
Pre
ss.
Gai
t, E
.S. 1
913.
Cen
sus
of In
dia:
/9/ /
, Vol
. IIn
dia.
par
t IR
epor
t. C
alcu
tta: G
over
n-m
ent o
f Ind
ia.
Gan
dhi,
Moh
anda
s K
. 191
6. T
he P
rese
nt S
yste
m o
f Edu
catio
n. In
The
Pro
blem
nf
Edu
catio
n (C
olle
cted
Wor
ks: /
962)
. Ahm
edab
ad: N
avjiv
an P
ress
.G
od, B
.S. a
nd S
aini
, S.K
. 197
2. M
othe
r T
ongu
e an
d E
qual
ity o
f Opp
ortu
nity
inE
duca
tion.
New
Del
hi: N
atio
nal C
ounc
il fo
r E
duca
tion
Res
earc
h an
d T
rain
ing.
Gum
perz
, Joh
n J.
and
C.M
. Nai
rn..
1960
. For
mal
and
Info
rmal
Sta
ndar
ds in
the
Hin
diR
egio
nal L
angu
age
Are
a. In
C.A
. Fer
guso
n an
d .1
..I. G
umpe
rz, e
ds. L
ingu
istic
Div
ersa
y in
Sou
th A
sia,
(sp
ecia
l iss
ue o
f Int
erna
tiona
l Jou
rnal
of A
mer
ican
Ling
uist
s 26
: 3. p
art 3
: Pp.
92-
118)
. Als
o in
ii. G
umpe
rz. b
ingu
age
in S
oria
lG
roup
s, S
tanf
ord:
Sta
nfor
d U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss, 1
971.
PP
. 48-
76.
302
L.M
. Khu
bcha
ndan
iLa
ngua
ge Id
eolo
gy a
nd L
angu
age
Dev
elop
men
t30
3
Har
tog.
192
9. In
terim
Rep
ort o
f the
Indi
an S
tatu
tory
Com
mis
sion
. Lon
don,
His
Maj
esty
's. S
tatio
nary
Offi
ce.
Indi
a, G
over
nmen
t of.
1948
. Rep
ort o
f the
Com
mitt
ee o
n th
e M
ediu
m o
f Ins
truc
tion
atth
e U
nive
rsity
Sta
te. N
ew D
elhi
. Min
istr
y of
Edu
catio
n. P
amph
let 5
7.19
49. R
epor
t of t
he U
nive
rsity
of E
duca
tion
Com
mis
sion
. New
Del
hi:
Min
istr
y of
Edu
catio
n.19
53. S
econ
dary
Edu
catio
n C
omm
issi
on R
epor
t. N
ew D
ethi
: Min
istr
y of
Edu
catio
n. 1954
.. C
ensu
s of
Indi
a: 1
951.
New
Del
hi: T
he R
egis
trar
Gen
eral
of I
ndia
.
.19
56. R
epor
t of O
ffici
al L
angu
age
Com
Mis
sion
. Ncw
Del
hi.
.19
60. R
epor
t of t
he U
nive
rsity
Gra
nts
Com
mis
sion
. New
Del
hi.
. 196
6. R
epor
tof
the
Edu
catio
n C
omm
issi
on. N
ew-
Del
hi: M
inis
try
of
Edu
catio
n.K
elka
r, A
shok
, R. 1
968.
Stu
die.
c in
Hin
di-U
rdu.
Par
t1
Poo
na: D
ecca
n C
olle
ge
Pos
tgra
duat
e an
d R
esea
rch
Inst
itute
.K
hubc
hand
ani,
Lach
man
M. 1
968.
Pla
nned
Cha
nge
in th
e M
edia
of In
stru
ctio
n:P
robl
ems
of S
witc
h O
ver.
Pro
ceed
ings
of i
he S
emin
ar o
n H
isto
rical
Sur
vey
of
Lang
uage
Con
trov
ersy
. Sha
ntin
iket
an. A
lso
in L
a M
anda
Lin
gvo
Pro
blem
) (1
972)
4. P
p. 1
42-5
2..
I 969
a. S
indh
i. In
T.A
. Seb
eok,
ed.
. Lin
guis
tics
in S
outh
Asi
a (C
urre
nt
Tre
nds
in L
ingu
istic
s .5
). T
he H
ague
: Mou
ton.
Pp.
201
-34.
.19
69b.
Lan
guag
e P
lann
ing
in M
ultil
ingu
al C
omm
unic
atio
n N
etw
ork.
AS
tudy
of t
he In
dian
Situ
atio
n, A
ctes
du
X c
ongr
cs In
tern
atio
nal d
esLi
ngui
stes
Vol
. IB
ucha
rest
. 591
-97.
.I9
69c.
Equ
ippi
ng M
ajor
Indi
an L
angu
ages
for
Ncw
Rol
es. I
n P
odda
r
(196
9). o
p. c
it.. P
p. 8
9-90
.19
71. L
angu
age
Edu
catio
n P
olic
y of
Brit
ish
Rul
ers
in In
dia.
Sou
th A
sia
Sem
inar
, Uni
vers
ity o
f Pen
nsyl
vani
a (P
hila
delp
hia)
. Mim
eo.
.19
72. M
othe
r T
ongu
e in
Mul
tilin
gual
Soc
ietie
s. In
A. C
hand
anS
ekha
r,
ed..
Eco
nom
ic a
nd S
ocia
-cul
tura
l Dim
ensi
ons
of R
egio
nalis
atio
n(C
ensu
s
Cen
tena
ry M
onog
raph
7).
New
Del
hi. T
he R
egis
trar
Gen
eral
of In
dia.
.I 9
73a.
An
Ove
rvie
w o
n S
ocio
lingu
istic
s. W
orks
hop
onS
ocia
l Str
ati-
ficat
ion
and
Lang
uage
Beh
a...v
iour
Soc
iolin
guis
tic N
ewsl
ette
r, IV
.11.
3-8;
also
in
L.M
. Khu
bcha
ndan
i (ed
.). F
orth
com
ing.
.19
73b.
Eng
lish
inIn
dia:
A S
ocio
lingu
istic
App
rais
al. I
nter
miti
onal
Jour
nal o
f Dra
vidi
an L
ingu
istic
s (T
rivan
drum
). 1
1:2.
Pp.
199
-211
.
. 197
3c. L
angu
age
Pol
icy:
A R
evie
w o
f J. D
as G
upta
(19
70).
Lan
guag
e in
Soc
iety
. 2:2
. Pp.
289
-93.
.I 9
73d.
Lan
guag
e P
lann
ing
Pro
cess
es fo
r P
lura
listic
Soc
ietie
s:T
radi
tion-
insp
ired
or S
ituat
ion-
boun
d? In
tern
atio
nal L
angu
age
Pla
nnin
gC
onfe
renc
e. S
kok.
!osi
er (
Sw
eden
)..
I 974
a. F
luid
ity in
Mot
her
Ton
gue
Iden
tity.
In A
. Ver
dood
t.S
ocio
lingu
istic
s. V
ol. 2
. Hei
delb
erg.
J.G
. Ver
lag.
. 197
4b.
Lang
uage
Pol
icy
for
a P
lura
l Soc
iety
. In
S. S
aber
wal
. ed.
. Thw
ards
cc C
ultu
ral P
olity
kr
Indi
ct. S
imla
:In
dian
Inst
itute
of A
dvan
ced
stud
y, P
p. 9
7-11
I.
2
Khu
bcha
ndan
i, La
chm
an M
. I 9
74c.
Mul
tilin
gual
edu
catio
n in
Indi
a. In
Cur
rent
Tre
nds
in B
iling
ual E
duca
tion,
ed.
by
Spo
lsky
B. a
nd C
oope
r. F
orth
com
ing.
.I 9
75a.
Lan
guag
e P
lann
ing
in D
evel
opin
g N
atio
ns. C
ultu
re L
earn
ing
Inst
itute
New
slet
ter.
(H
onol
ulu:
Eas
t-W
est C
entr
e) 3
:2: P
p. 4
-8.
.97
5b. L
angu
age
Pla
nnin
g (r
evie
w o
f J.
Ruh
in a
nd R
. Shu
y, e
ds.1
Lang
uage
Pla
nnin
g. C
urre
nt Is
sues
and
Res
earc
h (W
ashi
ngto
n: G
eorg
etow
nU
nive
rsity
Pre
ss).
Inte
rnat
iona
l Jou
rnal
of S
ocio
logy
ol L
angu
age,
173
: 159
-64.
.19
76. L
angu
age
Fac
tor
in C
ensu
s: A
Soc
iolin
guis
tic A
ppra
isal
. VIll
thW
orld
Soc
iolo
gy C
ongr
ess
(Tor
onto
). A
lso
in A
. Ver
dood
t and
R. K
jols
eth.
eds
.La
ngua
ge in
Soc
iolo
gy. F
orth
com
ing.
. ed.
196
8.Li
ngui
stic
s an
d La
ngua
ge P
lann
ing
in In
dia.
spe
cial
issu
e of
the
Dec
can
Col
lege
Pos
tgra
duat
e an
d R
esea
rch
Inst
itute
Bul
letin
, Poo
na: a
lso
in th
es1
e9rie
9s.:
Dec
can
Col
lege
Cen
tena
ry P
ublic
atio
ns (
gen.
ed.
. N.G
. Kal
ekar
). P
oona
.
.ed
. 197
4. L
angu
age
and
Plu
ral S
ocie
ty (
Tra
nsac
tions
of W
orks
hop
anS
ocia
lS
trat
ifica
tion
and
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2 3
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