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Sjcgren, CliffDiversity, Accessibility, and Quality. A BriefIntroduction to American Education for Non-Americans.Revised Edition.College Entrance Examination Board, New York, N.Y.ISBN-0-87447-250-414 Mar 8654p.; For the original version of this publication,see ED 147 333.College Board Publications. Box 866, New York, NY10101 ($6.00).Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055; -- Reports -Descriptive (141)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIPTORS Access to Education; Accreditation (Institutions);

*College Admission; *Degrees (Academic); EducationalQuality; Elementary Secondary Education; EquivalencyTests; *Governance; Grades (Scholastic); *HigherEducation; International Educational Exchange;*School Organization; Standardivle Tests; StudentEvaluation

IDENTIFIERS *United States

ABSTRACTAspects of American education that have particular

importance to student exchange programs are discussed in order toassist non-Americans. In addition to philosophical assumptionsunderlying American education, attention is directed to organizationand control, different kinds of institutions and programs, methods ofmeasuring student performance, and quality control mechanisms.Specific topics include: college administration and external andinternal controls of higher education institutions, admissions,accreditation, external standardized examinations, credit byexamination, classroom examinations, grading, student retention, andcosts and financial aid. The following types of schools are covered:elementary and high schools, two-year colleges, four-year liberalarts colleges, other four-year colleges, universities, and otherinstitutions. Programs at the following levels are considered: highschool diploma, associate degree, bachelor's degree, master's degree,doctor of philosophy degree, professional degrees, special degreesrelated to the medical field, non - degree- seeking students, and adultand continuing education. Included are a secondary school recordtranscript, a glossary, and a diagram illustrating the structure ofUnited States education. (SW)

************************************************************************ Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made ** from the original document. ************************************************************************

DIVERSITY,ACCESSIBILITY,

ANDQUALITY

A Brief Introductionto American Education

for Non Americans

CLIFF SJOGRENDirc*coor of Admissions

The University of Michigan

College Entrance Examination BoardNew Ark 1986

3

The College Board is a nonprofit, membership organiza-tion that provides tests and other educational services forstudents, schools, and colleges. The membership is com-posed of more than 2,500 schools, school systems, colleges,and education associations. Representatives of the mem-bers serve on the Board of Trustees and advisory councilsthat consider the programs of the College Board and par-ticipate in the determination of its policies and activities

Copyright © 1986 by College Entrance Examination Board.The College Board and acorn logo arc registered trade-marks of the College Entrance Examination Board. Allrights reserved

Copies of this book may be ordered from: College BoardPublications, Box 866, New York, New York 10101 Theprice is $6.

Editorial inquiries ccr Truing this book should be direct-ed to Editorial Office, The College Board, 45 Columber-Avenue, New York, New York 10023-6917.

ISBN No 0-87447-250-4

Printed in the United States of America.

4

CONTENTS

Preface vThe Structure of Education in the United States vii

1.Introduction 1

2.The Organization and Control of Education 4

2.1 Primary and Secondary Education2.2 Higher Education

2 2.1 External Controls of Institutions of HigherEducation

2.2.2 Internal Control and Administration ofInstitutions of Higher Education

3.Types of Institutions 7

44

4

5

3.1 Elementary and High Schools 73.2 Two-Year Colleges 83.3 Four-Year Liberal Arts Colleges 83.4 Other Four-Year Colleges 83.5 Uri:versifies 93.6 Other Institutions 9

III

4.Program Descriptions 10

4.1 High School Diploma 104.2 Associate Degree 124.3 Bachelor's Degree 134.4 Master's Degree 154.5 Doctor of Philosophy Degree 164.6 Professional Degrees 174.7 Special Degrees Related to the Medical Field 194.8 Non-Degree-Seeking Students 194.9 Adult and Continuing Education 19

5.Admissions Influences and Processes 21

5.1 Admissions Overview 215.2 Accreditation 245.3 Testing 26

5.3.1 External Standardized Examinations 265.3.2 Credit by Examination 285.3.3 Classroom Examinations 30

5.4 Assessing and Recording StudentPerformance 305.4.1 Grading 305.4.2 A Case Study and Secondary School

Record Transcript 33

5.5 Other Admissions Considerations 355.6 Student Retention 36

6.Costs and Financial Aid 39

Glossary 42

7.'onclusion 41

Iv6

PREFACE

As explained in the Introduction by Cliff Sjogren, this book is anupdated and revised version of the original work of the same titlepublished in 1977 by the College Board. That version was devel-oped to assist in bilateral discussions on the educational systemsin the United States and the Federal Republic of Germany, and thepurpose of these discussions was to determine, where possible, thecomparability of degrees, courses, and diplomas between the twocountries. The project was developed in the 1970s by the CollegeBoard in cooperation with the Bureau of Educational and CulturalAffairs (CI11 of the United States Department of State, which alsofunded the project. The activities at that time were coodinated bySanford C. Jamescn, Office of International Education of the Col-lege Board, and Richard Strauss, Director of the Office of WesternEuropean Programs of CU. The Bureau is now part of the UnitedStates Information Agency (USIA).

It was decided in 1985 to publish a more up-to-date version,under the auspices of the College Board Advisory Committee onInternational Education (CIE), because it is believed that thisbrief description of selected characteristics of American educationwill continue to be useful in similar discussions with other coun-tries 2nd will provide useful insights into he system for educators,government officials, and others abroad who are concerned withthis subject.

We are once more greatly indebted to Cliff Sjogren, Director ofAdmissions of The University of Michigan, who undertook the workof updating his original 1977 version of the book. Seamus P Malin,Assistant Dean of Admissions and Financial Aid at Harvard-Radcliffe Colleges, who has served as chairman of ACIE, also de-serves our special thanks, as well as Pat Wyatt, edito. at the CollegeBoard, for the valuable advice and significant editorial assistancethey provided.

The College Board is pleased to offer this book once more andtrusts that it will continue to be of assistance to non-Americansinterested not only in the essence of the educational system in theUnited States but alsu in programs of student exchange.

Sanford C. J .nesonOff ice of International EducationThe College Board

The Structure of Education in the United States

Ph.D or 24advancedprofessionaldegree 23

Master s 22degree

Bachelor'sdegree

Associatedegree orcertificate

Postdoctoral study and research

Doctor's degree study

Master's degree study

20

19Junior Technical

18 Colleges Institutes

High school 17diploma

15

14

13

12

11

4

ProfessionalSchools

Undergraduate

4-yearHigh Schools

rSenior

High Schools

CombinedJunior-SeniorHigh Schools

8

From U.S. Officio of Education, Olgest of Educational Statistics, 1972 (OE 73-19104)Washington, D.C.. Department of Health, Education, and Wolters, p. 33.

8

1.INTRODUCTION

The intention of this book is to describe briefly for non-Americans some selected characteristics of the Amerizan educa-tion plan. We should like to point out that for the purposes of thisbook, the terms America or American used here refer only to theUnited States of America. This is a revised and updated report ofthe original work Diversity, Accessibility, and Quality: A Brief Intro-duction to American Education for Non-Americans, written in 1977and published by the College Board. The earlier publication waswritten as a background paper for the German-American Educa-tional Equivalency Project, a cooperative effort between educators ofthe Federal Republic of Germany and the United States, to helpclarify for each other certain aspects of their respective education-al plans.

This book examines those aspects of American education thathave particular importance in programs of student exchange butare frequently misunderstood by non-Americans. Included are briefdescriptions of the philosophical assumptions underlying Ameri-can education, its organization and control, descriptions of differ-ent kinds of institutions and the programs they offer, methods ofmeasuring student achievements, and quality-control mechanisms.

The extraordinary diversity and vitality of American educationmust be appreciated before attempting to understand it. Issues arecontinually debated, and educational change occurs frequently.Readers should recognize, therefore, that this introduction mustbe considered only as a point of departure for further discussionand reading. (Editor's note: Because of the decentralized nature oft.merican education at all levels, it is referred to here as a plan,rather than the more commonly used term, system).

Education in the United States can be characterized as diverse,comprehtnsive, reasonably democratic, and complex. Its diversityis in large measure owing to the difference in the geography of thecountry and the vastness of its size, and to the ethnic heritagebrought to its shores by wave upon wave of immigrants. The edu-cational interests of students on the Pacific coast may be signifi-cantly different from those of students 3,000 miles away on the

9

2 INTRODUCTION

Atlantic coast. And the interests of students in the heartland ofthe nation may be different from those of students on both coasts.Thus, the legislative patterns of state and local jurisdiction of edu-cation, and an administrative tradition of flexible educational struc-tures, combine to allow institutions to be responsive to local needsas well as to cultural and ethnic values and aspirations.

There is ease of access to most educational institutions in theUnited States, and adjustments are made in order to accommodatzthose who may have lacked educational direction or motivation inthe earlier years of their lives. American education assumes that itsparticipants will utilize supportive assistance, such as counselingand guidance services, yet at the same time exercise their ownself-direction in such areas as career- and academic-program choic-es. The plan provides for lateral movement, discourages "drop-outs," approves of "stopouts," or temporary "leave-takers," and isfirmly committed to continuing and lifelong education. Degree cred-its may be obtained through on-campus study, foreign study, exter-nal examinations, and various programs of independent study,imluding courses offered "on the job:' Many people take advan-tage of the educational opportunities offered them. The UnitedStates Office of Education reports that nearly one in three Ameri-cans are either students, teachers, or educational administrators.More than 60 million students are enrolled in the nation's element-ary, secondary, and postsecondary institutions.

According to the American Council on Education, an umbrellaorganization for a number of higher-education professional assoc-iations, there ..s.re more than 4,000 postsecondary institutions inthe United States that are either accredited by some recognizedaccrediting agency or are candidates for accredition (see section onAccredition, page 24). These institutions include traditional col-leges and univcrsitiel, most of which are accredited by regionalassociations, trade and technical schools, bible and business col-leges, and other specialized institutions.

Approximately 1,000 recognized institutions, most of whichare called community colleges, offer two-year degrees, many ofwhich can be applied to a four-year bachelor's degree program at auniversity. About 750 additional institutions offer programs up tofour-year or five-year bachelor's degrees. More than 500 institu-tions support master's degree programs, and over 300 offer doctor-ate programs.

While slightly more than one-half of all institutions in the Unit-ed States are privately controlled, or independent, the overwhelm-ing majority of students attend public institutions.

10

INTRODUCTION 3

Access to higher education for all Americans, regardiess of theirparticular circumstance in life, centimes to improve, as a combina-tion of federal government policies and an attentive national con-science creates an environment that encourages expanded educa-tional opportunities.

The structure of American education seems well suited to avast and pluralistic nation. Out of its experience, purposes andgoals have emerged that have been viewed by the eminent educa-tional historian R. Freeman Butts in terms of a new quadrivium:academic discipline, social efficiency, individual development, andvocational competence, and a new trivium of freedom, equality,and justice.' Tensions sometimes exist because of the relative prior-ity given to each of these goals, but, for the most part, the tensionhas been creative and constructive. The structure of education inthe United States has managed to provide relevant learning experi-ences for the vast majority of Americans, and at the same time hascreated an environment that allows considerable numbers of intel-lectually gifted students to emerge and gain international promi-nence among the world's scientific, economic, social, and politicalleaders.

'R. Freeman Butts, The Search for Purpose in Amencan Education" The CollegeBoard Review, No. 98, Winter 1975-76, p. 3.

11

2.THE

ORGANIZATICMAND CONTROLOF EDUCATION

2.1 PRIMARY AND SECONDARYEDUCATION

The responsibility for providing public education at the prima-ry, secondary, and postsecondary levels in the United States lieswith the individual states. Historically, however, this responsibili-ty has been delegated to local school-district jurisdictions for schoolsat the primary and secondary levels. These local districts supporttheir schools and pay their teachers through local taxation whichis supplemented by considerable state aid along with limited assis-tance, usually for specific purposes from the federal government.

School districts are of various sizes. Some are very small andinclude only one or just a few townships. Others are made up ofentire counties, and some are even larger. Some large cities havedecentralized their systems by dividing them into two or mor,..! semi-autonomous school districts. The number of districts varies stateby state, from a single district in Hawaii to more than 1,200 inNebraska. Coordination among school districts is maintainedthrough accreditation mandates (see page 24), conditions of stateand federal funding, and the common need to prepare students forhigher educatio: and employment.

2.2 HIGHER EDUCATION

2.2.1 External Controls of Institutions of Higher Education

Institutions of higher education, both public and private, re-ceive their authority to function and to grant degrees from the

4 12

THE ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL OF EDUCATION 5

state in which they are loci This authority is given either in +hestate constitution or, more often, by an act of the state legislature.The federal government exercises no direct control over the estab-lishinent of institutions or over the standards they maintain, ex-cept in the case of those located in regions ury:er immediate federalii -is J' tion or those concerned with the preparation of career offi-c,..Ts for the armed forces. In specific areas, such as enforcementprograms for the education of minorities and handic-.pped stu-dents, the federal government's influence can be strong.

Nearly all institutions receive some financial support from boththe state and the federal government, although public institutionsgenerally receive a substantially higher percentage of their operat-ing expenses from public funds. Other sources of income for bothpublic and private institutions are tuition and fees, endowments,and contributions from philanthropic foundations and private in-dividuals. There is, however, no official or implied distinction in thequality of education provided by public and private institutions.

2.2.2 Internal Control and Administration of Institutionsof Higher Education

The principal internal policy and financial decisions affectirgcolleges and universities in the United States are made by theirboards of trustees (sometimes called beards of regents or, less fre-quently, boards of directors). The procedure for selecting these boardmembers is, in most instances, stated in tne institution's founding'charter, and depending on the institution, the members will serveeither specific, limited terms, or they may be appointed for life.Public institutions may have trustees who are elected or who havebeen appointed by the governor of the state; private institutions,either with or without religious affiliation, usually have boardmembers who directly represent the institution's founding body. Inrecent year many boards of trustees, botl: private and public, haveattempted to build into their membership a wide representation ofthe diverse elements that make up the institution's academic andsocial environment.

The hoard of trustees usually delegates the day-to-day adminis-tration of the institution to a president or chancellor of the institu-tion. The president, in turn, is usually assisted by one or more vicepresidents. College and university presidents have had a signifi-cant impact on the development of higher education in the UnitedStates. Some of the larger universities delegate all strictly educa-tional activities to a provost or an academic vice president; insmaller institutions the officer in charge of academic affairs isustroly called the dean. Other administrative officers include the

13

6 THE ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL OF EDUCATION

registrar, who is in charge of keeping official student records; thedirector of admissions, who administers student recruitment pro-grams and the admission of students; the business officer, who isconcerned with the overall financial condition of the institution;the vice president for student affairs, who coordinates nonclass-room activities on campus; the director of development, who isresponsible for fund raising and public relations; and a director offinancial aid, who administers institutional and government stu-dent grants and loans, some on-campus employment, and in somecases, merit scholarships.

Generally, faculty member_ nave a significant influence, bothdirectly and indirectly, on the governance of the institution. Theyusually participate in this process through the faculty senate, de-partmental organization, committee work, and in some instances,collective bargaining units. Students may also have some influenceon institutional policy by serving as voting representatives on vari-ous adminstrative and academic boards.

14

3.TYPES

OFINSTITUTIONS

America's educational diversity is illustrated vividly by its widevariety of institutions. Moreover, classifications are difficult to makebecause of decentralized administration and control. For example,some elementary schools include grades one through eight, where-as others may go only through grade six or seven. There arc numer-ous institutions that are called universities but do not offer degreesbeyond the master's, and a few that olfcr no degrees beyond thebachelor's. There are also some colleges that offer recognized doc-torates. Finally, there are a few prestigious degree-granting institu-tions that are called institutes, of which the California Institute

Technology and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology areexamples. Care must be taken, therefore, to avoid generalizationsabout institutions based on their official titles.

3.1 ELEMENTARY AND HIGHSCHOOLS

Completion of elementary school and high school (or second-ary school) almost always requires at least 12 years of education.After an optional year in kindergarten, students will enter grade 1,or first grade, at the age of six. Compulsory attendance regulationsvary slightly among states, but students are usually required toremain in school until the age of 16. Studen.3 completing the fullhigh school diploma program usually graduate at the age of 17 or 18.

Several plans for dividing elementary school, junior high school,and high school are used. Probably the most common is the 6-3-3plan (six years of elementary school, three years of junior highschoc 1, and three years of high school). Others include the 8-4,7-2-3, 6-2-4, and 6-6 plans.

7 15

8 TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS

3.2 TWO-YEAR COLLEGES

The community college is the most common two-year institu-tion of higher education. Public community colleges usually offeracademic programs suitable for transfer to four-year institutions,as well as terminal technical and vocational courses. Students maycomplete the first two years of preprofessional st Idies, for examplein preparation for medicine, law, or business, in two-year institu-tions. These public institutions usually serve local populations with-in specific areas, such as one or more school districts or one ormore counties. Fees are minimal and residence halls are rare be-cause the institutions primarily serve commuting populations.

There are a few private two-year colleges. Graduates of theseare generally prepared to transfer to four-year colleges and univer-sities for completion of their academic programs.

3.3 FOUR-YEAR LIBERAL ARTSCOLLEGES

The primary role of the liberal arts college is to offer programsof genera: undergraduate education. These programs include stud-ies in the humanities, language arts, social sciences, and physicaland natural sciences, as well as up to four years of preprofessionalstudies. The liberal arts college offers courses leading to four-yearor occasionally five-year bachelor's degree s only and are almostalways nonpublic or independent. Many students enroll in liberalarts colleges to complete their preparatory courses for graduate andprofessional schools. Major universities maintain undergraduateliberal arts programs that are similar to the programs offered bythe four-year colleges.

3.4 OTHER FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

There are numerous state and private four-year colleges thatoffer only special programs or provide special training along withliberal arts. Many of these institutions were former teacher-trainingcolleges that expanded their course offerings. Credit from theseinstitutions in appropriate programs is usually recognized by

16

TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS 9

universities for transfer credit and for admission into graduate andprofessional studies.

3.5 UNIVERSITIES

Universities are generally defined as institutions that offer bothundergraduate education (postsecondary education leading to thebachelor's degree) and graduate and professional education (post-bachelor's-degree education). Such institutions usually offer thebachelor's, master's, and doctor's degrees. They may also offer pro-fessional programs such as medicine, law, and engineering. Stu-dents may complete all or part of their preprofessional training atthe undergraduate level in the university, or in other institutions.

3.6 OTHER INSTITUTIONS

There are also many t:oes of institutions that, although impor-tant as educational facilities, do not normally enroll students seek-ing academic training. These institutions provide, but are notlimited to, secretarial training, t'ade and vocational programs,some a; ilt education and extension services, and certain health-related programs. Some offer very specific training, such as com-puter programming. Many of these institutions are profit-making,or proprietary. A few of these institutions are formally accreditedby appropriate accrediting agencies, although the work completedand degrees or credit; granted are not normally acceptable cortransfer to an established degree-granting college or university forfurther study.

17

4.PROS. _AM

DESCRIPTIONS

4.1 HIGH SCHOOL DIPLOMA

The comprehensiveness of education in the United States isreflected in its high schools. Traditionally, students have been ex-pected to complete a minimum of 16 academic, or Carnegie, unitsduring the final four years. Increasingly, state and local schooljurisdictions are raising minimum requirements to as many as 18or more units before a diploma can be awarded. A unit represents aone-hour period per day per five-day week for 36 weeks (or approxi-mately 180 periods). Typically, students enroll in five or six courseseach semester, accumulating 20 or more units in grades 9 through12. Within the unit requirements, a student will be required tocomplete a set of prescribed courses. For example, a school mayrequire three units of English, two units of social studies, includinga course in United States history, two units of mathematics, andtwo units of science. Further, a student will select one or two ma-jors and one or two mincrs. A major is generally three or moreunits in a subject area, such as English, social science, a foreignlanguage, mathematics, etc., while a minor is usually two units inone or more of the other areas. Major and minor requirements canbe satisfied by th- required courses. Students may also completetheir major and minor requirements in vocational or technicalcourses, such as commercial studies, industrial arts, and homeeconomics, although only a small number of those courses arenormally elected by students who plan to enroll in selective col-leges and universities.

In large high .:chools it is not unusual to find between 20 and 30offerings of English, with prerequisites for many of them based onthe demonstrated abilities of the students. Standard titles of suchcourses include English Composition, American Literature, andCreative Writing, but often English credit will be earned in courseswith titles such as Mass Media, Argumentation, Contemporary Au-

10

18

PROGRAM DESCRIPTIONS 11

thors, Journalism, Modern Readings, Black Literature, Humani-ties, and Radio Speech. Likewise, social-studies credit may be givenfor courses called Social Problems, Humanities, Communism, His-tory of Minorities in the United States, Asian Studies, and Contem-porary Issues. Generally, courses in natural and physical sciences,mathematics, and foreign langua?..s are designated with standardtitles.

Evaluators of American high school diplomas should be awareof the varying standards both within and among high schools. Thediploma itself is not necessarily a demonstration of satisfactoryability or of suitability for study at the higher-education level. It isnearly always awarded to students who remain in the system for 12years, and students are rarely asked to leave school. Importance,therefore, must be attached to a number of other factors: (1) quali-ty of courses selected and satisfactorily completed; (2) quality ofthe high school; (3) grade-po;nt average; (I) class rank; and (5)standardized-examination scores. (These items are discussed indetail in the following sections, as well as in the next fewparagraphs.)

Clues about the quality of courses selected can often be obtain-ed from the school or from the student. Many schools publish in-formative profiles that describe their course offerings, grading plan,and other academic characteristics. Courses that are designated bythe school as college preparatory, honors, enriched, accelerated,advanced, or, Advanced Placement (courses offered by the CollegeBoard through the Advanced Placement (AP) Program and describedunder the section on Testing on pages 28 and 29), are usually thoseelected by the best students. Although college-preparatory classesmight include 50 percent or more of all classes offered by the school,the other designations noted above are normally reserved for themost demanding 10 to 15 percent of the course offerings. Further-more, serious motivated students usually elect such courses asadvanced mathematics, chemistry, physics, and a foreign language,whereas less academically motivated students will usually avoidall or most of these courses.

On occasion, students will enroll in programs of independentstudy or other alternative programs. Because of the variety of plansand the varying level of quality found in these programs, no at-tempt will be made to describe them here. It is sufficient to statethat they should be looked at carefully, and students seeking ad-vanced training should be neither accepted nor rejected without acareful evaluation of their previous educational experiences.

Some high school students will enroll simultaneously in a localfour-year or community college during their senior year. General-

19

12 INTRODUCTION

ly, college credit earned under such an arrangement is accepted bythe college or university in which the student subsequently enrollsas a degree candidate.

Significant differences in quality exist among high schools.Some of these differences are obvious, others are subtle. It must beremembered, however, that high schools should not be judged onlyon the basis of their college-preparaory program. Many communi-ties reflecting local needs quite properly choose to enrich the voca-tional and technical offerings in their schools, sometimes at theexpense of their college-preparatory programs.

The General Education Development Test (GED) administeredby the American Council on Education, One Dupont Circle, Wash-ington, D.C. 20036, is a widely accepted school-equi ialency certifi-cate. The GED yields both raw and percentile scores in five generalareas of knowledge and is frequently presented by applicants foradmission and employment who left high school before .-omplet-ing diploma requirements. It is considered by most private andgovernment employers as the equivalent of a high school diploma,but is seldom considered as a qualitative measurement by collegeadmissions personnel.

Finally, the high school diploma does not in itself guaranteeadmission to all or even most colleges and universities although itis frequently one of several criteria for admission.

4.2 ASSOCIATE DEGREE

The Associate of Arts (A.A.) or the Associate of Science (A.S.)degree is usually earned at a community college after two years ofstudy. In many instances it represents the same level of educationalachievement as the first two years in a four-year college or univer-sity. Some A.A. and A.S. degrees may be considered valid education-al credentials that can be applied toward meeting bachelor's degreerequirements; other A.A. and A.S. degrees may be terminal and notappropriately applied to further study. Students frequently enrollin a local community college with plans to enroll in a preselectedfour-year institution after they have completed the two-year courseof study. They also have an assurance that all credit will be trans-ferable. some examples of terminal courses are aviation technol-ogy, fcod distribution, secretarial science, automobile mechanics,and lanc;scape technology. Courses taken for these programs aresometimes accepted at four-year institutions.

20


Community colleges vary in ,ize, curricular emphasis, and pur-pose. There is little question, however, concerning their impact oneducation in the United States. Approximately one-half of all stu-dents entering higher education for the first time enroll in publiccommunity colleges. Included in the approximately 1,000 two-yearcolleges in the United States are several with enrollments of over10,000 students.

As with nearly, all diplomas and degrees in the American educa-tional structure, the Associate of Arts degree represents a widerange of completed course work and achievement standards. Withproper course distribution and an adequate quality of achieve-ment, the Associate of Arts degree is considered the equivalent ofthe first two years at a four-year college or university. Above-averagegrades in community colleges sometimes result rom minimalcompetition due to oven-door admissions polio practiced bymost community colleges.

4.3 BACHELOR'S DEGREE

The bachelor's degree normally requires four years of academ-ic study beyond the high school diploma. Accelerated learning pans,credit by examination, year-round study plans, and other innova-tions enable a few students to complete the program in less thantour years.

Generally there are four fundamental educational requirementsfor the bachelor's degree, each occupying approximately one-fourthof the student's course selections. They are (i) a major (or concen-trated area of study); (2) general education, or distribution courses(which usually include English, sciences, mathematics, social sci-ences, humanities, and may include a foreign language); (3) sup-porting, or cognate, courses that relate to the major area of study(such as mathematics for an economics major); and, (4) electives(courses selec Led by the student, often in subjects not related to themajor, to fulfill the total credit-hour requirement). Students as-sume a major responsibility for their course selections, althoughconcentrations must be approved by the appropriate department,and the students' choices must include the general-education re-quirements that are usually set by the college or university

The two most common bachelor's degrees are the Bachelor ofArts (B.A.), and the Bachelor of Science (B.S.). The former mayrequire foreign-language proficiency and more general educationrequirements in all of the major disciplinary areas, whereas the

21

14 PROGRAM DESCRIPTIONS

latter usually places a greater emphasis on the sciences. Othercommon bachelor's degrees include the B.Ed. (Education), the B.F.A.(Fine Arts), the B.Mus. (Music), and the B.B A. (Busines. Adrrz:nis-tration). The B.Arch. (Architecture) is often a five-year program,and the B.D. (Divinity) and the LL.B. (Law) are profe' ;sioiml bache-lor's degrees for which 4 B.A. or a B.S. is required by most institu-tions before admission to the program.

Students normally choose their majors, or concentrations, be-fore their third year. They may be selected in th- litional disci-plines such as chemistry, economics, ma thet , English, andhistory. They also may be selected from such a .!.as as journalism,engineering, computer science, classical studies, and modern dance.Some students will choose interdisciplinary concentrations inwhich they draw courses from two or more departments to formtheir programs. Examples include East Asia studies, internationalrelations, sports management, and environmental studies. In theexample of environmental studies, a student may enroll concur-rently in courses in liberal arts, engineering, natural resources,and architecture. A degree in environmental studies could lead to acareer in environmental planning and urban development. Occa-sionally students will complete a double major by electing twoareas of concentration.

In a bachelor's degree program, a studeli. usually enrolls infour or five courses, of 13 to 17 credit hours, each term. Most institu-tions follow the semester system, which consists of two 14- to 18- 'eekterms each academic year. IT stitutions on semester plans usuallyoffer a fraction of a semester (one-half or two-thirds) during thesummer months. The trimester system consists of three equal termsduring the calendar year, which includes the summer term, andeach term is equal in educational value to a term in the semestersystem. The quarter system consists of four terms during the calen-dar year of about 12 weeks each. Typically, students enroll in threequarters each academic year. A quarter-cred:t hour carries the val-ue of two-thirds of a semester hour (for example, nine quarter-credit hours equal six semester-credit hours).

Normally, 120 semester-credit hours, or eight semesters, areminimum requirements for a degree in a semester or a trimestercalendar system. Normally, 180 credit hours are the minimum num-ber required of students graduating from an institution employingthe quarter system. Many bachelor's degree programs (for exam-ple, pharmacy, engineering, architecture) require four-and-a-halfor five years (or 135 to 150 semester- credit hours) to complete, al-though the number of credits required for a degree varies widelyamong institutions.

22


As a general guicieline, students will spend from two to threehours of course work preparation outside class for every hour spentin class.

Educational experiences are measured in terms of credit hoursattempted and earned regardless of the academic-year pattern.Credit earned in the summer or other special sessions has the samevalue as credit earned during traditional terms. Also, credit earnedby a student who takes a part-time academic program, usuallyfrom one to three courses a term, is recognized in the same way ascredit earned by a student who is enrolled full time.

The B.A. honors degree designates a high level of performanceand does not imply additional course work. Standards for honorsdegrees vary among institutions, but they are usually awarded tostudents who place in the top 10 to 20 percent of their graduatingclasses. Sometimes honors degrees are awarded to students whoachieve certain grade-point averages. The teams summa cum laude.magna cum laude, and cum laude are usually used to designatehonors degrees.

Evaluators of American bachelor's degrees shcald ln every in-stance make an analysis of the courses completed, the grades ob-tained (especially in the student's major), and other factors such asthe quality of the institution and the career objective of the student.

4.4 MASTER'S DEGREE

A master's degree requires at least one full academic year ofcourse work, and frequently more, beyond the bachelor's degree. Athesis is normally required, and occasionally a comprehensive ex-aminatic.n of general knowledge and proficiency in a foreign lan-guage are required. Admission to a master's degree program isalmost always based on the nature, content, and quality of theapulicant's undergraduate degree and the results of a standardizedexamination.

Master's degree programs vary considerably among the ap-proximately 900 institutions that award them. The number of de-gree designations is very large, bitt for the most part the degrees arethe Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Science (M.S.), or professionaldesignations, such as Master of Nursing (M. Nurs.), Master of Busi-ness Administration (M.B.A.), or Master of Landscape Architecture(M.L.A.). Programs leadir to the degree usually require one ortwo years of advanced study, based on graduate courses, seminars,and colloquiums, and in many cases, research, or independent cre-

23


ative scholarship. Frequently, particularly in the sciences or engi-neering where a Master of Science is the degree choice, a thesisbased on research is required, and in the majority of cases an oralor written (or both) examination is required. The Master of FineArts (M.F.A.) is considered the final degree in the studio and per-forming arts. Unlike most master's degree programs, a large por-tion of the requirements is based on demonstrated ability in thechosen field. Requirements may differ not only among institutionsbut among disciplines within an institution as well.

Usually one-half to two-thirds of the course work will be in themajor subject. The remaining course work will consist of support-ing courses and electives. The thesis is usually based on a limitedamount of research, but it could also be based on an acceptableapplication of research techniques that develop new data and infor-mation. The quality of writing is evaluated, as is the ability of thewriter to present and effectively examine the topic.

Completion of a satisfactory master's program is often prereq-uisite to entering into study at the doctoral level. Master's degreesmay be earned in as many as 100 programs in some large publicuniversities. For the most part these will be either Master of Arts orMaster of Science degrees, and there is no consistent way to distin-guish between the two. The master's degree marks the first special-ization beyond the traditional bachelor's degree and is required forentry into many professions.

4.5 DOCTOR OF PHILO:;OPHYDEGREE

A Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree requires a minimumof three years of full-time study but often takes up to five or sixyears to complete. The average amount of time is approximatelyfour-and-a-half years of full-time study, of which the earned mas-ter's degree usually accounts for one year if the course work isapplicable. Work at the doctoral level is highly individual and isperformed under the close supervision of a committee, which con-tinuously evaluates the doctoral candidate's work. The committeeconsists of at least three professors within the area of study andone more from a supportive field in which the candidate is re-quired to demonstrate competency.

Candidates usually prepare for their preliminary or qualifyingexaminations during the later stages of their course work. Prelimi-nary examinations measure the candidate's general knowledge of

24


the field as well as his or her mastery of the pursued discipline.These examinations indicate preparation for independent and orig-inal work designed to extend the student's knowledge in the field.A Ph.D. degree is almost always a research-oriented degree.

A proposal for a dissertation is prepared by the student andpresented to the committee for criticism Students are often re-quired ;.o rewrite parts or all of their proposal several times beforetheir committees are satisfied. Proposals include a statement of theproblem to be examined, hypotheses to be investigated, and theinvestigative methodology to be applied.

When the dissertation is completed, the student presents anddefends it before an examining committee of the graduate sch;..olfaculty. The vast majority of students who take these orals com-plete the requirement successfully. The high success rate can beattributed to the voluntary and involuntary attrition that occurs atvarious earlier stages. In fact, only a small number of studentsadmitted to Ph.D. programs actually earn degrees. Careful andcritical counseling, along with the continued rigorous applicationof standards, yields highly qualified degree recipients. As at allother levels of American education, the standards of the institutionalong with other qualitative indexes suggest that Ph.D. degreeshave varying values. At the doctoral level, however, the differencesdiminish significantly.

Publication of the complete dissertation is no longer required,but publication of an abstract of the dissertation is required. Dis-sertations are usually filed in the library of the college at which thedegree was awarded and are made available, on request, by a na-tional microfilm service that stores and distributes film and papercopies of the complete dissertation.

Honorary doctorates are sometimes awarded to men and wom-en of some dist Iction. Although such doctorates are not accepta-ble as scholarly credentials, a holder is recognized symbolically asworthy of the highest academic honor.

4.6 PROFESSIONAL DEGREES

Students who seek admission to professional schools for thestudy of medicine, law, business, education, and dentistry usuallydo so after completing their bachelor's degree. However, some pro-fessional programs may be entered prior to the completion of thebachelor's degree. Admission to most professional degree programsis very competitive. It is not unusual for some of the pr itigious

2c


professional schools to receive dozens of applications for each placeavailable.

The quality of the previous institution attended, the gradesreceived, and the scores on national, standardized professional-school examinations are the major criteria for admission. Certainprescribed courses are required before consideration for admissionto professional schools is given. Professional programs may requireup to four years beyond the bachelor's degree, with internshipssometimes extending the time required by another one or two years.

Admission to medical schools is seldom granted to candidateswith less than a bachelor's degree, although a limited number ofinstitutions offer programs that integrate premedical and medicalstudy. After a minimum of three years in medical school a studentmust satisfactorily complete the internship requirement to qualifyfor the medical degree (M.D.). Students frequently continue formalstudy in a specialized area of medicine before entering residency,the final phase of the program.

Law schools normally require a bachelor's degree for admis-sion to the three-year program. As is true with medical study, anexternal examination is required, and competition for admissionto most law schools is severe. The degree is called the Doctor ofJurisprudence (J.D.), although recipients of the J.D. are seldomreferred to as doctor.

Holders of professional degrees in dentistry (D.D.S.), law (J.D.),medicine (M.D.), and veterinary medicine (D.V.M.), must in all casespass state examinations before they are permitted to practice theirprofession. Holders of the D.D.S., M.D., and D.V.M., are referred toas doctor. Those who wish to pursue academic careers within thesefour fields often also earn the Ph.D. degree.

The Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.) is the highestacademic degree in business and is normally sought by those pre-paring for teaching and research careers in the field. The D.B.A.may be considered to be on the same level as the Ph.D. degree.

It is not unusual for holders of professional degrees to return forPh.D.s in order to qualify for a teaching position on a professional-school faculty. Other professional-school degrees include those insocial work, public health, education, and library science, as wellas those at the bachelor's degree level described earlier in thefields of architecture, divinity, etc.

Foreign students are se'dom admitted to medical schools andrarely to law and dentistry programs. In other professional degreeprograms, including business administration, thi competition forplaces among foreign students is very keen.

26


4.7 SPECIAL DEGREES RELATED TOTHE MEDICAL FIELD

Two examples of degrees related to the medical field are thosein podiatry and chiropr ' ''c. Some of ale work in such programsmay be taken at a unive. , . The degrees allow the practitioner totreat only a designated part of the body. These progr...ns requirefewer years of preparation and are not viewed as ecrtal to themedical degree (M.D.). Sete licensing Ltay be involved for cer.ifi-cat ion purposes.

4.8 NON-DEGREE-SEEKINGSTUDENTS

Mast American colleges and universities allow students whoare not candidates for degrees to take courses. Reasons for this"unclassified" or "special student" status are many and varied andinclude the following: (1) for self-enrichment; (2; Jr certificationrequirements for teaching or some other profession; (3) to demon-strate readiness to be considered favorably as a degree-seekingcandidate; (4) to remove deficiencies for graduate or professional-school admission consideration; (5) because employment statusprecludes full-time study; and (6) for specific training programs forforeign students.

Sometimes credit earned as a non-degree-seeking student willapply to degree requirements when and if the student applies andis accepted as a degree-seeking candidate. Because non-degree-seeking students do not normally have their previous educationalcredentials evaluated in detail. there can be no guarantee by theinstitution that their course work is appropriate for their educa-tional goals.

4.9 ADULT AND CONTINUINGEDUCATION

Most public and some private colleges and universities admin-ister special euucational programs for older students. Courses may

27


be offered at extension centers throughout the area served by theinstitution, which may be an entire state, c: ..,ithin community-college districts. The courses may also be offered on can.; us duringregular hours, or during evenings and weekends. Most stud 2nts electonly one or two courses each term. Students may elect courses thatcan be applied to a degree, or they may enroll in specialized coursesthat are generally not applicable to a degree program.

28

111111MliNJ

5.ADMISSIONSINFLUENCES

ANDPROCESSES

5.1 ADMISSIONS OVERVIEW

Admission to a college or a university in the United States isconsidered a privilege and not a right. Most institutions, however,endeavor to establish fair and reasonable admissions policies con-sistent with the mission and role of the institution. Colleges anduniversities with open-door or nonrestricted admissions practicesusually employ an easily understood admissions process. It is usu-al for those institutions to admit students soon after applicationsare received, keep admissions open until classes begin, and admitall secondary school graduates without regard to previous gradesand test results. Institutions with selective admission policies, how-ever, often require applications six months or more in advance ofthe enrollment period, delay decisions until the entire applicantgroup can be evaluated, and place varying degrees of importanceon grades, examination results, and other factors.

The proper evaluation of student performance in the Americanstructure of educatioi. _ vires an understanding of the dynamicsof the qualitative indeves that are used in the measurement ofacademic performance. In the United States, the certificate earnedis of limited importance when compared with other evidence of thestudent's qualifications for continued education or employment.

American education is characterized by a complex ane some-times bewildering array of grades, aptitude and achievement tests,

reditation sys ems, enriched or honors courses, wide-ranging in-stitutional standards (both among and within institutions!), volun-.ary and involuntary attrition patterns, varying admissions prac-tices, class ranks, grade-point averages, personal recommendations,and extracurricular activities. It is not possible to generalize about

21

29

22 ADMISSIONS INFLUENCES AND PROCESSES

the quality of education based on the size of tli.! institution, type ofsupport, geographic location, or even by examining courses elect-ed by the student. Serious evaluators of student performance mustbecome acquainted with the overt and implied rules used in theprocess. Symbols can be misleading. There are no shortcuts, norare there easily applied formulas that can yield a reliable qualityindex. As a result, Americans as well as non-Americans may mis-judge the level and value of a student's scholastic performance andacademic and career r romise.

Despite the complexity of the student-evaluation structure, itseems to work quite well. As has been stated, America.. -,durationis highly decentralized, and its many corn onents enjoy varyingdegrees of autonomy. This autonomy fosters diversity, which inturn encourages educational administrators to provide relevantexperiences for the students they are obliged to serve. Multiplemeasurement instruments and standards applied to student evalu-ation are, therefore, a complex but desired feature of Americaneducation.

Students entering higher education in the United States shouldbecome familiar with the diversity of standards that exists amonginstitutions. Admission is not the end but only a means to the end.Although some critics claim that some American educators prac-tice an 'ek:,), ineasy out" scheme, the process is much more com-plicated than that. Institutions with relaxed admissions require-ments often maintain very high academic standards. Some majorpublic universities are obligated by state charter to admit ill in-state students who hold high school diplomas, and older studentswithout diplomas. Yet graduation from those institutions couldrepresent a level and quality of performance comparable to institu-tions with more rigorous admissions requirements. Attrition ratesare generally higher among open-door colleges and universitiesbecause those institutions strive to give all students a chance todemonstrate their educational readiness. Some have unfairly calledthem "revolving door" institutions because of the high attritionrate. Most community colleges have open-door admissions policiesfor all or most of their programs.

The majority of private and public colleges and universitiesemploy moderately selective admissions practices. Most applicantsare adr- itted based un the relatively high probability of their aca-demic success. Such institutions usually enroll many well-qualifiedstudents as well as some who are minimally qualified. But themajority of applicants are usually those who were average to above-average high school students.

30

ADMISSIONS INFLUENCES AND PROCESSES 23

Many colleges and universities in the United States are consid-ered to be highly selective and competitive in their admissionspractices. Such institutions attract students primarily from thetop 10 percent of their high school graduating classes or, in thecase of graduate schools, students with a 3.00 or better grade-pointaverage. Test scores and the quality of previous educational experi-ences are important. Competitive admissions suggests that the num-ber of qualified applicants exceeds the number of places available,which necessitates the rejection of a few to several qualified candi-dates. Also, admission is sometimes competitive for particular cur-riculums in open-door and moderately selective institutions. Inrecant years, for example, most institutions found it necessary torefuse qualified applicants to engineering, business administra-tion, computer science, and several health-related programs be-cause of space limitations.

Although the degree of selectivity should never be the sole cri-terion in the selection of an institution, it can offer some insightinto the qualifications possessed by the student populations. Goodstudents tend to attract good instructors, who in turn tend I at-tract financial support from alumni, business, industry, and -,,ov-ernment. Prestigious institutions, therefore, are those that havethree important ingredients: distinguished instructional staffs, well-qualified students, and at least adequate funding. A mistake that isfrequently made is an assumption that the true quality of an insti-tution is directly related to its prestige. Excellent educational ex-perienzes can be had in all recognized institutions, and studentsare advised to use criteria other than prestige in the selection of acollege or university.

Students seeking transfer from one institution to another musthave a transcript of courses and grades sent to the admitting institu-tion. The original academic record remains in the registrar's officeof the institution where the courses were completed. An officialtranscript, an exact copy of the original record, contains the signa-ture of the registrar, or some other official, and usually a raisedseal of the institution. It is usual to accept official transcripts foreducational and employment purposes. The student can easily havea transcript sent directly to an institution or an agency from eachsecondary school, college, and university he or she attended. Atranscript that has been in the possession of the student will usual-ly lose its official status. If there is any reason to believe that atranscript might be fraudulent, it should be returned for verifica-tion to the registrar who is responsible for the original document.

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5.2 ACCREDITATION

Accrediting has been defined by the United States Departmentof Education as "the process whereby an agency or associationgrants public recognition to a school, institute, college, university,or specialized program of study which meets certain establishedqualifications and educational standards, as determined throughinitial periodic evaluations. The essential purpose of the accredita-tion process it to provide a professional judgment as to the qualityof the educational institution or program(s) offered, and to encour-age continual improvement thereof."2

As was noted earlier, United States' institutions vary widely inthe quality of their programs, and there is no centralized authorityfor educational matters. Although states assume a major responsi-bility for educational mattters, standards are usually monitoredand evaluated by various accrediting bodies. There are many recog-nized voluntary accrediting ass°, iations, and the reader is advisesto obtain the publication, 1984-85 Accredited Institutions of Post-secondary Education; (Programs and Candidates), obtainable fromThe Council on Postsecondary Accreditation, One Dupont Circle,Washington, D.C. 20036, which lists all the accrediting agenciesgeneral, institutional, and specializedthat are recognized by theAmerican Council on Education. In 1984, the Council on Post-secondary Accreditation (COPA) recognized 11 accredii.ing bodiesthat include most traditional colleges and universities, six ofwhich are regional and five of which are specialized. They are:RegionalMiddle States Association of Colleges and Schools, NewEngland Association of Schools and Colleges, North Central Asso-ciation of Colleges and Schools, Northwest Association of Schoolsand Colleges, Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, andthe Western Association of Schools and Colleges.SpecializedAmerican Association of Bible Colleges, Associationof Independent Colleges and Schools, Association of TheologicalSchools, National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, andthe National Home Study Council

The publication, Transfer Credit Practices of Designated Educa-tional InstitutionsAn Informational Exchange, published by theAmerican Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Of-

2U.S. Department of Education, Nationally Recognized Accrediting Agencies andAssociations: Criteria and Procedures for Listings by the U.S. Commissioner of Educationand Current List. Washington, D.C.: June 1975, p. 8

32


ficers, One Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C. 20036, outlines the poli-cies and practices of a major institution in each state that are usedto award credit for transfers from other institutions within thatstate.

While both of the above-mentioned publications can be helpful ifused properly, institutions in the United States must take care inassessing each student's record, and offer admission and awardcredit consistent with individual institutional policies. A student'scoursework that might not be accepted for transfer credit by oneuniversity could be accepted by another with full justification.

The procedure for accrediting an institution of higher educa-tion typically involves five steps: (1) the establishment of stan-dards; (2) an institutional self-study in which its performance ismeasured against established standards; (3) on-site evaluation by ateam of outside educators selected by the accrediting agency; (4)publication of the fact that the institution met the standards; and(5) periodic reevaluation of the institution's programs.3

Probably the most visible purpose of accreditation is to enablestudents to move freely from one accredited institution to another,although the student may sometimes lose some credits in the process.Further, state and professional certification regulations usually in-clude stipulations that candidates must complete their training inaccredited institutions. Financial aid, from both government andprivate sources, is usually awarded only to those students whoattend recognized or accredited institutions.

Accreditation, especially of the specialized sort, does not guar-antee that all or even any credit can be applied to an academicprogram. Recognized accrediting agencies oversee such areas asapplied business, bible-college education, technical education, andrespiratory therapy, and much of the credit earned in those types ofinstitutions is not appropriate for many academic degree programs.

There are a number of profit-seeking organizations, referred toas "degree-mills," that require students to do a minimal amount ofwork and in some cases none, in order to be awarded a "degree'Laws are lax in some states, and organizations like these are diffi-cult to control. Many of them administer "courses" solely by mail,whereas others actually send the diploma by return mail on re-ceipt of a fee. Such organizations damage the image of Americaneducation, and caution should be exercised in accepting degrees orother forms of credentials of certification from unknown institu-tions. Correspondence with a senior university in the state inwhich the questionable institution is located will usually yield

3Ibid., p. 2

33


the accreditation status of the institution. The publication referredto earlier, Accredited Institutions of Postsecondary Education (Pro-grams and Candidates), will also be helpful.

5.3 TESTING

It has been suggested in this book that high schools as wei! ascolleges differ widely in academic standards, grading practices,and other measure -rents of educational performance. Few stan-dard measurements exist. In an educational structure that appliesselectivity as an entrance characteristic, there needs to be a stan-dard against which all candidates for admission are compared. Inthe American educational structure, testing assui-nes that role. Inthis book, testing is categorized as follows: (1) external standard-ized examinations; (2) academic credit by examination; and, (3)classroom examinations.

5.3.1 External Standardized Examinations

External examinations are administered to students from ear-ly elementary years through the graduate school application proc-ess. Elementary and high school examinations are used primarilyto place students in appropriate courses and by school districtsand states in their various student-performance-assessment proj-ects. Examples of such tests are the Iowa Tests of P-- Skills, Cali-fornia Tests of Mental Maturity, Henmon-Nelson Test of MentalAbility, Iowa Tests of Educational Development, Wechsler Intelli-gence Scale for Children, and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.These examinations are sophisticated and statistically reliable ob-jective instruments that may be administered to each child as fre-quently as once a year. They are usable aQ tools for student guidanceand counselin6 but are seldom useful to admissions officers. Al-though they are national standardized tests, they are usually ad-ministered by local school officials and scores may be reported inpercentiles based on local as well as national normative data.

There are several important external tests administered to highschool students and used by colleges and universities in the admis-sions process. Few if any institutions of higher education make ad-missions decisions solely on test scores, but those that employselective criteria use tests in varying degrees to aid the predictionof academic success of their applicants. Even cpen-door institu-tions frequently require preadmissions or preenrollment tests forcounseling and academic placement purposes.

34


Although entrance examinations have been used historically inadmissions decisions, it has been only since the turn of the centurythat reliable standardized examinations have been available. TheCollege Board pioneered standardized college admissions tests inthe United States and is now one of two major national testingagencies that specialize in college admissions examinations. TheCollege Board, through the Admissions Testing Program (ATP), of-fers the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), the Achievement Tests (ACH)in several disciplines, and the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Tests (PSAT/NMSQT). TheSAT is a widely used college and university entrance examinationthat measures verbal and mathematical skills. Further informationabout the examination can be obtained from: The College BoardATP, CN 6200, Princeton, New Jersey 08541-6200.

The American College Testing Program (ACT), P.O. Box 414,Iowa City, Iowa 52243, the other major testing agency in the UnitedStates, offers a series of examinations used for college admissionsand course placement that measure a student's skills in English,mathematics, social studies, and natural sciences. Both the CollegeBoard and the American College Testing Program offer many addi-tional services to students and institutions that assist in the admis-sion and placement processes.

Aptitude- and achievement-test results are valuable as supple-ments to school grades, but they are not reliable indicators of edu-cational potential when used alone. High test scores on secure andreliable instruments such as the SAT and the ACT are significant,but low scores can be open to questions. Low scores may be the re-sult of low achievement or apititude, or they may be the result ofany one or a combination of the following factors: lack of test-taking experience or sophistication; misunderstood test directions;low level of proficiency in English; physical problems, includingsight and motor deficiencies; and significant cultural differencesthat may exist between the normative population and the studenttested. The last its _ . is particularly important when evaluatingtests taken by low-income students, black and Hispanic students,foreign students, and students from families of recently landedimmigrants. The results may still, however, be of predictive valuefor culturally diverse populations if used by properly trained ad-missions personnel.

Standardized admissions tests, although sometimes controver-sial, continue to be useful and appropriate measurements of abilitywhen combined with other relevant admissions criteria. Indeed,these tests actually assist in the democratization of higher educa-tion by identifying capable students who may not have performed

35


well in high school, who may have elected commercial or technicalcourses instead of college-preparatory courses, or who may haveattended small or unaccredited high schools.

Almost everything previously stated about college entrance ex-aminations may be applied to those examinations used for selec-tion to graduate and professional schools. The most common testused for admission to graduate study is the Graduate Record Ex-amination (GRE). The GRE is required by a very large proportionof the country's graduate schools. That examination covers mostfields leading to the academic master's and doctor's degrees. Otherte?ts often used for postbaccalaureate admissions include the Grad-uate Management Admissions Test (GMAT), the Law School Admis-sions Test (LSAT), the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT),and the Miller Analogies Test. All but the MCAT (administered byACT) and the Miller Analogies Test are administered through theservices of Educational Testing Service (ETS) of Princeton, NewJersey, the same agency that administers the College Board testingprograms.

Because admission to most graduate and professional schoolsis highly competitive (the number of qualified applicants greatlyexceeds the places available), the examinations mentioned in theprevious paragraph may be used as screening devices rather thanas instruments to predict academic success. This is particularlytrue in admissions practices used by professional schools. As at theundergraduate level, however, factors such as unusually high pre-vious academic performance or other relevant experiences maysometimes offset low examination scores.

External testing agencies (the College Board, Educational Test-ing Service, the American College Testing Program, and others)require fees for examinations. Furthermore, some institutions re-quire "posting" fees if credits earned by external examinations areto be applied to official records.

5.3.2 Credit by Examination

A key feature of undergraduate education in the United Statesis the practice of awarding academic credit for successful perform-ance on subject examinations. Credit may be awarded on the basisof centrally administered, national examinations, or by departmen-tal examinations developed and administered internally. The mostpopular national examinations that gain college credit for studentswith satisfactory scores are those of the Advanced Placement (AP)Program, and the College-Level Examination Program (CLEP), bothadministered by the College Board. Some institutions also give

36 ]


credit for and/or exemption from some first-year course require-ments for the College Board Achievement Tests and the ACTexaminations.

Advanced Placement is described by the College Board as "aprogram of curriculum enrichment that begins in high schoolsthat offer college-level studies to able, interested students ."4 APdevelops, administers, and grades examinations in several subjectareas. Examinations are nationally administered within a speci-fied two-week period each year in May. According to the CollegeBoard, 205,650 students took 280,972 examinations during the May1985 test dates. In 1976, only about 100,000 students sat for theexaminations. In some of the nation's most prestigious colleges anduniversities, as many as one-third or more of the entering studentsreceive credit for their AP results, with some students earning suf-ficient credit to be placed in the second year. AP Examinations maybe ordered (by April 1 of each year) and administered (in earlyMay) by any school or other educational authority throughout theworld. Interested students are, however, advised to make appropri-ate arrangements well beforehand.

The College-level Examination Program is coy ised of a se-ries of General and Subject Examinations that te. college-levelknowledge that has been gained either at high school or throughwork or other experiences.

Most colleges and universities will recognize for advanced place-ment and credit the results of some foreign school-leaving exami-nations that have been successfully completed, such as the BritishGeneral Certificate of Education (Advanced Level), and the Ger-man Abitur. Also, in many institutions the International Baccalau-reate will either yield first-year credit for Higher Certificates passedat a specific standard (usually a 4 or 5), or placement in the secondyear for satisfactory completion of the full diploma program.

The College-Level Examination Program is similar to the Ad-vanced Placement Program but it has an added flexibility. It doesnot require formal course experience as does AP. It is an appropri-ate test for students, usually older than the typical first-year stu-dents, who are self-taught or have learned academic skills on thejob, through military service, or by some other means. CLEPoffers two types of tests: General and Subject Examinations. Thegeneral examinations measure college-level achievement in fivebasic liberal arts areas: English composition, humanities, mathe-matics, natural science, and social sciences-history. Material cov-

'The College Board Today: A Guide to Its Programs and Services, New York: CollegeEntrance Examination Board, 1976, p. 4.

37


ered parallels that of gent.ral education courses. The more than 30subject examinations measure achievement in specific collegeccurses. Included among the subject examinations are accounting,computer and data processing, calculus with elementary functions,general biology and general chemistry, introductory marketing, andwestern civilization. Many institutions allow credit for SubjectExaminations or General Examinations or both. Standards requiredfor credit tend to follow the recommendations of the AmericanCouncil on Education.

Most colleges and universities in the United States make avail-able opportunities for credit by examination through locally pre-pared, administered, and graded examinations. Many of theseinstruments are patterned after AP, CLEP, and other achievementtests, but most rely on locally established norms. Local tests areoften used for placement in a discipline without awarding credit.

Fees ranging from nominal amounts up to the amount assessedfor classroom-earned credit are normally required of students. Thefees cover the cost of administering the local examination and theposting of credit on the student's permanent record.

5.3.3 Classroom Examinations

The continual assessment of student progress that characterizesAmerican education requires periodic testing by instructors. Testsare used for two primary purposes: (1) to give the instructor tangi-ble evidence of a student's performance in order to award the ap-propriate mark or grade; and (2) to give the student an indicationof his or her progress as compared to the other students in the class.

Classroom examinations may be given weekly or even moreoften, or they may be given only two or three times each semester.They may be essay, objective, short-answer, or open-book tests.They are not normally used as screening devices, but they are fre-quently useful as guidance tools to help students realistically eval-uate their educational goals.

5.4 ASSESSING AND RECORDINGSTUDENT PERFORMANCE

5.4.1 GRADING

Course grades, or marks, are the primary instruments used inthe evaluation of a student's academic performance. In variousforms they are issued to students from early elementary school

38


through graduate school. In secondary and postsecondary institu-tions, grades are recorded on the student's permanent record atleast twice each academic year (three times in institutions employ-ing the quarter rather than the semester system). Grades are accu-mulated to determine the grade-point average (GPA) at the con-clusion of each major segment of a student's education (high schoolgraduation, bachelor's degree, master's degree, etc.).

Thus, it is not only the level of the diploma or the degree itselfthat must be considered for academic or job placement, but alsothe quality of the academic performance. Course grades and cumu-lated grade-point averages are convenient guides to determiningrelative levels of achievement.

Most secondary and postsecondary institutions in the UnitedStates use letter grades to designate the quality of achievement.The five categoi ..ms with brief descriptions and typical distribu-tions follow:

PercentageTypically

Grade Awarded Represents

A 15% Consistently high performanceand originality

B 25% Clearly above averageperformance

C 35% Average performanceD 15% Minimally passing performanceE (or F) 10% Unsatisfactory performance,

or failure

While grades assigned are the sole responsibility of the instruc-tor, and the distribution in any class may vary considerably fromthe typical distribution displayed above, institutions try to avoidthe image of contributing to grade inflation or excessive awardingof high grades. After a decade of a gradual inflationary trend ingrading, instructors at all levels of American education appear tobe returning to a more conservative stance on the assessment ofstudent academic progress. It is not uncommon, however, to findon a transcript more As and Bs than Cs, Ds, and Es, especially inthe strong secondary schools and the colleges and universities withselective admissions practices.

Most institutions compute grade-point averages by assigningfour points for an A grade, three points for a B, two points for a C,

WI


and one point for a D. The points are then multiplied by thenumber of credits (hours) or units represented by that grade. Thetotal number of points are then divided by the total number ofcredits or units attempted (including failures) to establish thegrade-point average.

An example of this computation is illustrated by a typical first-semester college student's schedule:

Course Credits (hours) Grade Points

English 125 4 C 8German 200 3 B 9Physics 171 5 A 20Anthropology 112 3 C 6Computer Science 131 1 D 1

Total = 16 44

Forty-four honor points divided by 16 credits attempted = 2.75GPA. College and university students are usually expected to main-tain at least a 2.00 GPA to remain in good academic standing. Onesemester of less than a 2.00 GPA might result in academic proba-tion, and an additional semester of poor performance might resultin dismissal from the institution. However, in some institutionsstudents will accumulate several semesters of less than 2.00 GPAand remain enrolled, since practices among institutions vary con-siderably. Public high schools normally permit students to remainin school regardless of their performance, although most require a1.00 GPA (D average) as the minimum standard for awarding thediploma.

Some institutions award numerical grades, but the wide varie-ty of meaning of the grades defies generalizations. Frequently aninstitution will enclose an information sheet or a school profiledescribing the grading system and the distribution of grades. Somesecondary schools, colleges, and universities employ narrative eval-uations of students, a practice that, because it lacks standardization, can complicate the decision-making process for admissionspersonnel as they seek the best-qualified and the most-deservingstudents for their campuses.

The high school percentile rank (HSPR) or class rank canyield insight into the real meaning of the student's GPA. If a stud-ent presents a high GPA (say 3.50) and an HSPR at the 75th percen-tile, it would suggest that 25 percent of the students had a B+average, or better. Care must be taken, however, to ascertain thedegree to which honors or accelerated courses were weighted (i.e.,

40


assigned extra points) to allow adjustments in either the GPA orthe HSPR. If the school does not provide this information, it shouldbe requested before an evaluation is made. Clas.3 rank is frequentlygiven as a raw number (for example, 38 is a class of 473), and theevaluator may wish to convert it to a more usable HSla (92ndpercentile). Colleges and universities seldom provide class ranks oftheir students.

In some institutions some or all courses are evaluated oii apass/fail basis instead of traditional grades. The main purpose ofthe pass/fail scheme is to encourage students to explore disciplinesthey might have otherwise avoided to protect a GPA. Most admis-sions offices at institutions in the United States consider a passfrom another institution s it least a C grade and recognize the cred-it. Some institutions employ various adaptations of the pass/failplan, such as pass/no entry (failures not recorded), honors/pass/fail,and credit/no credit. Pass/fail grading is controversial because ofcompetitive admissions practices in many graduate and profession-al school programs. Those institutions generally place greater em-phasis on standardized examinations in the absence of traditionalgrades.

5.4.2 A Cava Study and Secondary SchoolRecord Transcript

Following is a transcript of a student who is a senior (twelfthgrade) in an American high schooi. This transcript is an exact copyof the student's official record, which remains in the high schoolfiles. A raised official school seal (not visible on this sample) and aschool official's signature verifies the transcript's aut.!' 'ticity.

Rand' Lee (family name removed to protect privacy)ranked twelfth in a class of 26 in an independent col 4e-prepara-tory school. She elected a strong curriculum thlt would cover fourand one-half years of English and speech, mathematics through first-year calculus (note: in tile United States, mathematics is seldomtaught in the integrated format that is common elsewhere in theworld), considerable science course work that included a laborato-ry course each year. various social sciences, three years of Frenchthat included pre-high-school course work, and a mix of severalpersonal-improvement courses. such as computer science, photog-raphy, theater, health, debate, and child development. She electedtwo Advanced Placement courses, which are generally consideredamong the most rigorous courses available to high school students.

The transcript reveals important information about the highschool. it is an accredited, private school from wh. irtually allgraduates enroll in four-year colleges. Advanced Placement Program

41


SECONDARY SCHOOL RECORDTRANSCRIPT

STUDENT INFORCATION SCHOOL INFENIMATION

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EXPLANATION OF HONORS COURSES

Advanced Placement courses use materialsand develop habits of thought whichprepa0c .. .tudent to take an AdvancedPlacement Exam in the subject areaiif she so chooses.

Eighth GradeAlgebra I B-French 8+

TIAN WWIIEng-Rites of Passage 13 13+ .French 11 a c Rim

9 itometrY a B+ A- 6Oioloav Lab. 8 8 6Ancient 8 Medieval Histdry B 13+ 6

H 79 Health B- B- 21180

Eng-An Arne -icon Sampler 8 8 6Enq- Speech 8+ / 3

10 French III C+ C 6 RANK IN CLASS BAUD 014 leattlall13e.cit, 0 AP11101 L? IN ClAti Of 34IONA NANA

Algebra II B+ B+ 6Chemistry L b. R a 6

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OUTSTANDING ACTIVITIES HONORS AWARDS

A.F.S. Club member, 9 -12; vice president12

Religious youth group member, 9-12;

chapter executive board, 11, 12;regional social action chairperson, 12

Hospital volunteer, summmrs, 1979, 1960A.F.S. summer in South Africa, 1981Part -time day cart lob. 0. 11

Calculus APsics Lab.

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COPY AVAILABLE

42


courses are offered and it appears that the school provides its stu-dents with a full range of aptitude and achievement tests. A schoolprofile accompanied the transcript on which was described manyadditional features, including qualifications of the teachers, mediantest results of the seniors, course descriptions, and a grade-distribution table.

On the basis of Randi's grades, test scores, the quality of herschool, and the level of intensity of her courses, she would be con-sider-4 i well-qualified candidate for all but 200 or so of the morethan 000 regionally accredited, degree-granting colleges and uni-versities. And she could be selected by any number of those 200institutions if she were well recommended, had some interestinglifetime experiences that would contribute to the diversity of thecollege student population, had won a debate championship or amathematics prize, was an outstanding athlete, possessed someother personal characteristic or skill that was valued by a particu-lar institution, was a daughter or granddaughter of an alumnus ofthe institution, or some combination of these and other factors.Randi has been a hospital volunteer and was a summer exchangestudent in South Africa. Even a personal interview or well-preparedpersonal statement might favorably influence the admissionsch -ion.

Because of the flexibility and diversity of the American educa-tional plan, no set of courses, test scores, or other features of thestudent record can be considered typical. However, Randi's recordsuggests that she would be a serious candidate for nearly all of thecountry's colleges and universities. While her GPA and standard-ized test scores are somewhat modest, she has demonstrated thatshe can perform above-average work in a rigorous set of courses ina very good college-preparatory high school.

5.5 OTHER ADMISSIONSCONSIDERATIONS

American education provides ways for intellectually gifted stu-dents to move ahead of their classes or age groups for the purposeof increasing their learning interests and skills. From the compre-aerr: ye high schools through college and university, highly quali-.ed students are usually encouraged to elect those courses that are

the most academically challenging. Prior to enrolling in advancedcourses, a student's educational competence must be demonstrat-ed through testing or previous academic performance. Some stu-

4.q


dents are able to complete their elementary and secondary require-ments in less than the standard 12 years. Moreover, bright andacademically aggressive students sometimes complete their colle-giate programs in less than four years. This acceleration is madepossible by the flexible nature of American education.

High schools offer honors or enriched courses for those stu-dents who might benefit from them. Those courses usually enrollonly the best students, and many utilize college textbooks andinstructional methods. Honors programs at the college level offerspecial incentives for academically talented students, for example,selected library privileges, individualized curriculums, smaller clas-ses, and tutoring. Evaluators of students who have completed hon-ors or enriched courses should recognize the higher level ofeducation that has generally been experienced by those students.

Letters of recommendation can be useful in student evalua-tions. Although most tend to be general and consistently positive,some will provide insights into a student's character and academicpotential that might otherwise be overlooked. Occasionally, writ-ers of recommendations bring attention to some unusual circum-stance in the student's background that may have contributed tounsatisfactory performance, for example, illness, family conflicts,unfair instructors, or reasons for English-language problems. Let-ters of recommendation may assume a significant importance for astudent who is seeking admission to a private institution or a pub-lic or private professional or graduate school. Federal legislationha

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