document resume se 015 496 science education k-12 ...document resume ed 076 355 se 015 496 title...
TRANSCRIPT
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 076 355 SE 015 496
TITLE Science Education K-12, Administrator's PlanningGuide.
INSTITUTION South Carolina State Dept. of Education, Columbia.Office of General Education.
PUB DATE 72NOTE 64p.
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29DESCRIPTORS *Curriculum; Curriculum Development; *Curriculum
Evaluation; *Curriculum Guides; *Curriculum Planning;Elementary School Science; *Science Education;Secondary School Science
IDENTIFIERS South Carolina
ABSTRACTThe State Department of Education for South Carolina
has prepared this publication to help aOministrators and curriculumplanners in selecting and evaluating science instructional materialsfor use in their schools. The report is divided into three majorparts for elementary science (K-5), middle school science (6-8), andhigh school science (9-12). Under each division, a brief descriptionof rationale for teaching science at that particular age level isgiven. This is followed by several checklists, for each divisionseparately, to evaluate curriculum materials before or after theirselection. These checklists are designed to provide listings ofsignificant points to consider in terms of curriculum materials, roleof teacher, role of administrator, physical facilities, and academicofferings. A list of some recommended commercially availablecurriculum materials is provided for each section. Special attentionis given in the high school section on an interdisciplinary approachto curriculum planning. Two separate sections on preparation ofscience teachers and curriculum development are included, to providefurther guidelines to administrators. Bibliographies, conceptualschemes and other useful information are included in appendices.(PS)
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T.
U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTHEDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPROOuCE0 EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION °MGMATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OMIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY
":c.) SCIENCE EDUCATIONK-12
administrator's planning guide
FILMED FROM BEST AVAILABLE COPY__
SCIENCE EDUCATIONK-12
administrator's planning guide
Developed by
Office of General EducationSouth Carolina State Department of Education
Columbia, South Carolina
1972
Cyril B. BusbeeState Superintendent of Education
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe State Department of Education wishes to acknowledge gratefully
the assistance of science educators across the nation who have sharedinformation and ideas through their state guides and other publications.
Special acknowledgment is extended to the committee who partici-pated in the development of the publication. They include classroomteachers, supervisors, and college professors who contributed ideas, efforts,experience, and time to the design and writing of these guidelines. Mrs.Alice Linder, state science consultant, coordinated the committee's work.
The committee members were:
Elementary
Mrs. Laura Frost, Pine Street Elementary School, WalhallaMrs. Martha Stringfellow, Lewisville Elementary School, ChesterMrs. Vivian Reid, Maple Elementary School, DillonLane Trantham, Darlington School District, DarlingtonDr. Cecil Main, Winthrop College, Rock HillDr. Dorothy Brandt, Presbyterian College, Clinton
Middle School
Mrs. Joan Sherrill, Lewisville Middle School, RichburgMrs. Sara Dillard, York District 2, CloverMrs. Pam Cromer, Fulmer Middle School, West ColumbiaMrs. Dora Wiley, Berkeley Middle School, Moncks CornerMrs. Pauline Bauguess, Caughman Road Middle School, ColumbiaDr. Clemmie Webber, South Carolina State College, OrangeburgDr. Harold Landrith, Clemson University, Clemson
High School
Mrs. Pat Harkey, Fort Mill High School, Fort MillMason Turner, Orangeburg High School, OrangeburgPierce Beauzay, A. C. Flora High School, ColumbiaDr. Gary Awkerman, Charleston School 'District, CharlestonPaul Risinger, Brook land-Cayce High School, CayceDr. Joe Bowles, University of South Carolina, ColumbiaDr. Richard Houk, Winthrop College, Rock HillDr. James C. Loftin, Wofford College, Spartanburg
USE OF THIS GUIDEWith the current emphasis on assessment and
public concern for the learning accomplishments ofchildren, school administrators are faced with thetask of evaluating their educational programs interms of specific objectives. Recognizing the needfor constant reappraisal and development of suit-able curricula, a committee was selected to designan instrument to assist administrators with theirscience program. It is hoped that the individualprincipal will use the checklists as an inservice ac-tivity with his faculty.
This guide is designed:
1. To provide suggestions which administratorsmay use in developing effective science pro-grams.
2. To establish guideline' (checklists of facilitiesand equipment) for evaluation of a school'sscience program.
3. To identify some inquiry-oriented curriculummodels.
4. To offer directions for effective use of text-book materials in an inquiry-oriented schoolcurriculum.
TABLE OF CONTENTSPage
Philosophy and Objectives 1
Current Trends 2
Introduction 3
Recommended Science Programs 4
Elementary Science K -5:
Rationale 7
Checklists ......... 8
Curriculum . _ .... ....... _ ..... 13
Middle School Science 6-8:
Rationale ............... _ .. 17
Checklists 18
Curriculum ................. ........ 22
High School Science 9-12:
Rationale 27
Checklists _ .... . ..... 28
Curriculum ............. 39
Preparation for Teachers of Science ..... _ . ........ 46
Curriculum Development ......... ...... _ .... 49
Appendices:
IConceptual Schemes for Science . 53
IIScience Process Skills .... . .......... . 53
IIICharacteristics of a Scientifically Literate Person 53
IVFacilities and Equipment for Grades K -8 .. , 54
VSafety ........... , 56
VIPeriodicals for Children 57
VIIReferences for Science Teachers 58
VIIIPeriodicals for Science Teachers . 59
IX Pertinent NSTA Publications . 59
XReferences Consulted 60
PHILOSOPHYIn a world where the rate of change is accelerat-
ing, the educational system must help young peopledevelop the competencies that will enable them toachieve self-fulfillment.
Science education should be concerned with foster-ing the attitudes, values, skills and concepts thatwill help students to think rationally and act reason-ably.
Science (K-12) should be considered as part of acontinuum along which the individual may progressas he interacts with other people and his environ-ment. In order to create a climate in which studentscan experience the excitement of discovery, a widerange of investigations and activities must be pro-vided.
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OBJECTIVESThe science program should provide opportunities
for a student to:
1. Develop a positive attitude toward himself,toward other people and toward his environ-ment.
2. Grow in understanding of scientific conceptsand in problem-solving abilities.
3. Grow in understanding that scientific knowl-edge is unlimited. Knowledge should be exam-ined, analyzed, and related meaningful to lifewithout prejudice or superstition.
4. Develop and use science processes and skills,simple tools, and multiple resources.
5. Experience direct involvement with structuredand unstructured activities.
6. Develop the ability to learn under his owninitiative according to his individual needs,interests, and abilities.
7. Participate in science taught as a unified dis-cipline or coordinated with other disciplines,such as mathematics, social science, economics,political science, and others.
8. Share a continuing program of self-evaluation.
CURRENT TRENDSInterest in improved and more effective learning
has created an awakening to a broader and moreappealing science curriculum. Trends which haveemerged during the past few years include thefollowing:
1. Behavorial change is a basic consideration incurriculum planning.
2. Emphasis is being placed on understandingbroad conceptual schemes and processes ofscience, rather than memorizing fact, thus re-ducing amount of course content.
3. An interdisciplinary approach with well-artic-ulated science involvement (as opposed to test-book, one-discipline approach) is expanding.
4. The textbook-centered approach, emphasizingaccumulation of knowledge, is being replacedby the laboratory-centered approach which em-phasizes problem solving and learning skills.
5. Multi-media materials are utilized to meetstated educationcil objectives.
6. Individual, independent, and small group in-struction comprises a greater portion of the
teaching day. This presupposes that individ-uals differ in learning rates and learning stylesand that students will be motivated primarilyby the materials or processes of instructionthemselves.
7. Short courses (modules) are built around con-ceptual schemes.
8. The classroom is being extended to make moreeffective use of the outdoors and the specialinterests and skills of parents and other peoplein the community.
9. Flexible scheduling is providing for extendeduse of materials and facilities by greater num-bers of students.
10. Differentiated staffing is facilitating more ef-fective use of teachers' special competencies.
11. Emphasis is being placed on science experi-ences to develop basic scientific literary for allstudents rather than merely preparation forhigher education or college.
12. Humanization of the curriculum with emphasison openness, trust, and the needs and concernsof individual children.
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INTRODUCTIONIn an educational continl,um K-12, the elementary
child should have opportunities to develop the in-tellectual processes essential to learning and tounderstanding science. In the process of skill devel-opment, children will acquire an understanding ofthe basic science concepts necessary for the inter-pretation and explanation of observations and nat-ural events. The children will also have experiencein using these science processes and become moreindependent and self-sustaining in their learning.
The middle school program, primarily concernedwith students between the ages of 11 and 15, shouldprovide those educational experiences most suitableto their stage of development, concerns, needs, in-terests, and social responsibilities. The programshould not revolve around a single text, medium, orpreparation for high school; instead, it should in-clude those materials that are best able to communi-cate with these children and most consistent withtheir educational needs.
The high school curriculum should provide oppor-tunities for each student to explore many areas ofscience. The science program should, be designed tohelp each student attain his own highest potential,to experience success, to become more independent,and to accept greater responsibility for his owneducation. Recently chemistry and physics enroll-ments have dropped alarmingly. New programs andshort courses which would provide greater optionsmore relevant to the needs and concerns of thestudents should be considered, so that all studentsmay attain some degree of scientific literacy. (SeeAppendix III.)
Provision for diverse needs of children through avariety of learning media and class structure isessential at all grade levels. Most school philosophiesattest to a belief in the value of the individual andthe desirability of a program designed to meet indi-vidual needs. Yet, in school, one finds formal class-rooms and no effort to determine individual needs,or make provisions for them.
There must be a change in emphasis from teach-ing to learning, from memorizing to understanding,
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and from a threatening environment to one charac-terized by freedom to explore, discover, and pursueknowledge that has real meaning. School programswhich have been developed with these aims shouldbe examined carefully and chosen on the basis of theneeds of the children and the community.
At present, many school systems have no cleargoals for their science program ; therefore, eachteacher works independently within the monetaryand educational limit of the school. To provide thebest opportunities for the children, it is essentialthat each community have a science advisory com-mittee who will assess the needs of students, willexamine available programs, and will then plan forimplementation within their school systems. With-out a local science consultant, it's especially im-portant that representative teachers from eachschool should work together to develop a coord-inated science curriculum.
Few elementary and middle school teachers areprepared by their education to teach science. Mosteducators will follow the example of their ownteachers. Few have been exposed to processes ofscience and inquiry techniques essential to manynew science programs. Even with the best prepara-tion, it is unlikely that teachers can do an effectivejob with the inadequate financial backing, the in-adequate physical facilities, and the excessive workload under which many struggle. If any science pro-gram is to be successful, teachers must have thepsychological, professional and monetary supportof the administration and the school district.
This guide is not intended to be the "final word"in science education. As we continue to learn moreabout different modes of learning and as newer andbetter materials are developed, we must change. Wemust change because what we do today is based onwhat we now are aware of. What we do next yearshould therefore be different. This means continuedreassessment and updating of instruction and re-training of teachers. It is hoped that this guide willserve as an instrument which will assist administra-tors and their staffs to assess and improve theirscience programs.
RECOMMENDEDSCIENCE PROGRAMS
Three possible programs have been designed tomeet the needs of students having different learningstyles and of teachers who feel more comfortable indifferent methods of instruction.
The highly structured program emphasizes con-secutive development of concepts and skills ingrades K-6 and provides for an annual division bysubject in grades 7-12.
The moderately structured program tends to bemore interdisciplinary and laboratory oriented. Thisprogram requires a student oriented philosophyrather than subject oriented.
The loosely structured program provides for morestudent orientation and greater freedom for teacherand student to develop a course best suited to stu-dent concerns and interests. This program is especi-ally suitable for children who learn best from con-crete rather than theoretical materials and in an at-mosphere free from threat and structural require-ments. The poor reader and potential dropout wouldbe more apt to succeed in this type of program.
Some examples of commercial programs whichmay be used are shown. These and other materialsare described in the chart of curriculum models.
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Recommended Science Programs
highly Structured Moderately Structured Loosely Structured
Science a ProcessApproach (AAAS)
K-6
State Adopted TextSeries (with 1-6emphasis onconcept andinformation)
Science CurriculumImprovement Projects(SCIS)
State Adopted TextSeries (withemphasis on discoverythrough laboratoryinvestigations)
K-6
1-6
Elementary ScienceStudy (ESS) K-9
---
ESK-12
Selected unitsfrom ESS ex.Pond WaterMosquitoesMicrogardeningSmall Things
Human(being
6-8
Sciencedeveloped)
Me Now6-8
Life ScienceERCIMB
ISCS7-9
Earth ScienceI E & TESCP
Rocks & ChartsStream TablesMapping
Physical Science.IPSIME
Investigations inScience - 9
IIS - PhysicalScience
IIS PhysicalScience
IIS BiologyPatterns'andProcesses
ERC
TSM
Kitchen PhysicsPendulumsBatteries and
Bulbs II
BiologyBSCS IIS - Biology
Mini or Interdisciplinarycourses such as :
GeologyAstronomyEcologyGeneticsChem bonding
IPS
ISCS
ChemistryChem Study
PhysicsPSSCHPP
armirtima.
h---s I= I iirr4
RationaleEducators have found that the learning which
occurs during the first five years of life probablyexceeds the learning that occurs thereafter. Inde-pendent, self-actualized learning is characteristic ofpreschool children.
Preschoolers naturally identify problems and en-gage in problem-solving activities. When they goto school, this natural tendency to continue learningthrough the process of problem-solving is changed."Problems" are determined by the teacher in ad-vance for the child. However, imposing problemson children does not insure that the children per-ceive them as problems. Science educators use thenatural modes of learning to increase the develop-ment of problem solving skills.
Piaget's work suggests that children of formalelementary school age are at a "concrete opera-tional" level of intellectual development and mustinteract with concrete objects during problem-solv-ing situations. Science has great potential for pro-viding the necessary manipulative materials re-quired by the young child in such a way that a childmay engage in meaningful problem-solving situa-tions.
If "learning to learn" and problem-solving skillsare to be developed further, then educators must re-examine present learning strategies in the light ofnew understandings of how children learn.
Present science instruction predominantly involvesverbal transmission of ideas and is usually taughtas a "reading" exercise about science. New pro-grams that are gradually being adopted emphasizeactivities and the processes of science. However,merely shifting the emphasis from "facts" to "proc-esses" does not insure a science program whichmakes sense to children. In a teacher-oriented scienceprogram where concepts and processes are given tothe pupil, instead of being determined by the pupil,the child learns that science has little meaning andis merely a collection of these concepts and proc-esses. This idea is further reinforced by repeatingthese concepts on tests.
The science program must involve students. Itmust consider their level of intellectual developmentand their natural modes of learning. It must providean environment in which they may participate withtheir minds and with their hands in activities thatmake sense to them.
The most desirable learning environment for ele-mentary science children :
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1. enhances a child's abilities to think systematic-ally and creatively; provides activities whichare compatible with the various levels of ope-rational thought, and involves investigationsof the environment or the solution of problems.
2. advances a child's belief that he can interpretand manipulate his own environment and thathe is a part of his environment and dependsupon it.
3. facilitates the development of a positive self-concept which enhances his feeling of com-petency to identify and solve problems and hisfeelings of success.
4. provides curricular flexibility to facilitate max-imum individual cognitive progress and pro-vides for a self-determined pace from manipu-lation of concrete objects to abstract ideas andfinally to the higher mental processes of prob-lem solving.
5. promotes individual development of interests,attitudes, personality, and creativity.
6. facilitates a child's tendency to accept theexistence of individuals who have ideas andvalues which are different from his own; fa-cilitates recognition of the uniqueness of indi-viduals and "acceptance without evaluation."
7. encourages exploration of the material uni-verse, asking questions and seeking explana-tions for those things which are observed;enables children to investigate, collect data,verify and interpret data, and make predictionson the basis of knowledge gained.
8. stimulates development of understanding ofbasic concepts and the applications of theseconcepts to the child's expanding world throughdiscovery and exploration.
9. helps children learn to respect the tentativenature of scientific information and learn thatchange is a fundamental phenomenon in theuniverse.
10. provides opportunities for children to practicecritical thinking through problem-solving ac-tivities and to recognize the applications andlimitations of these procedures.
Science should be an essential part of the ele-mentary school curriculum. Not only does it providefor development of creative and systematic thoughtprocesses, but it also increases the self-awareness ofthe individual and relieves some of the failure-causing pressures of the predominantly verbal class-room.
Checklists for Elementary Science
These checklists are intended to provide the ad-ministrator with an instrument which will enablehim to evaluate the science program of his school in
terms of the characteristics of a good program.From the results of this evaluation, appropriateactions to remedy any deficiencies should be plannedand carried out. If the checklists serve in this ca-pacity, they will fulfill their function.
The Elementary Science Program1. To what degree is there a sequential K-12 science
program which provides for variations of pupilgrowth and development?
We have been thinking about it.We follow our basal text series but don'tknow what other grade levels are doing.We determine the level at which children canachieve successfully and provide the neces-sary opportunities for continued growth anddevelopment of a positive self-concept.
2. Does the program provide opportunities for stu-dent exploration and discovery?
We only talk about this.We have only teacher or individual demon-strations.Individual and small group investigations arefrequent.
3. Does the program provide for the developmentof varying student abilities and skills?
We use only a basal program providingidentical learning on an identical schedule.sary opportunities for continued growth de-We supplement the textbook with some addi-tional materials.We use a wide range of multi-level materialsand enrichment activities, such as guestspeakers, manipulative materials, audio-visuals.
4. To what extent does the program utilize com-munity resources?
We limit our program to the immediate class-room.We allow children to examine the outdoorsduring fire drills and P.E.We take meaningful field trips and frequentlycall upon local resource persons.
5. To what degree are the present school facilitiesand equipment being used?
No science interest centers are evident; sci-ence equipment is inaccessible.Most teachers are using some equipment. Theothers are learning.Equipment is available and in constant useby students.
6. Is there a media center in the school which in-cludes current science materials?
Some science books and film strips are avail-able.Books, periodicals, and various audio-visualmaterials are available on all levels.Students constantly use a variety of media inand out of the media center.
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7. Does the school have a procedure for originalpurchases and re-stocking of consumablescience supplies?Never thought of doing it. We have no inven-tory.Only when requested by a teacher. Teachersand children bring most of the materialsfrom home.Maintain inventory. Science program in-cluded in annual budget. Lead teacher re-sponsible for inventory and purchase request.
8. Is science a regular part of the school programthroughout the entire school year?
We teach science one semester, alternatingwith health or social studies.We teach science all yearwhen childrenbring things in and when it relates to othersubjects.We set aside time each day for science activ-ities and provide additional time for workon special projects interrelated with othersubjects.
9. Is there a scienceschool district?
No. Each school setsprogram.Teachers work togethercommittees when needed.We have a district advisory committee whichis compos-ed of a lead science teacher fromeach school. This committee provides articu-lation within the K-12 program, examinesnew programs, and works toward continuedimplementation of better science curricula.
10. Does the school have a science chairman?Each teacher plans her own science program.Teachers of each grade level meet periodic-ally to discuss the science program.The school has a science chairman whomeets periodically with the lead teachers ofeach grade level to review the program, planfor changes, inventory, order and storeequipment.
11. Is central storage provided?Teachers bring materials from home. A fewmaterials are in the library, office, and anyavailable closets.A closet is designated for storage of equip-ment which must be shared.A central storage area is provided. One per-son is in charge and responsible for main-tenance, replacement and checkouts.
advisory committee in the
Up its own curricular
on book adoption
I
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Role of the AdministratorIn all schools the administrator is the curriculum
leader. He is responsible for program development,evaluation and financing, teacher assignments, andthe morale and professional growth of the faculty.All program activities are influenced by adminis-trative initiative.
1. I know that a "good" science program is inoperation in my school because :
12 The teachers assure me of this fact in ourstaff meetings.
12 I occasionally visit the classrooms on ascheduled basis.
I am frequently asked by students to visittheir rooms and see what they are planning,studying, buildibg, etc.
2. How are teaching responsibilities delegated tomembers of the staff?
12 We are trying to fill all vacancies. Begin-ning teachers are given low ability groups.
Some consideration is given to teacher abil-ity and interest.
Special abilities of teachers are given highpriority in class assignments and in ap-pointments of persons to serve as leadteacher.
3. To what extent do we provide for cooperativeteacher planning and other professional activ-ities?
12 No released time is provided. Teachers areexpected to be with children at all times.
Some released time is available when P.E.,art or music teachers are in charge of class.
12 Released time is scheduled for each teacherevery day, and special provision is made forprofessional activities outside of school.
4. What provision is made for professional growthof teachers?
Left strictly up to teachers.
Science oriented inservice programs andworkshops provided.
12 Local funds budgeted to support supple-mentary study in science or science educa-tion. Aid is provided to teachers who seekNSF or other scholarships.
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5. Do we provide for a professional shelf in thelibrary where teachers may examine up-to-dateteacher aids, resource books and journals thatmight stimulate better science teaching?
12 Never thought of doing it.
12 Some attention, interest and funds are pro-vided.
12 A good professional selection is present ina comfortable and attractive location.Teachers are encouraged to make use of thematerials.
6. Are audiovisual materials wisely purchased andwisely used?
Large purchases are made without consult-ing teachers.
Equipment and materials are available butused infrequently. Often A.V. material isonly used with large class instruction.
12 Teachers share in the selection of materials.Inservice workshops are provided to trainteachers in production of materials, opera-tion of equipment and creative use andparticipation by individuals and smallgroups.
7. To what extent are resource institutions, agen-cies (colleges, universities and State Depart-ment of Education, etc.) and personnel beingutilized in the development of evaluation ofyour science program?
No help has been sought. The principal eval-uates the program.
12 District personnel make program and evalu-ation decisions.
Cooperative College-School Science programimplemented. Science educators and otherresource persons are being utilized.
Role of the TeacherThis checklist is designed to facilitate self-evahla-
don by the teacher and cooperative evaluation ofthe teacher's role in the science program
1. Does the teacher have a good professionalattitude?
Often casts disparaging remarks about theschool situation.
El Trying to be optomistic.Cooperates, keeps smiling, takes full ad-advantage of educational opportunities.
2. Does the teacher generally view all students asbeing capable of working and learning?El Most students from disadvantaged back-
grounds are considered capable of only verylimited learning.
El Progress is being made to provide for indi-vidual differences in children.This attitude is present and evident in theclassroom environment.
3. Does the teacher realize that different learningstyles exist among children?El Apparently not. All are taught the same
way.Uses audiovisual as well as reading mater-ials (seeing and hearing).
El Manipulative materials, audio materials, avariety of visual, and large group, smallgroup and individual activities are pro-vided.Emphasis on total sensory development.
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1. Does the science teacher attempt to discoverhow much a student may already know abouta topic or concept prior to initiating learningactivities?
We assume that all students have retainednothing from previous experiences and startfrom "scratch" with the entire group.We ask the class a few questions about whatthey have studied in previous scienceclasses.Pre-assessment iz made of all students todetermine individual levels of comprehen-sion. Subsequent. teaching activities arebased upon the information gained.
5. Is there evidence of good teacher planning?There is little planning for classwork, toomuch "busy work", routine covering oftextbook materials.Some planning has been done. A few con-structive activities are seen in classroom.Careful planning is done with students;there is evidence of a planned but flexibleprocedure; student needs are anticipated.
6. Are the purposes of the science lessons clear tothe children?
We play guessing games. Students mustguess what they are trying to accomplish.The teacher tells the goals and objectivesand what must be learned.Teachers and pupils cooperatively plan,carry out, and evaluate learning activities.
7. Is the teacher skillful as a questioner ?Only questions in the teacher's manual areutilized.Children are asked questions to "keep themon their toes."Questions which stimulate creative think-ing processes are often used. (Compare,summarize, observe, classify, interpret,criticize, make assumption, collect and or-ganize data, evaluate, apply, etc.)
8. Does the teacher emphasize the specializedreading skills which are unique to the area ofscience?
Reading teachers teach reading. Scienceteachers teach science.New vocabulary words are introduced andlooked up in the glossary.Emphasis is given to interpretation ofgraphic data, preciseness of scientific vo-cabulary, and appropriate reading levelsfor science.
9. Are processes, conceptual schemes and valuesemphasized?
Facts in the text are memorized.Concepts and main ideas are discovered andstated by pupils after reading and discus-sion.Through numerous investigations and dis-cussions, the pupil develops scientific skills,discovers and states basic concepts ofscience, and shows awareness of the valueof science to himself and to his society.
10. Does the teacher interact with the children ?Provides information to the whole classfrom behind her desk.Works with a small group while the re-mainder of the class is occupied with penciland paper work.Interacts verbally with individuals andsmall groups, continually moving from onegroup or child to another.
11. What determines the content and processes oflearning?
The adopted text or TV program.The teacher prescribes activities.The teacher responds to the child's activityand cooperates with children in makingeducational decisions and plans.
12. The teacher rewards children for their activ-ities.
Grades are given on all student work. Mis-takes are pointed out and misbehavior isreprimanded.
O Children are rewarded equally and fre-quently. Punishment and reprimand areinfrequent.The child's "erroneous" statements are ac-cepted (but not reinforced). Encourage-ment and support are common.
13. Does the teacher provide time for inquiry anddiscovery?
Math and reading take most of the time.Some time (30-40 minutes) is set aside forteacher or pupil demonstrations and dis-cussions.Pupils continually experiment and some-times "just mess around."
14. How does the teacher choose activities?O We do those things that we can bring from
home.We do the activities in the textbook if equip-ment is available and pupils show interest.
O Alter listening, observing mannerisms,voice inflections and other indications ofpupil need, attitude, concern and interest,activities are selected to meet these needs.Activities are challenging and provocative.
15. Does the teacher involve pupils in problem-solving?
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Problems are discussed in class.The teacher designs problems for pupils tosolve and explains the techniques involved.When she asks what he thinks, she reallyis asking him to "Guess what I think."Materials are varied and accessible for ob-serving and handling. Pupils can work onproblems long enough to satisfy curiosityand to increase comprehension.
16. Is evaluation a part of every phase of anexperience?
Grading is done by the teacher only at theend of written work.
O Tests and class activity are evaluated.O Teacher and student cooperatively evaluate
growth as needed.1. Pupil behavior records are kept which
indicate changes noted in the courseof an experience.
2. Products of pupil work are judged onthe basis of individual capacity.
3. Teacher-pupil interviews, inventoriesand questionnaires are used.
4. Problem situation and multiple choicetests are used.
17. Does the teacher maintain a room conduciveto enthusiastic discovery?
There is no space to display materials.Informative charts and models and somepupil work is on the wall.To relieve drabness, splashes of color andbright displays decorate the room. Pupilwork is evident. Displays cause pupils toask questions and seek their own answers.
18. Does the science teacher make an effort to in-terrelate science with other curriculum areas ?
No time for this activity.O Departmentalization without team teaching
makes this difficult.We have developed interdisciplinary unitsand techniques.
19. Does the teacher ever offer any suggestions tothe administrator regarding the science pro-gram?
Neyer makes such suggestions ; the adminis-trator never asks for any.Only when given a blank to fill out, or atextbook to look through and evaluate.Constructively critical of our science pro-gram ; feels free to discuss with principalany changes believed needed.
20. Does the teacher participate in science work-shops and other opportunities for professionalgrowth?El Most workshops are too far away and sched-
uled at inconvenient times.Attends only required meetings.
O Makes every effort to attend all meetings.
Role of the StudentMany children have difficulty with school experi-
ences which depend upon verbal communication. Buteven these children can manipulate science materialssuccessfully with little verbal direction from theteacher. A child's verbalization often develops spon-taneously from interaction with concrete materials.Science may often be a unique stimulus for learningto read, but reading ability is not essential forscience. John Holt has said that children fail becausethey are afraid, bored, and confused. Instead, ifsuccess is built into the science program, the follow-ing student behaviors should be evident:
1. Students make decisions.2. Students ask questions and use their
own creative methods of inquiry.3. Students learn from their mistakes.4. Students are involved in activities
without teacher direction.5. Students evaluate their own
progress.6. Students develop greater responsi-
bility for their own learning.7. Students use varied resource mater -.
ials and scientific equipmenteffectively.
8. Students share information andlearn from other students.
9. Students show respect for logicalreasoning and demand verification.
10. Students have direct experiencewith living and non-living objects.
11. Students display products of theirwork.
12. Students show a positive attitudetoward themselves and others,increased independence andconfidence.
Yes No
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13. Students participate in large groupactivity, small group activity, orindividual inquiry.
14. Students demonstrate enthusiasmand interest which extends outsidethe classroom.
15. Students demonstrate various skillsof problem-solving and of inquiry(observing, recording data accu-rately, proposing hypotheses, de-veloping experiments to testhypotheses).
16. Students apply understanding ofconcepts to new problems and todaily life.
17. Students demonstrate appreciationfor and knowledge of their individ-ual responsibilities for theirenvironment.
18. Students show awareness thatintellectual honesty is essential tothe scientific enterprise.
Yes No
Curricular Programs
From numerous national curriculum studies, ele-mentary science programs have been developed thathave ideas and procedures which could improvelocal science programs. These programs should, bestudied and considered as a source of!'SbPplementarymaterials to upgrade your present program or toadopt as a total science curriculum. In order to besuccessful, it is recommended that teachers whowill be using these new materials have special train-ing. Most programs provide consultants for thispu rpose.
Three projects which may be used to implementthe inquiry approach are described here.
Elementary Science Study (ESS) (K-8)This is designed to serve as supplementary ma-
terial or as a complete program. It is probably theleast structured national curriculum project in sci-ence. The ESS units are non-sequential and goalsare intentionally not specified. They are designedto lead pupils and teachers to set their own goalsand initiate activities to reach these goals.
All units encourage children to explore, invent,discover, and examine the world around them. Con-tent is not neglected but processes and problem-solving are emphasized. Problems are of interestto children and are designed so that they can beinvestigated. Children can ask their own questionsand find answers for themselves.
The materials and activities resemble those com-mon to children's environment and are centeredaround open-ended investigations. The 56 units con-sist of text material, equipment, .activity sugges-tions, teachers' guides, films, and filmloops. Theseare available from Webster Division of McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Unit Suggested Grade Level
Animal Activity 4-6Animals in the Classroom K-upAttribute Games & Problems K-3Balloons and Gases 5-8Batteries and Bulbs ...... . ..... _ _ 4-6Batteries and Bulbs II . 5-upBehavior of Mealworms 4-8Bones . _ .... _ ......... .4-6Brine Shrimp _ ................ ..K-4Budding Twigs 4-6Butterflies _ _ _ ....... ...4-6Changes ......... . .1-4Clay Boats 2-6Colored Solutions 3-8Crayfish , _ , , 4-6Daytime Astro ',wily , ,1-8Drops, Streams, and Containers , 2-3Earthworms .4-6...
1' .......
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Unit Suggested Grade Level
Eggs and Tadpoles K-9Gases and "Airs" 5-8Geo Blocks K-7Growing Seeds ..K-3Heating and Cooling ..5 -7Ice Cubes 3-5Kitchen Physics 5-8Life of Beans & Peas K-3Light and Shadows K-3Mapping 5-7Match and Measure K-3Microgardening 4-7Mirror Cards . . _ ................ ,1-7Mobiles 2-3Mosquitoes 3-upMusical Instruments
Recipe Book K-AdultMystery Powders 3-4Optics 4-6Pattern Blocks K-5Peas and Particles 3-8Pendulums 4-6Pond Water 4-6Primary Balancing K-3Printing Press .... . _ 3-6Rocks and Charts _ ............ .3-6Sand 2-3Senior Balancing 4-6Sink or Float 2-7Small Things 4-6Spinning Tables 1-2Starting from Seeds 3-7Stream Tables 4-9Structures .. _ ...... ......... .2-6Tangrams K-8Tracks 4-6
ScienceA Process Approach (K-6)Developed by the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, this project provides themost highly structured total program.
Its major aim is the development of basic skillsneeded for scientific investigation. A sequential pat-tern is designed to guide and predict student achieve-ment. Teachers guides and student materials arepart of a package which has built-in behavioral ob-jectives and competency measures for each exercise.Success is defined in terms of the percentage ofpupils who can exhibit the required behaviors.
Because of its structure and emphasis on skilldevelopment, this program could be used to indi-vidualize a science program. This interdisciplinaryprogram involves a wide variety of science conceptsas well as mathematical skills.
Part Level Process Title of ExerciseA Kindergarten Observing Observing Temperature
Classifying Classifying AninnIsB Grade 1 Observing Observing the WeatherC Grade 2 Measuring Measuring Forces with
Springs
Classifying The Solid Liquid and
Communicating
Observing
PredictingD Grade 3 Predicting
Measuring
InferringE Grade 4 Controlling
Variables
InterpretingData
Inferring
Classifying
Communicating
F Grade 5 DefiningOperationally
ControllingVariables
InterpretingData
G Grade 6 Experimenting
Experimenting
Gaseous States ofMatter
Using a Sundial to De-scribe Shadow Changes
Observing AnimalResponses to Stimuli
Surveying Opinion
Describing the Motion ofa Bouncing Ball
Measuring Rate ofEvaporating of Water
Loss of Water from Plants
Liquid Movement inMaterials
Guinea Pig Learning ina Maze
Inferring Connection Pat-terns in Electric Circuits
Classifying Minerals
Force and MotionDetermining the Direction
of True North
Effect of PracticeMemorization
Effect of Temperature onReaction Time
Temperature and Heat
The Growth of a Root
on
Commercial materials may be obtained from several com-panies. Xerox was the initial producer.
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Science Curriculum Improvement Study (1-6)This is a complete program designed to increase
growth of inquiry attitudes and skills in investiga-tion while developing a functional understanding ofbasic physical and biological concepts. Units in bio-logical science and physical science are provided foreach year, giving the program some structure andcontinuity.
Emphasis is on guided discovery with many op-portunities for pupils to explore and experience thewonders in their environment. Content has beenselected for systematic understanding of a fewmajor broad ideas. The use of many live materials,varied books and texts for reference is encouraged.
The teachers' guides, student lab manuals andmaterials may be obtained from Rand McNally &Company.
Level Physical Science Units Life Science Units
1 Material Objects Organisms2 Interaction and Systems Life Cycles3 Subsystems and Variables Populations4 Relative Position and
Motion Environments
5 Energy Sources Communities
6 Models: Electric and EcosystemsMagnetic Interactions
A Textbook Model
The textbook has been used so inappropriately inscience education that children and teachers havebecome intimidated by the idea that "you can'tlearn if you can't read." Yet educators still do notknow at what point in a child's development he willturn to the recorded data and ideas of others. Thecommon practice of purchasing textbooks and littleor no manipulative materials can no longer bejustified.
Primary children need manipulative materials forproblem-solving activities. Symbols acquire meaningonly after children have interacted with the con-crete objects indicated by the symbols. For this rea-son science textbooks have limited possibilities aslearning aids to children. The actions that childrenperform upon objects in their environment grad-ually build up mental structures that can eventuallybe used for abstract thinking without use of theobjects themselves. During this time books in theclassroom should provide reference material. Theymay also provide some assistance to teachers whoneed encouragement.
The following model is designed for teachers whouse the textbook as their main source of lessonplanning. These suggestions, questions and examplesare designed to encourage the teacher to move to-ward a more creative and activity-oriented program.
Getting started with an inquiry technique
There are many advantages to using an "Invita-tion to Inquiry" as an introduction to a topic. Chil-dren are asked to suggest solutions to problems,devise experiments and discuss their reasoning asthey face an event or situation. The teacher is ableto find out how much children already know abouta topic.
In an "Invitation to Inquiry" the children respondto information or events and suggest possible rea-sons or solutions. In most inquiry situations theteacher needs materials so that students can carryout their experiments. A good teacher anticipateswhat the children might suggest and has materialsavailable.
There are many sources for "Invitations to In-quiry" in elementary science source books and inperiodicals such as Science and Children and ScienceActivities. Often incidental classroom events lead tofurther inquiry.
Here are some examples:
1. Teacher : Do you think you could boil water in apaper cup held over a candle? (Get the students todecide "yes" or "no.")
Teacher : How could we find out?
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Let some of the students devise an experiment,carry it out, and then discuss the result with theclass.
Information for the teacher:The water in the cup prevents the paper from
reaching the kindling point. When the water boilsaway completely, the paper will ignite because itskindling point has been reached.
2. Using a pictorial riddle:A picture that depicts an event or situation that
defies reality often prompts responses from a widerange of students.
Here is an example that might be- used with anoverhead projector or drawn on newsprint paper :
The teacher asks the children : "Do you see any-thing wrong with this picture?"
Children might respond by indicating the wheelsare square. This could lead to fruitful discussion onthe function of wheels, their characteristics, and asearch to find examples around the room and out-side. A follow-up activity might lead to constructingwheel toys with different kinds of wheels.
3. An Inquiry Starter:There are also advantages to presenting the chil-
dren with a closed shoe box that has been sealedwith tape. Inside the box the teacher has placedsome object. The children are asked to try to findout as much about the contents of the box as pos-sible without opening the box. The children tilt thebox, listen, and devise an idea of what is inside. Thisoffers the opportunity for the teacher to discuss theway a scientist sometimes works out a possiblesolution to a problem. The boxes are usually notopened but may be returned to some area of theroom and used again later. This type of inquirysharpens the students' abilities to observe, listen,and reason.
4. Using a counter-intuitive event:A counter-intuitive event is usually a demonstra-
tion or event that upsets our concept of what wethink will happen.
Here is an example:
The teacher has two clear glass tumblers filledwith clear liquid. She tells the pupils that she isgoing to place an ice cube in each glass. When shedoes this, one ice cube floats, one sinks to the bottomand remains there. This perplexing event shouldarouse the pupils' curiosity and lead them to suggestpossible reasons for what they have seen. Theteacher may suggest that questions be stated so thatthey can be answered with a "yes" or "no" by theteacher. As the children explore and gain informa-tion through their questioninng. the teacher maysuggest they devise experiments to test their hy-potheses.
Information for the teacher: One glass containedclear water, one glass contained a mixture of alcoholand water.
The following questions might lead a teacher tovary her approach in teaching science:
1. Have you considered dramatization by pupils?The study of animals lends itself easily to dramati-zation. The children guess which animal is beingdepicted.
2. if a demonstration is planned, how could youinvolve As many pupils as possible? You mightwork with several small groups of children whowould share their procedures and findings with theclass.
3. Have you asked the children to predict possi-ble outcomes for a demonstration before it is per-formed? This technique provides useful informationon how the children are able to think critically.
4. What is the point of the experiment in thetextbook ? Could you substitute one just as effec-tive?
5. How could an experiment from the textbookbe extended? You could often vary factors in theoriginal experiment. What might happen? Why?
6. Are you using a variety of media as you plana science lesson?
7. Have you thought about setting up a learningcenter (science interest area) in the classroom? Agood activity area draws pupils into problem-solvingsituations where they respond to events or questionsprovided by the teacher. Books on many levels,equipment, filmstrips, and other materials could beused. Mere observation in an interest area is notenough to draw pupils into problem-solving situa-tions.
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8. Have you asked the librarian to subscribe toperiodicals such as Science and Children and othersources of information?
9. Have you thought about a unit approach toteaching science as a substitute for a chapter-bychapter sequence through the textbook?
10. Have you taken advantage of children's in-terests and incidental learning that might occur ona day-to-day basis? Interest in what some child hasbrought to class or mentions in class often leads tomany new sources of information.
11. Have you considered hobbies, guest speakers,other teachers, or community resources that mighthelp?
12. When equipment is in short supply, why notask a junior high or senior high teacher if youmight borrow?
13. Have you considered using textbooks onseveral levels or from several publishers? Youmight trade books with another teacher and findbooks on varying reading levels.
14. Have you asked about subscribing to a weeklyscience newsletter or science reader? These fre-quently contain current topics and have improvedtheir formats.
MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE 6-8
RationaleThe student advances into his "mid-years" of
education at the age of ten or eleven. He is achanging individual. He is a social individual. Andhe is a highly active individual. He is maturing inhis ability to exercise judgment and make signifi-cant decisions. The environment, which surroundshim, has become increasingly intriguing. He nowis cognizant of the usefulness of technology, Heseeks to learn if school objectives are compatiblewith his world. He needs and wants to achievesuccess. He seems to have an exceptional need tounderstand himself and his society.
The most important component of the scienceprogram at the middle school level is the student.The "subject" of science is a nonentity; the text-book is only a tool which serves the teacher andstudent. Outcomes and goals should be formulatedthen activities should be used which will enable thestudent to progress toward his individual objectives.
An administrator, as the instructional leader,will need to evaluate the program to determine whatplanning or improvements may be meaningful. Hemay find that a cooperative interdisciplinary teampattern is effective. He may find a need for greaterindividualization and increased exploratory experi-ences. He may find that greater balance in the cur-riculum with more emphasis on personal develop-ment and learning skills is advantageous. He mayfind a need for greater flexibility and improvedphysical facilities. He may also find ways of help-ing teachers through special workshops and train-ing programs.
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Checklist for Middle School ScienceAdministratews, teachers and students are part-
ners in the learning process. Each has his own re-sponsibility to assure that the science programproduces expectations commensurate with projectedoutcomes. Educational objectives, some of which aredifficult to measure, are designated for the con-sideration of those individuals involved in evalua-tion of the science program.
Checklists have been developed so that all personsinvolved in the instructional program may considerstudents' present behaviors and the behaviors de-sired and make efforts for continual improvement.
The Middle School Science Program
1. Have criteria, based on long-rangegoals, been established for the se-lection and organization of coursecontent?
2. Does the program provide for stu-dent differences in abilities and in-terests? (by provision of speciallearning activities. enrichment ma-terials, and references on variedreading levels)
3. Are there opportunities for eachstudent to engage in laboratorywork and other first-hand experi-ences?
4. Is science compatible with reality?Is it combined with math, reading,social studies and fine arts or is itcompartmentalized into an artificial"subject" field?
5. Does the student participate in eval-uations that measure his growthin the processes of scientific inquiry?
6. Does the evaluation program in-clude use of student records whichindicate changes in behavior, theirwork products evaluated on thebasis of individual capacity, teacher-student interviews, inventories andquestionnaires, problem situationtests, observations of laboratoryprocedures and rating scales?
7. Is there variety in grouping struc-ture and freedom to change groupsize and composition?
8. Are self-discipline and self-controlencouraged without strict rules andregulations?
9. Does the program emphasizestrengths rather than weaknesses,success rather than failure, and in-dividuality rather than conformity?
10. Are instructional and laboratorymaterials provided in such quantityand quality to facilitate extensiveindividual participation in t h eadopted curricula?
Yes No
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11. Does each room where science istaught have the following char-acteristics:flexibilityproper heat and ventilationgood lightingmovable flat-top tables and chairssufficient. electrical circuits and out-
letsgas supply and outlets where neededsinks with running wa-zerfacilities for proper use of audio-
visual equipmentexhibit and display areasspace for individual and small group
projectssuitable areas for maintaining
living plants and animalsacid-resistant table tops and floor
coverings where neededpreparation area for teachersample storage with cabinets, shelves
filing cabinets (some with locks)safety devices (first-aid kit, goggles,
fire extinguisher)12. Are equipment and supplies stored
and organized for effective use?13. Are suitable types of basic equip-
ment (such as overhead projectors)and instructional aids (periodicals.reference books) easily accessible?
14. Are supplies simple, easily obtainedand common to the child's environ-ment (jars, cans, mud)?
15. Are adpquate inventory records andcontrols' maintained for equipmentand materials?
16. Do teachers seek to improve theirprofessional and scientific back-grounds by attending meetings,participating in in-service programs,working with consultants, readingjournals?
17. Have the board of education andthe school administration taken spe-cific action to enable and encourageteachers to update their professionaland academic qualifications?
18. Has a plan been developed to makeeffective use of the outdoors andareas of interest in the community ?
19. Have the scientific skills of parentsand other community residents beenexplored and utilized?
I
I
Role of the AdministratorAn effective developmental program that extends
the total school experience of young people cannotbe left to ,!,:hance. To insure such a program, doesthe administrator:
Provide the impetus for classroomchange which is educationally signifi-cant?
Work out lines of communication (in-cluding teachers, students, and pa-rents) for continuous science curricu-lum study and revision?
Facilitate the acquisition of necessaryequipment and materials to accom-modate the wide range of learningstyles and abilities of students?
Encourage innovative approaches tomeet the needs of science teachersthrough science workshops, and sched-ule time for exchange of ideas andplanning?
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Yes No
Role of the TeacherThe most important person in implementing a
good science program is the teacher. The teacher'sknowledge, behavior and strategies in respondingto students and handling their responses, questionsand ideas are determining factors in learning ex-periences. The science teacher is perceived as onewho:
1. Develops goals and objectives to im-plement and promote desirable taskinvolvement and positive behavioralchange.
2. Matches objectives with various ac-tivities designed to help studentsattain these goals.
3. Places emphasis on science proc-esses, conceptual schemes andvalues, with less emphasis on actualinformation.
4. Identifies activities which requiregroup work and establishes work-ing groups appropriate for the ac-tivity and students involved.
5. Provides time and opportunities forstudents to try their own sugges-tions, for inquiry and for discovery.
6. Works with teachers of other disci-plines and with resource personnelto provide more meaningful learn-ing experiences.
7. Communicates desirable attitudesand behaviors in all relationshipswith students and has a positiveself-image himself.
8. Understands and recognizes thevarious developmental levels of stu-dents (physical, intellectual, socialand emotional) and provides appro-priate educational experiences.
9. Cooperates with students in makingdecisions concerning their educationand does not make all the decisionsfor them or permit a fixed curricu-lum to determine the content andprocesses of learning.
Yes No
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10. Guides students to resources, books,people and equipment. Provides onlythat assistance that is necessary,helping children become independ-ent learners.
11. Encourages students' self-awarenessand self-actualization rather thanmerely preparation for future edu-cational activities.
12. Interacts verbally with individualsor small groups rather than withan entire class, asks good questionsand is an expert listener.
13. Gets involved with student concerns,has flexibility, openness to change,and can admit his errors ; is notoverly protective of his dignity, butis approachable, responsive, suppor-tive, sympathetic (rarely repri-mands or punishes).
14. Creates a learning environment com-patible with reality, an environmentof trust and acceptance where thedignity and worth of the individualis respected, where the child feelsfree to be curious, to make mistakesto learn from his environment andfrom his fellow students.
15. Grows in professional competence.
Yes No
Role of the StudentThe student is an actively involved individual ;
therefore, he should be able to:
1. Exhibit enthusiasm and excitementfor learning.
2. Experience the joy of investigationon his own and for his own reasons.
3. Explore objects, events or data sothat new relationships become evi-dent to him.
4. Initiate activity and make signifi-cant decisions about what he studies,how he completes activities, andwhen, how, and by whom his learn-ing is to be evaluated.
5. Explore concepts using his everydayenvironment rather than meaning-less examples in books.
6. Recognize the usefulness of scienceand technology.
7. Learn from mistakes withoutpenalty.
8. Share information and skills withothers.
9. Exhibit a positive self-concept.10. Laugh, play and interact with others.
Yes No
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11. Demonstrate development of scienceattitudes by :
. showing willingness to havehis ideas questioned and show-ing respect for the ideas ofothersattempting to validate infor-mation and observationsrecognizing the tentative na-ture of scientific informationand the pervading phenomenaof change throughout the uni-verseshowing awareness of the ne-cessity of intellectual honesty
12. Demonstrate skill development inthe processes of science by:1. observing and communicating
observations of scientific phe-nomenon
2. interpreting a given set of sci-entific data
3: stating a hypothesis in termsthat can be tested by investiga-tion
4. making an inference based onobserved events or data
5. making necessary measure-ments of a given object orphenomenon
6. classifying a group of objectsaccording to certain criteria
7. constructing a scientific model8. devising an investigation to test
a scientific hypothesis9. predicting the occcurrence of an
event based on a set of data10. keep accurate records.
Yes No
Curricular Programs
The following programs are among those which meet major objectives for students of science. Specialteacher training is highly desirable.
Name of Program
Science A ProcessApproach (S-APA)
Science CurriculumImprovement Study
(SCIS)
ElementaryScience Study
(ESS)
IntermediateScience CurriculumStudy (ISCS)
InteractionScience CurriculumProject (ISCP)
Interaction ofMan and theBiosphere
Interaction ofEarth & Time
Interaction ofMatter & Energy
Investigating theEarthEarthScience CurriculumProject (ESCP)
Life ScienceInvestigations Man& The Environment
(ERC-Life Sci.)
Me Now
Content
Wide coverage, vari-ous fields of science,some math & socialstudiesprocess skills
Ungraded, sequentialphysical & life science
Ungraded, modular,non-sequential unitsof wide range could beused with non-readers
Energy, Matter, proc-cess skills for heter-ogeneous groups &special activities forscientifically talented
Lab oriented programfor heterogeneousgroups & specialactivities for scientif-fically talented
Life Science
Earth Science
Physical Science (seedescription in S. C.Adopted Textbooks)
The Earth Sciences forscientifically talented.If Activities stressed,Heterogeneous classescan use this labapproach.
Life science withecological emphasisuseful for heteroge-neous groups
Life Science for non-reader
Level Source Necessary Space
K-6 Xerox Ed.Group Regular ClassroomDistribution Center555 Gotham Parkway,Carlstadt, N. J. 07072
K-6 Rand McNally Regular ClassroomP. 0. Box 7600Chicago, Ill. 60680
K up Webster McGrawHill-Manchester Rd.Manchester, Missouri63011
7-9 Silver BurdetteGeneral LearningLaboratory250 James St.Morristown, N. J. 07960
7-9 Rand McNallyP. 0. Box 7600Chicago, Ill. 60680
7
8
9
8-9 Houghton Mifflin666 Miami Circle, N.E.Atlanta, Ga. 30325
7-8 Houghton Mifflin Co.110 Tremont St.Boston, Mass. 02107
Mentallyhandicapped(M.A. 6-9)
22
Regular Classroom
Classroom Lab
Classroom Lab
Classroom Lab
Classroom Lab
Hubbard Scientific Co. Classroom labBox 105,Northbrook, Ill. 60062
Necessary Materials
Instructional materials forteachers, commentary forteachers, extra kits ofteaching aids
2 kits of instructional ma-terials each level (1 life,1 physical)
Choice by units-teachermanuals available (extra)
Student texts, Teachers'guideMaster set for studentssection sets
TextTeachers' guideLab materials
Teacher instructionalmaterialsLaboratory equip.Package separate kits
No kits-learning games-basic life-science equip.needed
4 unitsinstructors guidedaylight slides, film loops
Basic Teacher Training
Inservice training neces-sary consultant trainingavailableGuide for in-service training
Inservice training neces-sary consultant help, con-ferences,, workshops
Consultant & workshops
Consultant services
ApproximateInitial Cost
(Class of 30)
$500
$125 - $200
$12 - $150
Type of Structure
Highly structuredSequential
Moderately structured
Loosely structured
Master set for 5 sections Moderately structuredConferences, institutes of 30 students each $788
Consultant service,workshop
Consultant servicesinservice trainingdesirable
Life science backgroundhelpful
Life science background
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$375 if kit puchased. Highly structuredMost material can beobtained locally.
Complete class asst. $789 Highly structured asminimum $450 written but adaptable
Class set includingprinted materials andlearning games $42.15
$400 - $500
Moderately structured
Loosely structured
ADDITIONAL MATERIALS
Name of Program
People and TheirEnvironment
Content
Environmentaleducation(interdisciplinary)useful for heteroge-neous groups
Addison-Wesley Air, water, noiseEnvironmental pollutionStudies Series
Pathways in Modular biology,Science earth science,
chemistry, physics
Middle School Multi-disciplinaryLife Science Proj.of BSCS
Time, Space andMatter
EnvironmentalStudies Packets(ES)
Physical sciencegeology, astronomy,physics, chemistry,math. Interdiscipli-nary, could be usedwith non-readers andheterogeneous groups ;9 sequentialinvestigations
Suggestions for ex-ploring the environ-ment, useful with non-readers, heteroge-neous groups, andinterdisciplinaryprograms
Level Source
1-12 Copies distributed to allS. C. schoolsadditional copiesJ. G. Ferguson Pub. Co.6 N. Michigan Ave.Chicago, Ill. 60602
Necessary Space
Classroom &outdoor
Open Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. Classroom &Menlo Park outdoorReading, Mass.
7 up Globe Book Co.Written on Dept. B-20lower 5 and 6 175 Fifth Ave.grade level New York, N. Y. 10010
6-8 integrated BSCS Being developed toprogram de- P. 0. Box 930 be tested in class-signed specifi- Boulder, Colo. 80302 room Sept. 1972cally for mid-dle schoolstudents forheterogeneousgroups
8, 9, 10 Webster McGraw Classroom LabHill, Manchester Rd.Manchester, Mo. 63011
K-12 Environmental Studies Outdoor classroomProjectBox 1559Boulder, Colorado80302
24
Initial CostNecessary Materials Basic Prog. Teacher Tr. (Class of 30) Type of Structure
Natural basic science Minimal Loosely structuredequipment
Easily obtainable Minimal Moderately structured
Soft & hardback texts, Minimallab books Moderately structured
Modules Minimal Moderately structured
Student, class teacher Training program $409 (for 30) Loosely structuredequip. packages recommended Does not include printed(No text) Consultant services materialsScience Reading Series
Natural Pks. 1 and 2 $10 OpensupplementaryTeaching non-guide not a total program
25
111.1 bimi burl 11111 in-Ti kir-4
Rationale
Science education, having a history of change, isin the midst of another revision in emphasis ; thistime toward a more "humanistic" and pragmaticapproach. No longer is the thrust to turn out morescientists and students who think like scientists. Nolonger are courses to be so pure, theoretical, andmathematical that only the brightest students cancomprehend them.
On the contrary, the aim of science education to-day is "scientific literacy" for the masses. Everyoneis affected by scientific research and technology andshould have opportunities to learn what science reallyis, how it got that way, and, how to cope with theconditions which science creates. The National Sci-ence Teachers Association has described the purposeof science education in a "Position Statement OnSchool Science Education for the 70's" as follows :
"The major goal of science education is to developscientifically literate and personally concerned indi-viduals with a high competence for rational thoughtand action. This choice of goals is based on the beliefthat achieving scientific literacy involves the de-velopment of attitudes, process skills, and concepts,necessary to meet the more general goals of all edu-cation, such as:
learning how to learn, how to attack new prob-lems, how to acquire new knowledgeusing rational processesbuilding competence in basic skillsdeveloping intellectual and vocational compe-tenceexploring values in new experiencesunderstanding concepts and generalizationslearning to live harmoniously within the bio-sphere
27
Above all, the school must develop in the individ-ual an ability to learn under his own initiative andan abiding interest in doing so." (NSTA, The ScienceTeacher, Vol. 38, Nov. 1971.)
A scientifically literate person has an understand-ing of the conceptual schemes and processes of sci-ence and can apply this understanding. The concept-ual schemes provide the organizational frameworkfor a science course. Students of varied ability levelsand .backgrounds can work together within a givenconceptual scheme although involved in activities ofdiverse complexity. Slow learners can concentrateon a few essential ideas, while the more able studentsmaintain their interest as they learn to see the inter-relationships of the schemes in diverse scientific dis-ciplines.
Processes of science involve numerous skills,modes of inquiry, and inductive and deductive rea-soning. Of necessity, many activities must be pro-vided if students are to develop skills and apply themto everyday situations. Since processes are behav-ioral in nature, they may form a basis for assessingstudent growth.
Instruction that does not relate to living and doesnot provide the learner with standards by which hecan weigh his own behavior is of little worth to him.Although mastery of the processes of science andcomprehension of the concepts can provide the stu-dent with valuable tools for critically evaluating hisactions, desirable attitudes and standards of be-havior should emerge from scientific learning ex-periences which can give direction to the student'spresent and future life.
Checklist Instructions
The following checklists are designed to assist theadministrator in his evaluation of the science pro-gram. They should be used for each room where sci-ence is taught. Three categories have been describedfor most items:
1. designate minimum rating,2. designate recommended rating,3. is considered exceptional.This will enable administrators to get the total
numerical rating of their program. If the rating isbelow minimum, put an X in the box provided.
While the checklists are devised for the traditional
A. Furniture
A Tabulation Sheet for these checklists is foundon Page :37.secondary science program, the format may be usedfor experimental courses, interdisciplinary courses,mini-courses, and other innovative science programs.
Facilities and SuppliesFacilities and supplies should be flexible enough
to accommodate a variety of students, learningstyles, interests and abilities. Without adequate ma-terials and equipment children do not study sciencebut study about science.
1. flat, horizontal working surface (library or cafeteria-type tables. Every student must have working space.
2. movable tables to accommodate 2-4 students (trape-zoidal shaped tables provide flexibility.) book storage sothat books need not be on tables.
3. student tables with acid resistant surface, each suppliedwith gas, electricity and water accommodating 2-4 stu-dents. Facilities available at all times and may be usedin a class-lab setting.
B. Accessory Furniture
1. demonstration table, storage, at least one water source,sink, display areas and surfaces for collections and proj-ects, bookcase, locked file cabinet, and teacher's desk.
2. demonstration table with gas, electricity and water andlocked storage, appropriate storage (some locked, someventilated for special chemicals, some special for micro-scopes.) fume hood, bookcases and display case, displayand project area, 6 sinks with running water.
3. (2.) and space for independent student work such asstudent carrels or an adjoining room for preparation andconference.
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X 1 2 3
. .to to V 0
to, t..
X 1 2 3
C. Room Accessories
1. chalkboard visible to all areas of the room, 1 cork board,wall clock with second hand, room darkening facilities,chart holder.
2. (1) and corkboard or pegboard on all wall surfaces thatdo not have cabinets, permanent provision for projectionscreen, and other hanging objects, window ledges orshelves about 10 inches deep for display. The roomshould be colorful and not drab.
3. (2) and pegboard.
D.
E.
Utilities
1. Any building must comply with state building code speci-fications. Master cnt off valves for gas, electricity andwater should be placed in each room (preferably near orin teacher demonstration table). In school with septictanks, sink drains should lead to a separate drain field.Sinks with cold watersinks and pipes of corrosion andchemically resistant material, 1 outlet and 1 heat sourcefor every 4-5 students, 1 electric hot plate, 1 separate hotplate, 1 separate waste container, strainers over drainopening.
2. (1) and fume hood, 5 sinks with running water, gas jetfor each student station, outlet for every 2 students, 25foot drop cord, 2 sinks should be deep and should havehot water. 2-20 amp. 110 v. circuits for general service,1-30 amp. 110 v. circuit for refrigerator, heater, hotplate, etc., 1-220 v. circuit for ovens, stoves, etc., withoutlets in appropriate positions.
3. (2) and hot and cold water at each sink, distilled waterin preparation room, water, gas and electricity for eachteam of 2-4 students.
Safety
1. Fire extinguisher, instruction sheet for accident pro-cedures prominantly displayed and discussed by teacher,safety glasses, first-aid kit, 1 fire blanket, flooring thatis not slippery, protective aprons.
2. (1) and safety charts displayed, locked storage, eyewash and shower facility.
3. Annual inservice for teacher training in classrom safetyprocedures. The NSTA publication "How to Provide forSafety" may be used.
29
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
F. Equipment and SuppliesAudiovisual
1. Overhead projector, filmstrip projector, 16 mm projector,2" x 2" slide projector, 8 mm film projector, tape recorderand duplicating machine available to the teacher but nothoused in the room. Charts and models appropriate tothe subject taught. At least 25 science filmstrips, a setof transparencies and tapes.
2. (1) and an overhead projector assigned to the room.Micro-projector available in the department. Large num-ber of charts and models (torso, eye, ear, leaf, root,heart, molecules)
3. (2) and equipment for videotaping available, 8 mm pro-jector and film loops in the department, 16 mm projectorassigned to the department, T. V. facilities available.
G. Equipment and Supplies
1. The teacher can demonstrate that enough science sup-plies are available either in this room or in a storage areato cover a minimum listing of activities to be performedby students during the year. Recommended lists may befound in the teachers guide being used. Tool kit. Equip-ment should be adequate for at least one set per team of4 students. An inventory of materials has been made anda copy distributed to each science teacher and theirprincipal.
2. (1) and 75% of the necessary supplies and equipmentavailable in the room where it will be used.
3. (1) and 95% of the supplies and materials permanentlyassigned to the room where it will be used. Equipmentadequate for teams of 2 students, materials for specialstudies.
H. Resource Materials
1. Biennial review of library holdings and use. Teachersshould recommend new books and periodicals to the li-brarian for purchase. The teacher should have guides tocurrent text and lab books, guides and handbooks, testitem reference books, standardized tests.
2. Classroom library for student use including other sciencetextbooks, and manuals, pamphlets, current science cata-logs, locally relevant resources,
3. Additional handbooks and mechanical guides and hand-books, additional publications in greater depth and va-riety. Materials on varied reading levels and directed tovaried student interest.
30
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
I. Space
1. Rooms are for one science only. When enrollment is lessthan 500 students the chemistry classroom may beshared with physical science or physics. Where less than200 students are enrolled in school, a multi-purpose sci-ence room may be used.Storage area specifically designed for the science to betaught. Minimum of 45 sq. ft. per pupil in the scienceroom.
2. All science rooms on the same wing.Laboratory and/or work roms located on ground floorwith direct access to outside.School room nature study area provided.Separate room for storage and preparation.
3. Additional space for animal and plant growth areas,office or conference space adjacent to the science room.Special area for faculty and for student research.
Note: Locked storage space or cabinets for all hazardous re-agents and potentially explosive or flammable materialswith adequate ventilation is essential in all science de-
ll partments or rooms.
I J. Outdoor Use
1. Science teachers are encouraged to use the outside forfirst hand science observation and experience.
I2. (1) plus the school property provides opportunities for
students to study most of the following:Plant growth, Noise pollution
iDrainage patternsErosion
Water qualityPopulation density
Soil types Ecological difference
iPlant successionAir pollution
Ecological similaritiesEcological variety
Wind currents ChangeMicro climates InterdependanceClouds Heredity as well asSolid waste disposal environmental influences
problems
( 3. (2) plus science and social studies teachers work to-gether on environmental studies and projects.
[
I
Curriculum ChecklistsThis guide does not provide a recipe for a perfect science
1
curriculum. Each school, after careful study of its own situa-tion, must develop its own curriculum to meet the needs of itsown students. The following components should be considered:
1 31
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
A. General Program
1. The program stresses both processes of science and sci-entific concepts. Science is presented as a process of solv-ing problems through laboratory investigations andclass discussion. Conceptual schemes provide the basicframework of the program. At least one period per weekis devoted to laboratory investigation by the students.Students demonstrate acquisition of scientific under-standings and skills in their performance of certain tasksas well as through tests, laboratory reports and specialprojects. Classes should last 60 minutes to provide ade-quate lab time.
2. (1) and the curriculum has been designed and perform-ance objectives established to meet the needs of a givengroup of students. Laboratory investigations twice aweek, using an inquiry oriented program (such as IPS,BSCS, CHEM STUDY, PSSC, HPP), one or two doubleperiods for lab activities are provided.
3. (2) and the curriculum is designed and periodically mod-ified to meet individual needs and concerns of the stu-dents. Open-ended investigations are emphasized ratherthan step-by-step directed experiments. Laboratory ses-sions are provided at least three times per week.Emphasis is on latest and most significant developmentsin science and their relationship to society.
B. Course Offerings
1. Physical science, a laboratory oriented course, is pro-vided which includes concepts from the areas of chemis-try and physics for students who do not elect thesecourses or as background for them.Biology, a laboratory oriented course, is provided withemphasis on those areas of greatest concern to studentsincluding health, homeostasis, heredity, ecology, be-havior.Physics and chemistryboth laboratory oriented, areoffered each year or they may be offered on alternatingyears.
2. (1) and special courses to meet individual needs (ex.advanced courses in biology or chemistry emphasizingresearch and using at least 50% of the time in laboratorystudy. Special programs for the non-reader and slowto learn ; special programs for the potential drop-out).Special vocational oriented courses such as horticulture,floriculture, forestry, etc.)
3. (2) and independent study programs and mini coursesto provide increased options for students.
32
x I 2 3
X 1 2 3
Teacher
A. Educational Qualifications
1. South Carolina certification with undergraduate degreeand minimum of 18 hours in the subject being taught.
2. Certification in the subject being taught and an urci,---graduate major or equivalent hours in the subject beingtaught. At least 6 hours in each of two other scienceareas.
3. (2) and a MA, MS, or MAT degree with major emphasisin science.
B. Experience
1, Inservice training program emphasizing natural scienceat least 2 days per year.
2. Has attended summer institute or major inservice train-ing in the area of science being taught, science hobbies.
3. (2) and science research experience or work experiencein the field of science such as a related industry or hos-pital lab. Summer institute or other college sciencecourses at least once every three years.
C. Professional Activities
1. Membership in one national and one state wide scienceorganization.
2. (1) and attendance at a state level meeting at least oncea year.
3. (2) and active membership and subscription to severalscience journals.
D. Performance Criterion
1. Provides regular laboratory experiences.Communicates well with students.Provides variety of learning materials, methods, andstudent experienceslaboratory, audiovisual, discus-sion, etc.
2. (1) and flexible and innovative program using inquiryapproach effectively.Uses community resources successfully including fieldtrips and outside speakers.
3. (2) and develops some original materials and methods.Encourages students in individual research and sciencefairs and junior academy participation. Works with ascience club.
33
3
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
E. Skills
The following statements are associated with classroombehaviors of teachers. The teacher will be able to:
1. identify student behaviors which are appropriate for agiven exercise.
2. match behavioral objectives with the various activitiesin the exercise.
3. encourage the student to demonstrate ideas.4. match instructional activities to student progress.5. probe students to extend their responses.
6. establish classroom working groups appropriate to givenactivities.
7. identify activities which require group work.
8. identify specific procedures that assist in preparation forteaching a science exercise.
9. identify student behaviors related to processes of sci-ence.
10. identify and demonstrate the use of teaching strategieswhich are compatible with the philosophy developed forthe teaching of science. (Accreditation Standards, Flor-ida Public Schools, 1969-70).
Administration
Success of any program depends on teamwork. Cooperation,consideration and good communication are essentials.
A. Department Chairman
1. A science department with more than three teachershas a department chairman who will coordinate theprogram, consider the curriculum and equipment, recog-nize needs, and suggest changes.The department chairman meas with the principal afterdepartmental meetings to discuss budgeting needs, in-service training programs, and new curricula.
2. The science department chairman has one free periodfor department work in addition to the regular planningperiod.
3. The chairman is paid a supplement for additional duties.
B. Guidance Personnel
1. Guidance personnel are familiar with the various pro-grams of the science department so that they may helpstudents in their selection of courses.
2. Guidance personnel are aware of specific skills and back-ground necessary for a particular course to insure properstudent placement.
3. Guidance personnel work with individual students andthe science teachers to help them develop their interests,skills, and special abilities.
34
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
C. PrincipalTeacher
1. Teacher qualifications are considered in making assign-ments.
2. (1) and reviews teacher assignment annually in termsof academic and related qualifications and teacher prefer-ence. Provides time for professional growth and trainingand to attend professional meetings.
3. (2) and provides time and pay for teachers to attendprofessional meetings. Encourages professional growthby promotional pay credits for inservice, institutes, grad-uate work and visits to other schools where innovativeprograms are being conducted.
D. PrincipalScheduling
1. A planning or preparation period is provided.
2. (1) and in scheduling teacher classes course sequenceis considered so that a teacher will not be required tofollow a chemistry class with a physical science classand then reassemble chemistry materials for anotherchemistry class.
3. (2) and in scheduling students the principal considersdouble periods for lab courses and makes special arrange-ments for mini courses.
E. PrincipalPolicies
1. Policies are provided for use of outside speakers.
2. (1) and a student assistant program is established forselected students. Provision is made for field trips andoutdoor study.
3. (2) and provision is made for free transportation forfield trips of,1 or more days duration. Experimental pro-grams and curriculum projects are encouraged.
Financing and PurchasingWise planning and budgeting can result in a good program
without excessive cost to the school.1. Each teacher should have identified what activities will
be performed during the year and what equipment willbe necessary. Materials should be ordered in such quan-tity that students may participate in teams of 2-4.
2. (1) and petty cash fund should be provided for the de-partment to be used for local purchases.The science department meets to discuss needs for thecoming year and propose an approximate budgetaryrequirement. This is submitted to principal and superin-tendent for approval. Members of the department areconsulted if changes are necessary.
3. (2) and the department discusses and plans for institut-ing new curricular programs.
3541
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
X 1 2 3
Date Room No
(Tea out this page and use with checklists on pages 28 -85)
SECONDARY SCIENCE ANALYSIS TABULATION SHEET
UnacceptableX
Minimum1
Recommended2
Exceptional3
Facilities and SuppliesA. FurnitureB. Accessory furnitureC. Room accessoriesD. UtilitiesE. SafetyF. Equipment and suppliesAudio-visualG. Equipment and suppliesH. Resource MaterialsI. SpaceJ. Outdoor use
CurriculumA. General ProgramB. Course Offerings
TeacherA. Educational qualificationsB. ExperiencesC. Professional ActivitiesD. Performance criterionE. Skills
AdministrationA. Department ChairmanB. Guidance PersonnelC. PrincipalTeacherD. PrincipalSchedulingE. PrincipalPolicies
Financing and Purchasing
Column totals
0 - 21 unacceptable
22 - 33 marginal
34 - 45 fair46 - 55 good
56 - 66 = excellent
37/3
TOTAL SCORE
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1
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t
Curricular Programs
If the purpose of the high school science programis to be scientific literacy for all, then each studentmust have the opportunity to acquire basic under-standings and skills necessary to:
1. understand himself
2. understand his changing environment3. use the processes of inquiry to continue his
learning and evaluation of information4. appreciate science and its contributions to his
life and society.
Curriculum content designed to achieve the objec-tives listed must provide sufficient variation to meetthe diverse needs and interests of the students. Sev-eral types of programs are possible.
Structured programIn this program emphasis is placed on under-
standing and a sequence of concepts derivedlargely from commercial texts.
Physical science (9th) and biological science(10th) should be provided for all students. Ma-terials are available in both areas for non-academic students. In programs such as ProjectSucceed where only one year of science is sched-uled, a selection of concepts from both areasshould be included. At least 20% of the studentstime should be devoted to laboratory investiga-tions (Standards for Accredited High Schoolsof South Carolina). In courses for the non-academic, students should be involved in labora-tory investigations almost every day.
Both chemistry (11th) and physics (12th)must be provided each year or, if enrollment is300 or less ; offered on alternate years.
Advanced courses are provided for the aca-demically talented who have special interests inscience ; but not for students who take vocationaland technical courses. Students taking advancedcourses have had Biology I and Chemistry I,and it is recommended that they be currentlyenrolled in physics. These courses should providethe students with a working knowledge of thescientific processes of investigation, and an op-portunity to investigate problems, using sciencereference materials and statistical evaluation ofdata. Students should be encouraged to engagein an independent study of scientific problems
39
that interest them. At least 35% of the timeshould be devoted to laboratory investigation(S. C. Standards). A double period is almostmandatory for these advanced courses.
Moderately structured programThe moderately structured program is more in-
terdisciplinary and less sequential. It providesmore options for the students in the form of se-mester, quarterly or "mini-courses." In this type ofprogram greater emphasis is placed on problemsolving, laboratory research, seminars and inde-pendent study. Numerous materials are availableto schools interested in this approach, including:
1. BSCS Laboratory Blocks (13 paperbacks) de-veloped and tested by the Biological SciencesCurriculum Study and published by D. C. Heathand Co. They include the following titles:
Animal BehaviorAnimal Growth and DevelopmentEvolutionField EcologyGenetic ContinuityLife in the SoilMicrobes: Their Growth, Nutrition and
InteractionPhysiological AdaptionPlant Growth and DevelopmentRadiation and its Use in BiologyRegulation in Plants by HormonesThe Complementary of Structure and
FunctionThe Molecular Basis of Metabolism
2. Ideas and Investigations in Science by Wongand Dolmetz, published by Prentice Hall, con-s:3ts of 10 paperbacks including the followingtopics in physical science and biology:
Predicting InquiryMatter EvolutionEnergy GeneticsInteraction, HomeostasisTechnology Ecology
3. Terms, Tables and Skills, published by SilverBurdett, could be used as a basis to develop amini-course in scientific computations. It coverssubjects such as systems, standards, scientificnotation, significant figures, dimensional anal-
I,
ysis, logarithms, slide rule, error analysis andmany other useful skills.
4. Project Physics, published by Holt Co., couldalso be broken down into short courses. It wouldprobably be necessary to have some sequentialscheduling. (For example the section on thenucleus should be preceded by the section onthe atom.) Unit 2 of the Project Physics coursecould be used as a short course in Astronomy.Other possible sources for astronomy include:Modern Space Science by Trunklein and Huffer,published by Holt. The University of IllinoisAstronomy Program, published by Harper andRoe, is composed of numerous paperback book-lets which could be the basis of a short coursein Astronomy.
5. Modules, The Use of Modules in College Biol-ogy Teaching, published by the Commission onUndergraduate Education in the Biological Sci-ences, offers much help to the teacher or schoolwho is developing a curriculum of short courses.
6. Okemos High School, Okemos, Michigan, hasdeveloped a program composed of short courseswhich are described in their curriculum publi-cation.
7. Eight modules have been developed by highschool teachers and teachers in the ChemistryDepartment at the University of Maryland.Experimental copies of the following modulesmay be obtained from Harper and Row:
Reactions and Reason, an Introductory Chem-istry Module
40
Diversity and Periodicity, an Inorganic Chem-istry Module
Form, and Function, an Organic ChemistryModule
Molecules in Living Systems, a BiochemistryModule
The Heart of the Matter, a Nuclear ChemistryModule
Earth and its Neighbors, a GeochemistryModule
The Delicate Balance, an EnvironmentalChemistry Module
Communities of Molecules, a Physical Chem-istry Module
8. District 40, Moline, Illinois has printed a seriesof modules for their program called, "TowardHumanization and Individualization of Sci-ence." They may be purchased from the staffat the school district for $2 per module. Themodules are initial drafts which are being usedin pilot classes. Revisions and corrections areplanned for the summer of 1973. A few titlesfrom this program include:
Is It True Blonds Have More Fun?Should You Throw Away the Box Before You
Eat the Cracker Jack?The Answer Tablea more detailed study of
the uses of the Periodic TableBonding and StructureFlying SaucersDo You "Dig" Dolphins?
9. A module called Science Problems could includea study of drugs, pollution, medical advances,population problems. A program based on"problems" is available from McGraw-Hill Co.It was develped by the Engineering ConceptsCurriculum Project and is called The ManMade World. This interdisciplinary approachinvolves mathematics, social problems, and sci-ence, providing a one year program.
10. Another program called ERC Science Problemshas been developed by the educational ResearchCouncil of America. It involves independentstudy using student guide cards and resourcebooks. Titles in this program for non-science11th and 12th graders 'include:
Behavioral Science Measuring StarsChemical Analysis PhotographyChromatography Plant GrowthElectricity Slotcar ScienceMap Making Survival
Many other paperbacks and programmed ma-terials are available to schools who are consid-ering changes in their curricular structure.However, teachers may wish to develop theirown courses based on their special interests andon student interests. Nature study, for example,may have as its goal the development of studentappreciation for the world of living things. Itcould include macro and microscopic studies,studies of birds, populations, ecosystems, pho-tography and field work.
Loosely Structured ProgramThe present practice of providing instruction in
science by separate and distinct disciplines has notsucceeded in producing a scientifically literate soci-ety. Therefore a unified approach is a possible al-ternative.
A scientific investigation is usually not thought ofin terms of its biology parts, its chemistry parts, orits physics parts; it is considered a procedure forsolving the problem or for answering the question.It is for these reasons that this guide recommendsinterdisciplinary mini-courses, based on societalproblems and using the processes and concepts ofscience, to explore solutions to the problems.
There is no way that students can know all thatthere is to know in any one small area of science.However, he can learn much of the nature of scienceand the concepts and processes of science as hestudies situations of concern to him. Mastering alittle at this level will provide the tools for greatermastery at the college level and for greater use ineveryday life for those who do not continue theirscience education.
41
A flexible class-lab including a variety of A-Vmaterials as well as science equipment is essential toprovide for differences among students. Field tripsshould be frequent with an extensive use of the out-of-doors and the community as the classroom. Thestudent should cooperate with the teacher in thechoice of activities best suited to his schedule, in-terest and level of performance ability. It must beremembered that we do not individualize instructionto produce uniform products all behaving in the sameway. The individuality of learners must be fosteredand the ends of our educational program must be asunique as ability, interest and personality warrant.
A diagram and sample showing a possible pro-cedure for structuring a program which is not onlyinterdisciplinary but also may be used with indi-vidualized instruction class instruction may befound on page 44.
Name of Program
The Man-Made WorldEngineering ConceptsCurriculum Project
(ECCP)
Chemistry : AnInvestigative Approach(Chem Study)
ChemistryExperimental Foundation
Ideas and Investigationsin Science
Physical Science
Content Level Source
based on a "Systems" approach to solving social 11-12and environmental problemsinterdisciplinaryemphasizes technological literacy
emphasis on experimentation, observation and 11measurement leading to understanding of con-cepts. Opportunity for discovery (see StateAdopted Text)
Same as above 11
5 major ideas taught using a lab approach. 9-10predicting, matter, energy, interaction, tech-nology, designed for the "educationally unin-volved" poor reader, potential drop-out ; stresssuccess
Biology 5 major ideas : inquiry, evolution, genetics,homeostasis, ecology
lab approach to Physical Sciencelab activities 9are part of text (see State Adopted Textdescription)
emphasis on cell and organismic levels of Biol- 10ogy for average and above (see State AdoptedText)
for above average (see State Text Adoption) 10Biochemical evolutionary approach
Introductory PhysicalScience (IPS)
Biological Science,An Inquiry Into Life(BSCS Yellow)
Biological Science:Molecules to Man(BSCS Blue)
High SchoolBiology
. (BSCS Green)
Biological Science:Patterns and Processes
Physics(PSSC)
The Project PhysicsCourse (HPP)
for average and above (see State Text Adop- 10tion)Ecological approach
for below average(see State Text Adoption)
Webster-McGraw-Hill
HoughtonMifflin
Prentice-Hall
Prentice-Hall
Prentice-Hall
Harcourt,Brace &Javanovich
HoughtonMifflin
RandMcNally
10 Holt, Rinehart,Winston
average and above 12(see State Text Adoption)
broad, humanistic, lab oriented approach
Sets of cards for each problem Consultant services availableTeacher's guide
42
Heath
12 Holt, Rinehart9th grade Winstonreading level
$466.40 and lab materials usu-ally found in high school
Necessary Training Teacher Training Approximate Initial CostText Methods of instruction include: $1,000 - $4,000 depending onLab manual independent study, lab investiga- present inventory of equipmentTeacher's manual tions, seminars & discussionLab equipment groups, computer simulations.
Training is recommended andavailable.
Text and lab in a single volumeTeacher's guide
Consultants and institutes fortraining are available but notessential
Basic chemical equipment andsupplies only
Text Same as above Same as aboveLab manualTeacher's guide
5 paperbacks (1 for each idea) or 1 Consultant availabletext and studert lab bookTeacher's guideLab materials
Same as above
May use local materials ifpackage is purchasedcost range is per package
Same as above Same as above
Text Consultant services available $678 highly structuredTeacher's guideSpecially designed materials
Text Consultant available Basic biology materials noTeacher's guide special equipmentLab book
Text (lab included in text)Teacher's guide
Same as above
Same as above
TextLab manualTeacher's guideFilms available
TextHandbook, Teachers' Resource Books,Readers, Programmed instructionbooklets, (Average materials avail-able)
Science Problems(ERC Sci Problems)
Same as above
Same as above
Same as above
Consultant available
Same as above
Same as above
Same as above
lab science course for those who do not take 11 & 12chemistry and physics ; individualized, inter-disciplinary, problem centered, modules.Titles include: Plant Growth, Slot Car Science,Survival, Behavioral Science, Chemical Anal-ysis, Electricity, Photography
Not commer-cially published
CONSTRUCTION OF INTERDISCIPLINARY MODULES
Consider
Consider
STUDENTNEEDS
\LOCAL COMMUNITY
SITUATION
SCHOOLPHILOSOPHYCONCERNING
SCIENCE EDUCATION
,--------'
..----'---CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES OF SCIENCE
(see Appendix I)
Choose one concept for basic structure (ex. homeostasis or change or organization)
PREASSESSMENT
$ /---List (for individual students) PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES :....what student should be able to doat the end of the instructionalprogram that he can't do at thebeginning)
PRES'RIPTION
STUDENT INTERESTAND
ABILITY LEVELS
___...--- based on conceptsskills and attitudeswhich relate to theconceptual scheme andstudent characteristics
t(This may involve a problem which the student
chooses to study.)
1
STUDENT BEHAVIOR OR1
PERFORMANCE
IREASSESSMENT
I
tNEW OBJECTIVES
1
NEW TASKS AND LEARNING SITUATIONS
1
NEW BEHAVIOR OR PERFORMANCE
This continuum should involve concept, skill and attitude development.
44
TASKSAND
LEARNINGSITUATIONS
EVALUATIONDetermination ofchange in behavioror attitude
EVALUATION
1
SAMPLE INTERDISCIPLINARY MODULE
Conceptual SchemeMatter is subject to changewith time. Such changes occur at various rates andin various patterns.
The student and teacher, together, consider theinterests and needs and determine the medium whichmay be used to develop understanding of this con-cept. They may consider the following:
changes in soil, water, airchanges in earth's structurechanges in chemicalschanges due to pollution or to natural causeschanges in biological systems succession,
growth, development
45
changes due to man's interventionherbicides,plant growth hormones, etc.
With a study of any of these areas, the studentwill gain an understanding of the concept and beable to develop those skills which he needs most.Some students will need to develop measuring skills,some interpreting data, some need skills in graph-ing, etc. Tasks should be chosen which will help eachchild with his special needs. A variety of learningactivities are described in commercial texts and othermaterials. Frequently, children of similar interestsmay wish to work together, so that the teacher mayspend most of the class time involved with smallgroups.
PREPARATION FOR TEACHERS OF SCIENCEElementary and Middle School SciencePreparation
Science in grades K through eight plays a verysignificant role in modern education. More studentsstudy science in these grades than in all senior highscience courses combined. In addition, students with-in this grade range encounter science during a timewhen they are particularly impressionable. At thistime their science interests can be easily developedor destroyed. Therefore, in order to assure adequatescience education, teacher training programs mustprovide emphasis not only on content but also oninstructional techniques.
Teachers need courses based upon broad ideascommon to most science disciplines rather than mem-orization of facts. The courses should be taughtusing the inquiry techniques that they are expectedto teach, with materials that they will be expected touse. For teachers of science in the elementary andmiddle school, science preparation should include atleast 24% of their undergraduate program.
Study in the area of science should include biology,chemistry, earth science, and physics. The total prep-aration should include mathematics as it applies toa functional understanding of science.
If our emphasis is on "learning" rather than on"teaching", teachers need less training in the dis-pensing of information and more experience in ap-propriate methods of interacting with children. Theymust have an understanding of intellectual levels ofdevelopment and of various learning styles. Theyshould be able to use this information in the develop-ment of curricula, methods, and materials.
Teacher education programs, both preservice andinservice, should be oriented toward performancerather than lecture. Inservice programs should in-clude the skills which are necessary to optimal func-tioning of the classroom teacher. This would includeskills in :
1. helping students to develop concepts2. helping students to develop inquiry and proc-
ess abilities3. designing and maintaining appropriate lab-
oratory activities4. working with a team of teachers to provide
a more relevant and interdisciplinary ap-proach to learning
5. maintaining the facilities, equipment, learn-ing materials, and time for an effective
46
science program (including organization,storage, distribution and ordering of mater-ials and equipment)
6. group dynamics and varied grouping prac-tices, thus maintaining flexibility of classstructure
7. identifying individual student needs, provid-ing experiences appropriate to these needsand assessment techniques to determine levelof success
8. use of multi-media materials and equipment9. counseling and other student-teacher inter-
actions10. use of "inquiry" methods
Most of the new science programs available aredesigned for active student participation which re-quires special teaching skills and techniques. Teach-ers should no longer rely solely on a textbook, butmust develop sufficient confidence to come out frombehind their desks and work with their children.
Some schools have purchased packages which arenot used due to lack of teacher training. All elemen-tary and middle school science teachers should berequired to participate in a course emphasizing themethods of teaching science, especially methodsneeded to teach the new programs.
In other words, a general elementary methodscourse should not be allowed to suffice. The sciencemethods course should stress ways of encouragingindividual, small group, and large group studentparticipation and laboratory study, with special em-phasis on development of process skills. If teachersare not taught by inquiry, it is unlikely that theywill teach that way themselves.
Educational courses have little meaning to thestudent unless he is exposed to a planned sequenceof experiences, including observation in elementaryschools, culminating in full-time supervised teach-ing. These experiences should include laboratoryinvestigations, field trips and other activities thatinvolve the methods and processes of science. Theyshould also include problem solving, critical thinkingand methods of inquiry.Secondary Science Preparation
The newer science courses developed for secondaryschools have all emphasized an inquiry approach.However, most of our present science teachers havenot experienced inquiry methods of instruction inthe science or methods courses that they have taken.Science courses for preservcie or inservice education
I
i
[
(
i
(
I
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should be organized and taught using the philosophyof inquiry, using interdisciplinary themes, and pro-viding experiences necessary to deal with this phil-osophy in high schools. They should include:
1. experiences that lead to incorporating under-standing, knowledge and skills in science
2. experiences that lead to incorporating skillsin problem solving, critical thinking andmethods of inquiry
3. experiences that lead to understanding therelationships between branches of science andother areas of learning
4. awareness of historical as well as contempo-rary scientific developments
5. experience with children, especially labora-tory and field experiences which illustratethe processes of science
6. opportunities to develop ability to inquirethrough designing and conducting their ownlaboratory experiences (individually or ingroups)
7. opportunities to consider purposes, methods,materials, and evaluation procedures
8. opportunities to identify and develop teach-ing procedures to meet varied student needs
9. become aware of different approaches andtrends in science teaching and learning styles
10. experience in analyzing and developing cur-ricula
It would be advisable for teacher preparation pro-grams to provide a laboratory course in experimentalprocedures and scientific techniques as they applyto the secondary school child. High school teachers
should have instruction in each of the major dis-ciplines with an emphasis in one. If they are teach-ing advanced placement courses or second yearcourses, they should have a master's degree withspecialization in the area that they are teaching.
Inservice
Inservice programs are needed to facilitate theimplementation of inquiry-oriented science pro-grams. The State Department of Education, in co-operation with colleges, universities and the localschool administration, should work together to de-velop programs that meet the needs of specific localsituations. They can also work together in the devel-opment of materials, evaluation, and follow-up activ-ities. Teachers are usually aware of their own needsand should be consulted in the planning of inserviceworkshops.
Some inservice work must be of a general nature,but some must deal specifically with the rationale ofthe science curriculum which the school districtchooses to use. Many inservice programs have beendesigned to provide the teacher with better back-ground in subject matter. Some teachers may needmore content understanding but most have theirgreatest problems in areas of teacher-student inter-actions and science processes.
It is the responsibility of the school system toinitiate and carry out the specific training necessaryto implement a particular science curriculum pro-gram. Teachers must have adequate preparation ifa new program is to be successful. If the teacher isexpected to change teaching strategies, support ofthe administration is essential.
L-7c1
) 1 ( )
Art
In-Service Checklist
1. Is the program designed to trainteachers who will be implementing anew science curriculum ?
2. Will the program give teachers in-creased confidence in their ability toteach science?
3. Does the program provide guidancein the use of time, of space, and ofpresent physical facilities?
4. Does the program provide oppor-tunities for the teachers to becomefamiliar with science teaching ma-terials and aids?
5. Does the program provide experi-ences in methods of inquiry andproblem solving?
6. Does the program increase theteacher's understanding of the na-ture of science and its value in theeducational curriculum?
7. Does the program provide back-ground information which theteachers may need ?
8. Does the program provide oppor-tunities for teachers to participatein experiences and investigationsthat the children will be involvedin?
9. Will the teachers be taught in thesame manner in which they will beexpected to teach ?
10. Will the program help teachers inthe identification of goals, learnercharacteristics and needs, learningconditions necessary to achieve thegoals, and mechanisms for assess-ing progress?
Yes No
-4o,,
Use of Consultants Checklist
Another valuable part of an inservice educationprogram is consultant help. Consultants are avail-able from other public schools, from colleges anduniversities, from publishing houses, and from theState Department of Education. In order to assistschools in the use of these services, the followingcheck list was designed from the article by W. W.Savage in the Education Report, University of SouthCarolina, vol. 14, February, 1972, Number 4.
1. Do you need a consultant or aspeaker?
2. Have you defined your problem orneeds with which you wishassistance?
3. Have you discussed your needs withthe personnel who will work withthe consultant?
4. Have you selected a consultantwhose qualifications and proceduresare appropriate to the defined needsof the group with which he will work(expert, resource person, processperson) ?
5. Have you provided the consultantwith adequate information for plan-ning his work? (size and characteris-tics of the group with whom he willwork, what has already been donetoward solving the problem, whatOP group wishes him to do and tobring, time allotted for his visit,place and facilities where he willmeet, dates and times of meetings.)
6. Have you evaluated the consultant'sexperience? Was progress made?Was the consultant effective?
Yes No
1
PHASES OFCURRICULUMDEVELOPMENT
Evaluate present programDetermine the philosophy
Study current trends
Identify special needsstrengths and weaknessesof present program
Planning for curricular changesOrganize a science curriculum advisory committee
Review all available programs
Select programs that are consistent with thephilosophy and educational objectives of thelocal school district
pilot test the programs
evaluate tested programs and select those bestsuited to the school situation.
Implementation of new programsProvide inservice education
Provide additional time and pay for extra timeneeded to implement the program
Provide consultants for periodic feedback and on-the-spot assistance
Reevaluate and revise the program
Continue inservice as new teachers are added tothe program
Provide funds for continued supply of necessarymaterials
,
Designing A Science CurriculumEvery school district has a responsibility for cur-
riculum development. The need for change must berecognized before any progress can be made to bringthe science program up to date with present trendsand current research. The needs and. wishes of fac-ulty, students and community should be consideredin the curriculum resign and the choice of materials.
Three phases are usually involved in curriculumdevelopment: evaluation of the present program,planning for curricular change, and implementationof the new curriculum. For a detailed explanation ofscience curriculum development, the science advisorycommittee may wish to study the "Science Curricu-lum and the States" developed by the Council ofState Science Supervisors and from which some ofthe following information has been obtained.
Evaluation of Present ProgramIn choosing or designing a curriculum for science
education, consideration should be given to a phil-osophy, needs of the present program, and currenttrends in science education. Evaluation Of the exist-ing science program to determine areas of deficiencyor weakness must occur before new programs areconsidered for adoption. The following questions mayserve as a guide.
1. Is the science program directed toward cer-tain realistic and worthy objectives?
2. Does it develop intellectual skills of scientificinquiry? (See Appendix II.)
What skills are developed?What skills are ignored?
3. Is it based on pupil experiences and activi-ties?
4. Does it develop laboratory skills?5. Does it promote understanding of basic con-
cepts? (See Appendix I.)In what way is the content adequate?In what wr.? is the content inadequate?
6. Does it develop an appreciation of the scien-tific enterprise?
7. Is it multi-media oriented?Are materials available?Are materials appropriate to program ob-
jectives?8. Is it a planned sequence of science instruc-
tion on a K-12 basis?9. Is it organized but flexible and adaptable to
diverse learning styles and teaching strate-gies?
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10. Are student needs being met?What needs are not being met?What segment of the student population
is not served?11. Is it up-to-date in learning teentniques as
xell as in scientific developments?12. Does it emphasize interrelationships of sci-
ence, technology, society, and other curricu-lum areas?
13. Is it understandable and appealing to thestudents for whom it is designed?
Planning of Curricular ChangeWhen a program has been evaluated and need for
change is recognized, there must be an organiza-tional plan to assure effective curriculum develop-ment. This plan should include the administrator,the curriculum supervisor, the classroom teachers,interested school patrons, parents, consultants, andstudents. In planning for change in the science cur-riculum, local school districts have three options:
1. adoption of commercial programs2. adaptation of commercial programs3. creation of new programs
If the school district has a science consultant,this person should be responsible for the selection ofa curriculum committee. If such a person is notavailable, a science advisory committee should beformed from the lead teachers of the school or alead teacher from each school in the district. Thiscommittee should consider identification of desirededucational objectives, local conditions and needs,recognition of socio-economic conditions and orienta-tion to the local environment. They should alsosurvey new science programs in accordance withnational trends.
State or local textbook adoption should not in-hibit experimentation and testing of new programs.In considering new science programs for adoption,the following factors should be considered:
1. Will the program use available materials tomeet stated educational objectives?
2. Will it teach for behavioral change?3. Does it use inquiry-centered experiences as
opposed to a subject centered approach?4. Is it developmental in sequence (based on
levels of cognitive development rather thanon topic sequence?)
6. Do the suggested methods reflect sound learn-ing theory and recent pedegogical know how ?
7. Has the program been adequately tested?8. Is there provision for a wide range of learn-
ing abilities and styles? If not, for what typeof student is it intended ?
9. What will it cost to implement? Is the costfeasible in terms of obtainable funds?
10. That changes will be necessary in personnel,time, space?
11. Is special teacher training necessary and, ifso, are consultants available for this?
12. Does the package include all necessary ma-terials or must the teacher still obtain cer-tain things locally or by order?
13. What content areas are emphasized?14. Can the program be coordinated with existing
science programs or with the proposed cur-riculum?
Role of the TeacherSince the teachers are the key agents in curricu-
lar change, it is important that they have a partin the study of materials and choice of them. It ises.sential that they understand the rationale andtechniques necessary for implementing the mater-ials and accept the curriculum design if they are tobe successful in teaching it.
Probably the greatest teacher involvement comesin the trial classroom and evaluation stages wherequantitative data as well as subjective judgmentsmust be collected and fed back to the curriculumcommittee for consideration. When possible, it iswise to test some materials before purchasing amajor commercial program. After testing, the fol-lowing questions may aid in the evaluation:
1.9.
How were the materials used?What occurred when the materials wereused?
3. What did students do? What did the teacherdo?
4. What can students do now that they haveused the materials?
5. What attitudes and perceptions do studentshold about the materials and content?
A new curriculum is not something that can beinstalled completely at any given time; but rather,it is to be gradually put into effect as decisions aremade regarding staff and resources. Constant adap-tation and evolution of the program will be accom-plished by teacher feedback and team planning. Noproject developed is the final answerteachers must
adapt materials to their own situations and to theirown students.
Role of the CommunityParents want to know what is going on in their
schools, and become involved, but science has be-come so sophisticated that parents and other schoolpatrons often feel left out. Members of the com-munity may become involved by initiating curricu-lum change. For example, a community with aspecialized industry, such as aerospace technology,may want aerospace science courses in the school.It is important that the community be informed ofthe nature of the experimental materials and meth-odology. Public schools are the people's businessand involving a variety ai people in the changes anddecisions enhances the success of the programs.
Role of the AdministratorThe administrator must know the present state
of science education within his district and musthelp in planning for continual improvement. Thisis essential if the science curriculum is to effectivelyserve the entire range of students, from those whoend their formal science study early to those whobecome professional scientists and engineers.
He is in a position to be able to work out lines ofcommunication for continuous study and revisionand make efficient use of available staff, facilities,and funds for the program. Cooperation and assist-ance of all personnel is needed for effective imple-mentation of a new science instructional programon a district-wide basis.
Role of the Local Science CoordinatorThe science coordinator is responsible for:
L surveys on the effectiveness of current pro-grams
2. contracts with federal and state agencies,foundations, and industries for the procure-ment of funds and support
3. contact with professional societies and insti-tutions for resource people and materials
4. identification of master teachers to assistwith the program
5. dissemination of information to all schoolpersonnel
6. piloting new programs7. coordination of curriculum8. teacher inservice education
Implementation of the CurriculumFollowing the planning stages, the task remains
to construct a strategy for curriculum installation,complete with distinct components and approximateimplementation dates. The teachers scheduled forinvolvement in the curriculum installation shouldpersonally volunteer or agree to participate.
The philosophy and objectives of the new cur-riculum should be understood by school board mem-bers, parents and students. The program must notbegin until all the required curriculum guides, othermaterials, equipment, and facilities are available foruse.
Phases to be considered in the process of curricu-lum implementation include:
Phase IInitiation of the Idea to implement NewCurricula
Phase IIExploration of Curriculum AlternativesPhase IIIDecision to ImplementPhase IVPre-Installation Training of Personnel
A teacher training program should be organ-ized for the attainment of definite competenciesand experience in using the program materialsas they were intended. Practice in the use of thematerials and thorough examination of coursecontent, sequence, rationale and teaching strat-egies should be included. Participating teachersshould have an opportunity to view live orfilmed models of the instructional methodologyas prescribe by the developers of the new cur-riculum.
Phase VPost-Installation Activities(recommended by The Council of StateScience Supervisors in Science Curricu-lum in the States.)
"Many new curricula, whether developed locallyor on a larger scale, include radical departuresfrom traditional teaching strategies and imposenew roles upon administrators, teachers, stu-dents, and other members of the educationalcommunity. If the implementation of such cur-ricula is to be relatively smooth and lasting, itmust also include post-installation activitiesamong its components. Such activities include:
a. Establishment of a staffed, on-site re-source center to provide materials as theyare needed and such other day-to-day as-sistance as is necessary.
b. Continuing inservice course work designedto supplement and enhance the curriculumimplementation.
c. Periodic meetings of involved teaching andadministrative personnel to discuss mutualobservations, to share ideas and concerns,and to continually assess the curriculumimplementation.
d. A regular program of maintenance ofequipment and consumable supplies neces-sary to conduct the program.
e. Visitations to evaluate the status of theimplementation process and to makerecommendations for further progress."
Phase 'VIEvaluationA new curriculum is implemented to bring about
a desirable educational change in the communitywhich the curriculum serves. It is very importantthat a strategy be provided that will indicate thedegree of success in reaching the educational goalsthat were established at the beginning of the cur-riculum project. All programs should be reevaluatedand revised periodically but special studies shouldbe made at the end of the first year's trial.
Appendix IConceptual Schemes For Science
From the NSTA Publication "Theory into Action"
1. All matter is composed of units called fundamen-tal particles ; under certain conditions these par-ticles can be transformed into energy and viceversa.
2. Matter exists in the form of units which canbe classified into hierarchies of organizationallevels.
3. The behavior of matter in the universe can bedescribed on a statistical basis.
4. Units of matter interact. The bases of all ordi-nary interactions are electromagnetic, gravita-tional, and nuclear forces.
5. All interacting units of matter tend toward equi-librium states in which the energy content (en-thalpy) is a minimum and the energy distribution(entropy) is most random. In the process of at-taining equilibrium, energy transformations ormatter transformations or matter-energy trans-formations occur. Nevertheless, the sum of energyand matter in the universe remains constant.
6. One of the forms of energy is the motion ofunits of matter. Such motion is responsible forheat and temperature and for the states of mat-ter : solid, liquid, and gaseous.
7. All matter exists in time and space and, sinceinteractions occur among its units, matter is sub-ject in some degree to changes with time. Suchchanges may occur at various rates and in variouspatterns.
Appendix IIScience Process Skills
By the end of the 8th grade, students should havedeveloped the following skills:
1. Observing
2. Classifying
3. Inferring4. Predicting5. Measuring
6. Communicating
7. Interpreting Data8. Making Operational Definitions
9. Formulating questions and Hypotheses
10. Experimenting
11. Formulating Models
Appendix IIICharacteristics of a Scientifically Literate Person
In the NSTA Position Statement on School Sci-ence Education for the 70's, the following character-istics were listed to describe the scientifically liter-ate person. These characteristics should also beconsidered when looking at student behavior inscience :
"uses science concepts, process skills, and valuesin making everyday decisions as he interacts withother people and with his environment
understands that scientific knowledge dependsupon the inquiry process and upon conceptualtheories
distinguishes between scientific evidence and per-sonal opinion
identifies the relationship between facts and theory
recognizes the limitations as well as the usefulnessof science and technology in advancing human wel-fare
understands the interrelationships between sciencetechnology and other facets of society, includingsocial and economic development
recognizes the human origin of science and under-stands that scientific knowledge is tentative, subjectto change as evidence accumulates
has sufficient knowledge and experience so that hecan appreciate the scientific work being carried outby others
has a richer and more exciting view of the worldas a result of his science education
has adopted values similar to those that underliescience so that he can use and enjoy science for itsintellectual stimulation, its elegance of explanation,and its excitement of inquiry
continues to inquire and increase his scientificknowledge through his life"
Appendix IVFacilities and Equipment Grades K-8
While a student-oriented science program in theelementary and middle school does not call for elabo-rate, sophisticated facilities and equipment, certainitems are absolutely essenital to any science room.These are:
1. Sufficient space to provide flexibility of furni-ture arrangement is necessary for a varietyof activities and learning styles. Space isalso a safety factor. Crowding of activelyparticipating children increases the chanceof accidents. Space is also necessary for dis-play and construction of student projects.
2. Each room should be provided with largesinks and ruining water. Each room shouldbe provided with at least four double electri-cal outlets.
3. Tables or flat top desks which may be ar-ranged in a variety of ways for a variety ofactivities.
4. Safety equipment should be located in anyroom in which science activities are con-ducted involving strong chemicals or openflames. This should include a first-aid kit,fire extinguisher and eye protection devices.
5. Scientific equipment and other learning ma-terials should be provided in sufficient quan-tity and quality to allow active participationof all students. These materials should bevaried enough to meet the diverse needs ofstudents and should include up-to-date ref-erence and audiovisual materials as well asscientific and household supplies. These ma-terials should be readily accessible to stu-dents as well as teachers. Learning materialsand equipment should be procured in accord-ance with the objectives of the science pro-gram which the school has adopted.
6. The learning environment should include thetotal cultural and physical environment.Schoolgrounds and other outdoor areas of thecommunity should be utilized and, wherepossible, developed for increased learningopportunities.
7. Adequate storage space is essential for effic-ient management of a science program. Twokinds of storage are possible:
a. Individual classroom storageIf a pack-aged program has been obtained, adequatestorage space to maintain this material
-:54;
should be provided in the room where it isused. In all classrooms where science istaught, storage space should be availablefor the most frequently used equipmentand supplies (wire, bottles, jars, cans).
b. Central storage where items used bymany teachers may be conveniently stored(microscopes, models). This room shouldbe accessible to all teachers and should beunder the supervision of a teacher familiarwith the equipment. To facilitate checkoutof materials, items may be assigned a num-ber and each teacher given a list of theitems stored.
For example:Number Item Quantity
2750 Bar magnet 40
2751 Horseshoe magnet 10
The boxes in which items are stored shouldbe labeled with the same information.Carts could be provided for moving ma-terials. One basic rule for storage shouldbe, "Always return equipment to theproper place, clean and in operating con-dition."
Students learn because they have the right com-bination of experiences at the optimum time of theirreceptivity. The activities, as well as the instruc-tional design, school design, and organizational struc-ture, should assist in the process of learning.
Each room should have areas for independentwork, study, reading, and special projects ; areasfor small and large group discussion and activity ;areas for display ; areas for storage and preparation ;and an area for conferences. (see figure 1)
Inadequate physical facilities should never be alegitimate reason for failure to implement an in-quiry approach to learning. Working space may beany flat surfaceideally a table top but floor spaceis adequate. Side tables or shelves are necessary fordisplay of materialsreferences, aquaria, terraria,bones, rocks, shells, etc. These materials should beaccessible to students for observation, handling andinvestigation. A science program utilizing materialsfrom a child's own environment can have more mean-ing to him than one which is built around sophisti-cated scientific equipment. The important thing isthat he have materials to work with and that he isprovided with the time, space and opportunity touse them.
AR
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ING
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EA
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S
WORK SURFACE AND DISPLAY AREA
Sink
Sink
Sink
REFERENCE AREA
INDEPENDENT STUDY AREA CARRELS
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STORAGE AND
CONFERENCE
AREA
SMALL GROUP
orLARGE GROUP
formal groupings
are possible inseveral areas
Appendix VSafety in Science
The following has been adapted wi',1-. permissionfrom Children. Learn Science, A Guide for Ele-mentary School Teachers, prepared by the PublicSchools of Hammond, Indiana, by Gerald D. Spitzer,Coor':nator of Science and Health and Anne Hop-man, Director of Elementary Education.
Safety Practices for Teachers1. If there is a question about hazards in work-
ing with the materials and equipment, thewatchword is "DON'T".
2. Handle the equipment and materials prior tostudent usage to discover all possible haz-ards, and be sure that the intended experi-ence is a reasonably safe one before pro-ceeding.
3. Practice general safety procedures h. relationto the use of fire and instruct children inhow to take appropriate precautions. Con-sult with the principal regarding fire regu-lation s.
4. At the beginning of any experience, whichis hazardous, instruct the children regardingthe recognition of dangers and the precau-tions to be taken. This includes experimenta-tion and study trips.
5. If children are working in groups withlimited amounts of equipment, limit the num-ber in each group to prevent confusion whichmight result in accidents.
6. When using equipment that might presentspecial hazards, individual and group workshould be arranged in the classroom so therecan be constant teacher supervision.
7. Insist that all accidents resulting from thehandling of equipment be reported to theteacher.
8. Warn the children never to carry equipmentthrough the halls when classes are passing.
9. Allow the children sufficient time to performexperiments, because haste sometimes causesaccidents.
10. A child should not perform any experiments,at school and in the home, without thoroughinvestigation by the teacher before a childproceeds.
11. Any piece of equipment that has been heated(microprojector, hot plates, A. V. devices)should not be moved until it has cooled.
12. Hazardous materials and equipment not inuse should be labeled, "KEEP HANDSOFF."
13. Before permitting children to work withsharp tools, the teacher must be assuredthat children are competent to use thesetools.
14. There is always danger when heating a liquidwhich is confined in a container.
15. Glass wool and steel wool should be handledwith gloves.
Safety in relation to Animals and Plants1. All mammals used in a classroom should be
innoculated for rabies, unless purchased froma reliable scientific company.
2. The following animals should never bebrought into the classroom: wild rabbits,snapping turtles, poisonous snakes, and in-sects that may be disease carriers. Teachersshould not encourage children to bring theirpets, such as dogs and cats, to the classroom.
3. Before a small animal is brought into theclassroom for observation, plans should bemade for proper habitat and food. The livingquarters of animals in the classroom mustbe kept clean, free from contamination, andsecure for the confinement of the animals.Plans should be made for animal care overthe weekends and during vacation periods.
4. Handle animals only if it is necessary. Thishandling should be done properly accordingto the particular animal. Special handling isrequired if the animal is excited, is pregnant,or is with its young.
5. Children should wash their hands afterhandling turtles, snakes, fish, frogs, toads,etc. Water from the habitat should be dis-posed of carefully.
6. Children should be cautioned never to teaseanimals nor to insert their fingers or objectsthrough an animal's wire-mesh cage.
7. Report any animal bites or scratches imme-diately to the school nurse.
8. After a period of animal observation is com-pleted, return the animals to their naturalenvironment.
9. Before taking study trips into wooded areas,identify and discuss the plants which couldproduce poisonous effects.
10. Use flowers and molds which have excessivespores with caution because of possible aller-gies of children.
11. There is great danger of contamination frombacteria cultures unless sterile techniques areused.
Safety with Chemicals
1. Label all bottles, identifying the contents, atall times.
2. Pupils should never test unknown chemicalsby the senses of taste or touch.
3. Chemicals should never be mixed just to seewhat will happen.
4. If volatile or flammable liquids are used in ademonstration, extreme care should be takenso that hot plates or open flames are at asafe distance from the fumes.
5. Store rosin, shellac, alcohols, and charcoal inbottles with plastic tops or glass stoppers.
6. Keep combustible materials in a metal cab-inet equipped with a lock.
7. Store chemicals in a cool place but not in arefrigerator.
8. Children should never experiment withrocket fuel propulsion devices.
9. Dispose of spilled volatile substances in fire-proof receptacles.
10. The use of preservatives (formaldehyde andalcohol) demands protection to the skin.Wash preserved specimens in clean waterand keep them in saltwater for use duringthe day. Use tongs and rubber gloves to re-move specimens from preservatives.
Safety with Electricity1. At the beginning of any unit on electricity,
tell children not to experiment with the elec-tric current of home and school circuits.
2. Children need to be taught safety precau-tions for use of electricity in all everydaysituations.
3. Children should never handle electric devicesimmediately after use, because these devicesmight retain a high temperature for a periodof time.
4. To remove an electric plug from a socket, theplug should be pulled and not the cord.
5. Short-circuited dry cells can produce a hightemperature which can cause a serious burn.
6. Storage batteries are dangerous because ofthe acids used and the possibility of a shortcircuit.
Safety with Glassware1. Only Pyrex or other heat-treated glassware
can be heated.2. Polish or bevel with emery paper the edges
of glass tubing used with corks or stoppers.3. Use a soap solution or glycerine on glass rods
or tubing for lubrication before inserting intoa cork or stopper. Wrap the tubing with sev-eral layers of cloth or use a rubber tubingholder. Hold the tubing as close to the corkas possible.
4. Remove corks from tubing to keep from ad-hering and "freezing." "Frozen" stoppers canbe removed by splitting them with a razorblade and then reclosing them with rubberglue.
5. Dispose of broken glassware in a special con-tainers marked "BROKEN GLASS."
6. Never pick up broken glass with the fingers.A whisk broom and dustpan can be used forlarge pieces, and large pieces of wet cottoncan be used for small pieces.
7. Clean glassware thoroughly after use.8. Children should never be allowed to drink
from glassware used for science experimen-tation.
9. Children should report sharp edges on mir-rors or glassware to the teacher.
10. Wrap glass objects which might break withplastic wrappers or wire screening.
Appendix VIPeriodicals for Children
My Weekly SurpriseK levela picture magazineMy Weekly ReaderGrades 1-6, contains a science
sectionAmerican Education PublicationsEducation CenterColumbus, Ohio 43216
Ranger Rick's Nature MagazineNational Wildlife Federation1412-16th Street, N.W.Washington, D. C. 20036
Curious NaturalistNational Audubon Society1130 Fifth AvenueNew York, N. Y. 10028
Nature and ScienceAmerican Museum of Natural HistoryCentral Park West at 79th StreetNew York, N. Y. 10024
Rocks and MineralsRocks and Minerals MagazinePeekskill, N. Y. 10566
Science NewsScience Service, Inc.1719 N. Street, N. W.Washington, D. C. 20036
Aquarium.Pet Books, Inc.53 E. Main StreetNorristown, Pa. 19404
National Parks MagazineNational Parks Magazine1710 18th St., N. W.Washington, D. C. 20009
.57.
Appendix VIIReferences for Science Teachers
Alexander, Joseph (et al.), A Sourcebook for the PhysicalSciences, Harcourt, Brace & Javonovich, New York, 1961.
American Geological Institute. Geology and Earth SciencesSourcebook for Elementary and Secondary Schools. NewYork, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962.
Association for Childhood Education International. YoungChildren and Science, Washington, D. C., 1964. 56 pp.
Aylesworth, Thomas G.Planning for Effective Science Teaching. Middletown,Conn:, Department of School Services and Publications,Wesleyan University, 1963. 96 pp.
Beauchamp, Wilbur L. and Helen J. Challand.Basic Science Handbook K-3. Chicago: Scott, Foresmanand Co., 1961.
Blough, Glenn 0. and Julius Schwartz.Elementary School Science and How to Teach It. NewYork: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964.
Brennan, Matthew J. (Ed.)People and Their Environment: TeachRrs' CurriculumGuide to Conservation Education. Chicago: J. G. Fer-guson Publishing Co., 1968.
Carin, Arthur and Robert B Sund.Teaching Science Through Discovery. Columbus, Ohio:Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1968. 487 pp.
Craig, Gerald Spellman.Science for the Elementary School Teacher. Blaisdell Pub-lishing Co. (Ginn), 275 Wyman St., Waltham, Mass.02154. 1966. $10.50.
Educational Policies Commission.The Spirit of Science. Washington, D. C.: National Edu-cation Association, 1966.
Educators Guide to Free Science Materials. Randolph Wis-consin: Educators Progress Service, 1970.
Gega, Peter C.Science in Elementary Education. New York: John Wiley& Sons, Inc., 1970.
Goldberg, Lazer.Children and Science. New York: Charles Scribners Sons,1970.
Hedges, William D.Testing and Evaluation for the Sciences, Belmont, Calif.:Wadsworth, 1966. 218 pp. $3.95.
Helping Children Learn Science. Washington, D. C.: Na-tional Science Teachers Association, NEA, 1966, 188 pp.A selection of reprints from the Science and Childrenjournal.
Henessy, David E.Elementary Teachers Classroom Science Demonstrationsand Activities. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall,1964. 308 pp.
Herbert, Don and Hy Ruchlis.Mr. Wizzard's 400 Experiments in Science. Brooklyn,N. Y. Book Lab, Inc. 1968.
Herman & Nin Scheider.Science Fun With Milk Cartons. McGraw-Hill Co.
Hone, Elizabeth et al.Sourcebook for Elementary Science. New York: Har-
court, Brace & World, Inc. 1962, 1971.
Howes, Virgil.Individualizing Instruction in Science and Mathematics.New York: McMillan Co., 1970.
Kambly, Paul E. and John E. Suttle.Teaching Elementary School Science: Methods and Re-sources. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1963.
Kuslan, Louis I. and Harris A. Stone.Teaching Children Science: An Inquiry Approach. Bel-mont, Calif. Wadsworth Pub. Co., Inc., 1968.
Lewis, June E. and Irene C. Potter.The Teaching of Science in the Elementary School. Engle-wood Cliffs, N. J., Prentice-Hall, 1969.
Mager, Robert F.Preparing Instructional Objectives. Palo Alto, Calif.:Fearon Publishers, Inc., 1962.
Moore, Shirley (Ed.)Science Projects Handbook. Science Service, 1719 NorthSt., N. W., Washington, D. C.
National Science Teachers Association.Investigating Science with Children, 6 vols., Washington,D. C., 1964.
National Science Teachers Association.Theory Into Action in Science Curriculum Development.Washington, D. C., 1964. 40 pp. $1.50.
National Society for the Study of Education.Rethinking Science Education. Fifty-ninth Yearbook,I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960. 344
Pitz, Alber, and Robert Sund.Creative Teaching of Science in the Elementary School.Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 1968.
Renner, John W. and William B. Ragan.Teaching Science in the Elementary School. New York:Harper and Row, 1968.
Romey, William D.Inquiry Techniques for Teaching Science. EnglewoodCliffs, N. Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1968.
Skibness, Edward J.How to Use Tin Can Metal in Science. T. S. Denison &Co., Minneapolis, 1960.
Schmidt, Victor E. and Verne Rockcastle.Teaching Science with Everyday Things. New York: Mc-Graw-Hill, Inc. 1968.
Schwab, Joseph J., Supervisor, Biology Teachers' Handbook,John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1961.
Thier, Herbert.Teaching Elementary School Science-A Laboratory Ap-proach. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath & Co., 1970.
UNESCO Sourcebook for Science Teaching. UNESCO, 1962.
Utgard, R. Ladd, G. T., and Anderson, H. 0.A Sourcebook of Earth Sciences and Astronomy, Mac-millan Co., Dept. C. Riverside, N. J. 1972.
Victor, Edward.Science for the Elementary School. New York: The Mac-millan Co., 1970.
PartPP.
f
I
Appendix VIIIPeriodicals for Science Teachers
AA ASQuarterly Report. American Association for theAdvancement of Science, 1515 Massachusetts Ave., N. W.,Washington, D. C.
The American Biology Tcachcr. National Association ofBiology Teachers. 1420 N St., N. W., Washington, D. C.Vol. 34, No. 2. 1972.
Chemistry. American Chemical Society, Easton, Pa. Dec.,1970.
Cornell Science Leaflet. New 'York State College of Agricul-ture, at Cornwell University. Ithaca, N. Y.
Grade Teacher. Publishing Corporation, Darien, Connec-ticut.
Journal of Geological Education. National Association ofGeology Teachers. Ray L. Ingram. Dept. of Geology.University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.
The Physics Teacher. American Association of PhysicsTeachers. Helen T. Johnson, Ed., Physics Dept. SUNY,Stony Brook, N. Y.
Science Activities. Science Activities Publishing Co. 8150Central Park Ave., Skokie, Ill.
The Science Teacher. National Science Teachers Assoc.,1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C.
Science and Children. National Science Teachers Assoc.,1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C.
Appendix IXPertinent NSTA Publications
Annual Self-Inventory for ScienceSecondary School
Bibliography of Textbooks and CoursesScience TeachingK-12
Conditions for Good ScienceSchools
Teachers inNSTA
of Study for471-14362
Teaching in SecondaryNSTA
Environmental Education for EveryoneBibliog-raphy of Curriculum. Materials for EnvironmentalStudies 471-14600
Issues in Elementary School Scicncc 471-14328Why Behavioral Objectives? Audiovisual
Aid NSTA, weekBibliography of Textbooks and Courses of Study for
Science Teaching K-12 471-14362Behavioral Objectives in the Affective
Domain .. 471-14582Building Curricular Structures for Scicncc: With
Special Reference to the Junior High. School471-14542 $1
Learning and Creativity: With Special Emphasison Science . .. . . 471-14544 $2
Report of a Conference on Interdisciplinary ScicnccEducation .NSTA $2
Theory into Action in Science CurriculumDevelopment , 471-14282 $1.50
How to Carc for Living Things in theClassroom. ,,,,,,, , ..... ....... 471-14288 .35
How to Teach, Scicncc Through. FieldStudies 471-14290 .35
How to Individualize Science Instruction in theElementary School , , 471-14294 .35
How to Evaluate Science Learning in the Elemen-tary School . . ............ 471 -14564 .35
How to Provide for Safety in the ScienceLaboratory 471-14576 .35
How to Teach Measurements in Elementary SchoolScience . . . ......... ,471-14580 .35
How to Plan and Organize Team, Teaching in Ele-mentary School Science ..... 471-14594 .35
How to Usc Behavioral Objectives in ScienceInstruction 471-14596 .35
Teaching Tips from TST (1967)Biological Science 471-14526 $5Physical Science 471-14348 15Earth-Space Science . 471-14350 $4
Ideas for Teaching Scicncc in the Junior HighSchool .471-14184 $4
.75
$1
$4
$2
$2
Computers Theory and UsesStudent's Manual ,
Teacher's Guide .
471-14224
.471-14226Helping Children Learn Science. . 471-14498Investigating Science With Children . 478-14280
These publications may be ordered from:National Science Teachers Association1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W.Washington, D. C. 20036
Appendix XReferences Consulted
Anderson, Hans 0. Facilitating Curricular Change:Thoughts for the Principal. The National Association ofsecondary School Principals. Vol. 56. No. 360. Jan.1972. pp. 89-90.
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. Life Sciences zn theMiddle School. Boulder, Colorado.
Burkman, Ernest. New Directions for thc High SchoolScience Progra»z. The Science Teacher. Feb. 1972. pp.42-44.
Some
California State Department of Education. Science Frame-work ;or California Magic Schools-Kindergart en-Grades 1-12. Sacramento, California. 1970.
Callon, George F. Developing a Science Curriculu»z: ThePrincipal's Role. National Association of SecondarySchool Principals. Vol. 56. No. 360. January. 1972.pp. 74-79.
Council of State Science Supervisors. Science Curriculumand the States. Richmond, Va. 1972.
Dunfee, Maxine. Elementary School Scicncc, A Guide toCurrent Research. Washington, Association for Supervi-sion and Curriculum Development. 1967.
Educational Research Council of America. ERC ScienceProble»zs, A Program of Individualized Instruction inScience. First Experimental Edition. Cleveland, Ohio.ERC. 1969.
Florida State Department of Education. AccreditationStandards for Florida Schools. Tallahassee, Florida.1969.
Grimsley, Edith E. Before I Look Inside. EducationalLeadership. May 1970. pp. 772-774.
Haney, Richard. The Changing Curriculum. Science Asso-ciation for Supervisors and Curriculum Development &N.E.A. 1966.
Hurd, Paul De Hart. Emerging Perspectives in ScienceTeaching for the 1970's. ECCP Newsletter. Brooklyn,N. Y. Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Vol. IV., No.8. Spring, 1972.
Hurd, Paul De Hart. New Directions in Teaching SecondarySchool Science. Chicago. Rand McNally & Co. 1969.
Johnson, Philip G. Changing Directions in Elementary &Junior High School Science. Supervision. for Quality Ed-ucation in Science. Washington, U. S. Dept. of Health,Education & Welfare. Office of Education, 0E-29043,1963.
Kondo, Allen K. Scientific Literacy, A View Front a De-veloping Country. The National Association of SecondarySchool Principals. Vol. 56, No. 360. Jan. 1972. pp.28-37.
Lockard, J. David (Edited by) Seventh Report of the In-terna tio»al Clearinghouse on Science & Mathematics Cur-ricular Developments. University of Maryland & AAAS.1970.
Maryland Stale Department of Education. Design for Plan-ning the Program of the Elementary School. Baltimore,Maryland. 1965.
Matthews, Charles C. et al. Child Structured .Learning inScience: A Guide for the Coordinator. Tallahassee, Fla.Florida State University, 1969.
McQueen, Mildred. The Rationale of the Middle School.The Education Digest. March, 1972. pp. 10-13.
Michigan Department of Education. Science Teaching Witha Purpose. Lansing, Michigan. 1969.
Moline Public Schools. Toward Humanization and Individ-ualization of Science. Moline, Ill. District 40. (Initialdraft.)
NSTA Committee on Curriculum Studies. NSTA PositionStatement on School Scicncc Education for the 70's.The Science Teacher. Nov. 1971. pp. 46-51.
NSTA Theory Into Action. National Science Teacher As-sociation. Feb. 1964.
North Dakota Department of Public Instruction. ScienceGuide, Grades 1-6. North Dakota Schools. Bismark,North Dakota. 1969.
Okey, James P. Goals for the High School Scicncc Curricu-lum. The National Assoc. of Secondary School Principals.Vol. 56, No. 360. Jan. 1972. pp. 74-79.
Oklahoma State Dept. of Education. The 1»zprovement ofScience Instruction in Oklahoma, Grades K-6. 1971.(Grades 7-12, 1970.)
South Carolina State Department of Education. Standardsfor Accredited High Schools of South Carolina. Colum-bia. 1971.
Tennessee Department of Education. Science in thc Ele-mentary School. Nashville, Tenn. 1964.
Texas Education Agency. Elementary Science ResourceBulletin. Austin, Texas. 1970.
Vermont State Department of Education. Vermont Designfor Education. Montpelier, Vermont.
Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. A Guide toScience Curriculum Dew/opulent. Madison, Wisconsin.