doing educational research
DESCRIPTION
Presentation on the book by Clive Opie. It gives a very brief overview about the elements discussed in detail in the book. It is good for those who are deciding to buy this book.TRANSCRIPT
Doing Educational Research
A Guide for First Time Researchers Edited By: Clive Opie
Book Review Presented By Mr. Hatesh Kumar Ms. Samreen Riaz Ms. Faiza Hassan
What is Educational
Research
Methodology, Procedures And Ethical Concerns
Writing Research
Reliability, Validity
And Credibility
Research Approaches
Research Procedure
sPresenting
Data
Using NUD.IST
Using Atlas.
ti
Chapters covered…
What is Educational
Research
Methodology,
Procedures And Ethical Concerns
Writing Research
Chapter :1What is Educational Research?
Clive Opie
What is Educational Research?Can I do educational Research?
Research is…. Seeking through methodological processes to add one’s body of
knowledge and, hopefully, to that of others, by the discovery of non-trivial facts and insights. (Howard & Sharpes, 1983)
A search or investigation directed to the discovery of some fact by careful consideration or study of a subject; a course of critical or scientific inquiry. (OED, 2001)
Educational Research… ‘The collection and analysis of information on the world of education so
as to understand and explain it better’, with a significant practicing teachers in that it should be
‘viewed as critical, reflexive, and professionally oriented activity… regarded as crucial ingredient in the teacher’s professional role….generating self knowledge and personal development in such a way that practice can be improved.(Hitchcock and Hughes, 1989)
Myths surrounding Educational ResearchResearch requires The collection of quite large amount of data Results which can be generalized A hypothesis The undertaking of experiments Objectivity rather than subjectivity The use of statistics That something is proved Specific expertise, as it is difficult
Can I do educational Research?
PracticalityHard workTime consumingProblematicDifficultRequires expertise
Educational Research
Educational Research is ‘doable’, albeit at different levels of depth and sophistication, by all interested in making a ‘systematic, critical and self-critical enquiry which aims to contribute to the advancement of knowledge’ (Bassey, 1990) of the world around them.
Chapter :2Methodology, Procedures and Ethical Concerns
Pat SikesWorking DefinitionsSelecting Methodologies and ProceduresResearcher PositionalityEthical issues and questions
Methodologies
Methodology refers to the theory of getting knowledge, to the considerations of the best ways, methods, or procedures, by which data that will provide the evidence basis for the construction of knowledge about whatever it is that is being researched, is obtained.
Methodology is concerned with the description and analysis of research methods rather than with the actual, practical use of those methods.
Methodological work is philosophical , thinking, work. Methodology is the overall approach to a particular research project, to the
overarching strategy that is adopted.
Procedures/ MethodsSpecific research techniques that are used to collect and analyze data.
Methodology A Case Study Action Research
project
Procedures/ Methods Interviews,
questionnaire, observation and documentary analysis
Tests, questionnaires, and interviews ,
To collect information in order to evaluate the interventions that was its focus.
Selecting Methodologies and Procedures
Researchers have to be able to justify and argue a methodological case for their reasons for choosing a particular approach and specific procedures.
Methodology and procedures determine the nature of the findings of the research.
Decisions, about which methodology and procedures will be used, influenced by
What can actually be done; What is practical and feasible; by situational factors of various kinds; and by personal predilection and interests.
Think about the implications for research design
The physical, social, political and historical contexts in which their research project will be located.
The reasons why they are doing the research. How they conceptualize the situation they are
researching. The sorts of questions that they are seeking
answers for. The type of information that their questions will
produce. The scale of the research and the financial,
personnel and other resources available to conduct it.
Continue…The nature of the research population and the ability of informants to provide particular types of response.
Ethical and moral issues relevant at various stages of the research process.
If applicable, what are the requirements and expectations of any organization or body that is commissioning and/or funding the research?
When, and over what timescale the research will be done.
Researcher Positionality
The most significant factor that influences choice and use of methodology and procedures is ‘where the researcher is coming from’ in terms of their philosophical position and their fundamental assumptions concerning:
Social reality: their ontological assumptions; The nature of knowledge: their epistemological
assumptions; Human nature and agency: specifically their
assumptions about the way in which human beings relate to and interact with their environment.
Assumptions
Assumptions are colored by values and beliefs that are based in political allegiance, religious faith, and experiences that are consequent upon social class, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, historical and geographical location and so on.
Paradigm: A basic set of beliefs that guides action.
Education Research: Two main paradigmsQualitative and Quantitative
Research Paradigms
Hard, real, capable of being transmitted in tangible form
Do you view the nature of knowledge as
Softer, subjective, based on experience and insight of an essentially personal nature
OR
Empiricist’s view of knowledgei.e. No knowledge exists that which is objectively, immediately observable.
You are classed as a positivist, objectivist.
Rationalist’s view of knowledgei.e. knowledge is perceived as created in the mind of the individual. You are
classed as an anti-positivist, interpretevist, subjectivist.
You are likely to employ quantitative procedures such as surveys &
undertake large studies searching for generalisable results.
You are likely to employ qualitative procedures, which focus on
individuals or small groups, more concerned with understanding
personal constructs and relatability.
Ontological assumptions concerning the nature of social reality Ontological assumptions focus on whether a person sees social reality- or
aspects of the social world- as external, independent, given and objectively real, or, instead, as socially constructed, subjectively experienced and the result of human thought as expressed through language.
How they view the social world has the implications for the sorts of methodologies and procedures they are likely to consider to be valid means of collecting ‘valid’ data, that can be used to make a ‘valid’ interpretation, thus creating ‘valid’ knowledge.
If a social constructivist position is taken it will be necessary to collect subjective accounts and perceptions that explain how the world is experienced and constructed by the people who live in it.
Epistemological assumptions concerning the bases for knowledge Epistemology is the theory of knowledge.
Griffiths suggests that, epistemology, and particularly the relationship between methodology and procedures and knowledge and truth, is a contentious and controversial area for researchers and consumers of research.
Emphasis on accounts given by informants- either verbally in interviews or written in the questionnaire.
Issue of how words can actually reflect reality and experience is complex and problematic.
Researchers state their position explicitly …tentative and cautious in presenting conclusion.
Assumptions concerning human nature and agency
Concerned with the ways in which human beings are seen to act within the world.
Actions ….innate instinctual forces or external conditions and forces. Whatever you view inevitably applies to you and research population. It is a complex area that highlights the issues of social power and
agency as well as raising questions about natural behaviors. If people are believed to behave in a predetermined or reactive way,
then observation and experiment will be appropriate techniques. If they are felt to make decisions about what to do then procedure will
seek explanation and understanding from their perspective will be needed.
Ethical issues and questions Research Design Access Procedure of Data Collection Research relationships Interpretation and analysis Writing up Data dissemination Avoiding harm/Doing wrong
Research DesignWhat exactly do you want to know and why do you want to know it? Can you justify your interest?
If you are intending to do anything that is in any way ‘experimental’ what are the implication for the people who will be involved? If you are using a ‘control group’ will people assigned to it miss out any thing that you suspect will be beneficial? Can it be justified?
Research DesignInsofar as you are able, have you thought about potential unintended or unexpected consequences either to the people directly involved in the research or as a result what you might find out?
If you are intended to do covert research of some kind, can you justify it?
How do you regard the people you are going to be ‘researching’?
Access
How are you going to access your research population? If you choose to do your
research with people who don’t posses much social power (e.g. children, captive
populations, your own students) can you justify why? And are you exploiting their
weakness?
Procedure of Data CollectionAre you asking people things you wouldn’t want to be asked?
Are you asking people to do things you wouldn’t want to be asked to do?
Research relationships
You have a basic moral responsibility towards the people you are working with. Are you sure that you are doing as you would be done by?
Could you be accused by ‘rape research’? Are you manipulating people and relationships in order to get
‘good’ data? Are you sensitive to the implications of any differences in terms
of social power between researcher and ‘researched’.
Interpretation and analysis
Do you acknowledge any theoretical frameworks or value systems that may influence your interpretations and analysis?
Writing up
Do you ‘own’ your research in your writing up.
Do you make the research process appear to be neat and unproblematic?
Are informants sufficiently protected in written accounts?
Avoiding harm/Doing wrong
The aim is not to harm anyone or do any moral wrong. This isn’t simple because one can never know what the unintended outcomes will be?
Do the ends ultimately justify the means?
Chapter : 3Writing Research
David HyattExpected requirements for student academic writing
A consideration of academic writing conventions
Audience in academic writing FeedbackStructuring your research-based assignmentSome advice I’ve been given (or wish I’d been given!)
Conclusion
Expected requirements for student academic writing
Using a range of sourcingCriticalityEvidenceMake your own pointPresentationPlagiarism
If you must write a prose or poemsThe words you choose should be your ownDon’t plagiarize or take ‘on loan’There’s always someone, somewhereWith a big nose, who knowsWho’ll trip you up and laugh when you fall.
1980s song (Morrissey and Marr, 1986)
A consideration of academic writing conventionsSpecific points to consider……when to us ‘I’ , ‘We’, ‘You’ etc
Avoid Direct ClaimsUse ‘Tentative’, ‘Distancing’ attitudinal modality
Use of nominalization as opposed to verbalization
Other problems Avoid overgeneralizations Avoid unsubstantiated claims Be careful with rhetorical questions Be specific Use subject specific lexis Avoid dramatic/loaded language Don’t over claim/under claim Avoid sexist or gender stereotyping language
Audience in academic writing
The duality of the audienceThe message is being directed at two discrete audiences.
For experts related to the fieldFor lay-person
Feedback………Tutor’s comment
Phatic
Developmental
Structural
Content
Methodological
Comment , encouragement
Alternatives, future, reflective, informational
Discourse, sentence, stylistic level Positive and negative evaluation,
non-evaluative summary
Approach, methods, process and administration
Structuring your research-based assignment
Abstract Introduction Literature Review Methodology Results and Analysis Conclusion Limitation Implications and Recommendation
Some advice I’ve been given (or wish I’d been given!)Time managementSpace managementReferencing as you goProofreadingThe value of critical friend
Conclusion
Good academic writing is clear, concise, critical, credible, evidenced, well structured and well presented.
Remember to enjoy your writing.Goethe claimed that ‘The most original authors are not so because they advance what is new, but because they put what they have to say as if it had never been said before.’
Samreen RiazChapters covered…
Reliability, Validity
And Credibilit
y
Research Approache
sResearch
Procedures
The systematic, rigorous investigation of a situation or problem in order to generate new knowledge or validate existing knowledge.
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
McMillan and Schumacher (1989) define research as “a systematic process for collecting and analyzing information (data) for some purpose.”
Kerlinger defines scientific research as “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena.”
It has been argued that the results of educational research will lead to the improvement of educational practice; therefore, professional practitioners should maintain a continued interest in research.
The results of educational research are reported in a way that requires a knowledgeable person to read and implement them.
Although educational research is complex and demanding, the broad spectrum of research activities ranges from the simple, single operations to complex combinations of qualitative and quantitative procedures.
Educational research is systematic and within a broad framework follows the steps of the scientific method. However, across different types of studies, there is extensive flexibility in how the steps are implemented.
To make research systematic, researchers use the approach of scientific inquiry and scientific method.
Scientific Inquiry: search for knowledge through recognized methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation.
Scientific Method: research process is considered to consist of a series of sequential steps.
Scientific Method:
1) Identifying a problem
The nature of the problem is to be defined; related knowledge is identified and a framework to conduct the research is established. In addition, necessary assumptions and conditions are also identified.
2) Review information
The researcher reviews how others approached a similar problem; i.e. Literature review.
3) Data collection:
Collecting data requires a proper organization and control to validate the data to make decisions upon them
4) Data analysis:
Data analysis must be done in a manner appropriate to the problem.
5) Drawing conclusions
Following data analysis, researchers draw conclusions and make generalizations based on the data they had collected.
The Validity of Educational Research:Researches must be based on facts; i.e. capable to be justified. There are two concepts: internal validity and external validity.Internal Validity: it is the extent to which the results of a research can
be interpreted accurately and with confidence. External Validity: the extent to which research results can be
generalized. Internal validity is a prerequisite for external validity because if the
results cannot be interpreted accurately with confidence, researchers cannot generalize them.
Generalizability does not mean that the study must be generalized to many various situations and populations; external validity, rather, depends upon the conditions and purposes of the specific research study.
It is impossible to reach perfect internal and external validity; researchers must work to reach a balance so that results can be interpreted with confidence and still have some useful generalizability.
The Reliability of Educational Research:
Reliability refers to the consistency of the research and the extent to which studies can be replicated.
1. Internal reliability refers to the extent that data collection, analysis, and interpretation are consistent under the same conditions.
- If internal reliability is lacking, the data becomes a function of who collected them rather than what actually happened.
2. External reliability deals with the issue of whether or not independent researchers can replicate studies in the same or similar settings with consistent results.
Reliability is a necessary characteristic for validity; a study cannot be valid unless it is reliable. If it is unreliable, results cannot be interpreted with confidence and cannot be generalized.
Reliability + validity = credibility of research
Correlational research refers to the systematic investigation or statistical study of relationships among two or more variables, without necessarily determining cause and effect.
Descriptive research refers to research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group. Descriptive research, also known as statistical research. These studies are a means of discovering new meaning, describing what exists, determining the frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing information.
Ethnographic research refer to the investigation of a culture through an in-depth study of the members of the culture; it involves the systematic collection, description, and analysis of data for development of theories of cultural behaviour.
• It studies people, ethnic groups and other ethnic formations, their ethno genesis, composition, resettlement, social welfare characteristics, as well as their material and spiritual culture.
Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena and examining probability and causality among selected variables.
Exploratory research is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects
Grounded theory research is a research approach designed to discover what problems exist in a given social environment and how the persons involved handle them; it involves formulation, testing, and reformulation of propositions until a theory is developed.
Historical research is research involving analysis of events that occurred in the remote or recent past
Phenomenological research an inductive, descriptive research approach developed from phenomenological philosophy; its aim is to describe an experience as it is actually lived by the person
Krathwohl defined them as (1993), “Qualitative research: research that describes phenomena in words instead of numbers or measures… Quantitative research: research that describes phenomena in numbers and measures instead of words (P. 740)”
In terms of conducting research, the difference between them is not a dichotomy but a qualitative-quantitative continuum.
General Methodology: Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Qualitative research is research dealing with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically, such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols
Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behaviour and the reasons that govern such behaviour. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when.
Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of any phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena
Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods, which can include:
• The generation of models, theories and hypotheses
• The development of instruments and methods for measurement
• Experimental control and manipulation of variables
• Collection of empirical data
• Modelling and analysis of data
• Evaluation of results
From a practical point of view, qualitative and quantitative procedures are often mixed; however, their methodologies can be placed on the continuum– not on dichotomy–as they tend towards the qualitative or quantitative.
Classification of Educational Research
Two systems are described: one based on the goal of the research, and another on the way in which the research is conducted.
Applied Research- Purpose: solve an immediate,
practical problem; - It may contribute to the general
knowledge of some field as it produces a solution for a specific problem. (supplemental purpose).
Basic Research- Purpose: adding to the existing
body of knowledge in a discipline;- Although not ruled out, basic
research does not necessarily provide results of immediate practical use (supplemental purpose).
Basic and applied research are important; they should not be differentiated by hierarchy of value judgments; instead, the purpose of research is the criterion.
An example of Basic Research:- An experiment on learning in a laboratory setting. The purpose of the experiment
is to contribute to the knowledge about how learning takes place.
An example of Applied Research: - A curriculum committee is surveying elementary school teachers about materials
of reading programs. The results of the survey would provide the necessary information for deciding which program to adopt.
Basic research and Applied research are differentiated by their purpose. The primary purpose of basic research is the extension of knowledge; the purpose of applied research is the solution of an immediate, practical problem.
Action ResearchAction research is one type of applied research. It is conducted by a professional educator to aid in making decisions in local schools.
Since it is local, there is concern upon generalizing its results to other educational settings. Teachers are curious about their own practices rather than generalizing the outcomes.
Action research is less rigorous in terms of methodology and design than other educational research.
Action research + research literature = viable approach to making educational decisions at local level.
Research Procedures
The research design is the master plan specifying the methods & procedures for collecting & analyzing the needed information in a research study.
Research design is a plan of how & where data are to be collected & analyzed.
Research design can be defined as a blue print to conduct a research study, which involves the description of research approach, study setting, sampling size, sampling technique, tool & methods of data collection & analysis to answer specific research questions or for testing research hypothesis
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
ELEMENTS
APPROACH
POPULATION, SAMPLE & SAMPLING TECHNICMETHOD OF ANALYSIS
TOOL & METHODSTIME & METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
Qualitative
Quantitative
Both
With /without conceptual framework
1. Nature of the research problem.
2. Purpose of the study.
3. Researcher’s knowledge & experience.
4. Researcher’s interest & motivation.
5.Research ethics & principles.
6. Subjects & participants.
7. Resources.
8. Time.
9. Possible control on extraneous variables.
10.Users of the study findings.
Data
Quantitative
Descriptivestatistics
Inferentialstatistics
Parametric testsNon-Parametric
tests
Qualitative
Themes
Issues
Quantitative
Nominal
Mode frequencies
Statistic analysis
Ordinal
Spearman rank Order
Kruskal-Wallis test
Interval Ratio
ANOVA
T-test
Nominal DataPuts data into categories
Ethnic GroupsSample of Species in a selected ground
EarthwormsAnts
Sample of Speech communities in a given areaPunjabiPotohariSiraiki
Ordinal Data Indicates Order of Numbers is Meaningful
Scores Example: Scores in a sample population
Low score vs high scores Likert Scale Position of Schools on City-League
No arithmetic significance Intervals between sets of scores Difference between 60 & 70 Vs 45 and 55
Interval Ratio DataRefers to numbers which have regular intervals
Intervals can be interpretedCan be extrapolated
Generalized to other schools in the localityExample:
# of Minority Community students in schools of a selected locality
Descriptive StatisticsDescribes group
Age ranges in a class
Trap of Superfluous Data
Age Range Group Total
Cumulative Percentage
19-21 178 78.422-24 42 96.925-27 7 100
Non-Parametric Data Data
Nominal Ordinal Data
Can not be ExtrapolatedSphinx Survey, ExcelKruskal Wallis Test-find if 3 more groups belong to same population
Spearman’s Rank Order-find significant relationship between two sets of Ordinal Data
Parametric Data Data
Interval-RatioCan be ExtrapolatedRequires careful attention to characteristicsANOVA-mean of more than two samplesPearson’s product Moment correlation-strength of relationship between two interval scales variables
t-test: -testing the level of significance between the mean of two samples
QUALITATIVE Data Data
Open Questions InterviewsDescriptionsObservation Notes
ChallengesVolumeCreating meaning (themes and issues)Analysis is not straight forward or quickOpen to subjectivity of researcher
QUALITATIVE Data Validity & reliability
Table or charts can be addedPositive aspects
Connects to social realityAnswer more reliably why findings are the way they areStumble upon new themes
Using NUD.ISTNon-Numerical, Unstructured Data Indexing, Searching
and Theorizing
Software Package for analyzing Qualitative DataTo study interviews and Data Analysis
In this Chapter…
Practicalities of Using NUD.IST
Highlights of Pros & Cons (Criticism)
Recommendations for new Users
Analyzing Data in Qualitative Study
Loads of text for analysis
Context matters
Tone is important & holds meaning
Difficult to get a grip on and make connections
Difficult to Predict what will be important
ResearchersFeel the need
To organize data
Build connections
Cluster parts of texts together
Save time
NUD.IST
Works as a code and retrieve system
Import Text Doc
Code Parts of text
Retrieve Coded Doc
Analyze the text
Other features
Nodes can be further connected to get sub-code
Memos can be attached to the nodes
Coding & links can be modified
Preparing Text for coding
Name files and maintain an index
Change names before importing
Decide units for codes: Sentence or Paragraphs
Criticism
Might distance the researcher from actual dataCategories emerge from data
Links are more important
CriticismUnnecessary or forced linking:
It is important to avoid the misapprehension that the coding and computing lend a scientific
gloss to qualitative research. (Coffey et al, 1996) Manual analysis may lead to more unclear stringing
which is difficult to get back to. Computer encourages users to be clear about what
they are doing. (Fielding and Lee, 1998)
CriticismFacilitates the development of theory in highly organized and systematic waySystematic IndexingResearchers develop their own interpretations which they have to make explicit and justify
CriticismTends to distance you from actual data to concentrate on conceptual notions and, ponder and visualize these concepts
CriticismIncrease reliability, validity and generalizabilityEase of access and, back and forth movement
RecommendationsNot to be influenced by what the software can do
Be clear at all times why an action has been taken
The world of human experience should be studied from the perspective of culturally and historically situated individual.
Using Atlas.tiSoftware; used to study, analyze and compare data for Qualitative analysis
Gives good qualitative descriptionsPreferred by researchers working with grounded theory approach
(engage in interview/real life dialogue)
Preparing Text for coding
Name files and maintain an index
Change names before importing
Decide units for codes: Sentence or Paragraphs
Atlas.ti
Works as a code and retrieve system
Import Text Doc
Code Parts of text
Retrieve Coded Doc
Analyze the text
Other features
Nodes can be further connected to get sub-code
Memos can be attached to the nodes
Coding & links can be modified
Additional features
Has left & right side panes for codes & texts
One word codes
Can auto code a word across texts
Users ViewsAllows to build networks of Codes (tree & Higher hierarchy)
Allows time and space to go back and start all over again
Allows categorization of codes; (important, superordinate, Sub ordinate)
Allows later division and merger of codes