doms conclusive 13 july_1

Conclusive Research DesignConclusive Research Design

Market Research

S. Kumaravel, Alumni-DOMS 1

CONTENTSCONTENTS1. Research Design - Definition2. Research Design – Components3. Research Design - Classification4. Exploratory Research5. Conclusive Research 6. Descriptive Research 7. Six Ws8. Casual Research9. Budgeting & Scheduling10. Market Research Proposal

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CONCEPT OF CAUSALITYCONCEPT OF CAUSALITY• Experimentation is commonly used to infer causal

relationships. The scientific concept of causality is complex.

• “Causality” means something very different to the average person on the street than it does to a scientist.

• A statement such as “X causes Y” will have many meanings

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CONCEPT OF CAUSALITYCONCEPT OF CAUSALITY

• X is the only cause of Y.

• X must always lead to Y (X is a deterministic cause of Y)

• It is possible to prove that X is a cause of Y

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• X is the only one of a number of possible causes of Y.

• The occurrence of X makes the occurrence of Y more probable (X is a probabilistic cause of Y)

• We can never prove that X is a cause of Y. At best, we can infer that X is a cause of Y.

Ordinary Meeting Scientific Meeting

CONDITIONS FOR CAUSALITYCONDITIONS FOR CAUSALITY

Before making causal inferences or assuming causality, 3 conditions must be satisfied:

1. Concomitant Variation2. Time order of occurrence of variables3. Elimination of other possible causal

factors

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CONCOMITANT VARIATIONCONCOMITANT VARIATIONCV is the extent to which a cause X and an effect Y

occur together or vary together in the way predicted by hypothesis. Qualitative & Quantitative

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Evidence of Concomitant Variation between Purchase of Fashion Clothing & Education

73% 27%

64% 36%

Purchase of Fashion Clothing`

High Low

Time Order of Occurrence of Time Order of Occurrence of VariablesVariables

States that the causing event must occur either before or simultaneously with the effect.

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Variation between in-store service & sales (Chennai Silks & Pothys’)

73% 27%

36% 64%

In-store service

High Low

Absence of other possible Absence of other possible causal factorscausal factors

Absence of other possible causal factors means that the factor or variable being investigated should be the only possible causal explanation.

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Better in-store service may be a cause of increased sales if we can be sure that changes in all other factors affecting sales, pricing, advertising, level of distribution, product quality, competition and so on were held constant or otherwise controlled.

DEFINITIONS & CONCEPTSDEFINITIONS & CONCEPTSIndependent Variables : Variables are manipulated

by the researcher and whose effects are measured and compared. (in-store radio advtg)

Test Units: Individuals, organisations etc whose response to independent variables being studied

Dependent variables:

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VALIDITY IN VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTATIONEXPERIMENTATION

1. Research Design - Definition2. Research Design – Components3. Research Design - Classification4. Exploratory Research5. Conclusive Research 6. Descriptive Research 7. Six Ws8. Casual Research9. Budgeting & Scheduling10. Market Research Proposal

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EXTRANEOUS VARIABLESEXTRANEOUS VARIABLES1. Research Design - Definition2. Research Design – Components3. Research Design - Classification4. Exploratory Research5. Conclusive Research 6. Descriptive Research 7. Six Ws8. Casual Research9. Budgeting & Scheduling10. Market Research Proposal

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CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIFICATION OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNEXPERIMENTAL DESIGN


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PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNSPRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS


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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNSTRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS


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QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNSDESIGNS


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STATISTICAL DESIGNSSTATISTICAL DESIGNS1. Research Design - Definition2. Research Design – Components3. Research Design - Classification4. Exploratory Research5. Conclusive Research 6. Descriptive Research 7. Six Ws8. Casual Research9. Budgeting & Scheduling10. Market Research Proposal

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LAB VS FIELD EXPERIMENTSLAB VS FIELD EXPERIMENTS1. Research Design - Definition2. Research Design – Components3. Research Design - Classification4. Exploratory Research5. Conclusive Research 6. Descriptive Research 7. Six Ws8. Casual Research9. Budgeting & Scheduling10. Market Research Proposal

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EXPERIMENTAL VS NON EXPERIMENTAL VS NON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNSEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS


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LIMITATIONS OF LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTATIONEXPERIMENTATION


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APPLICATION : TEST APPLICATION : TEST MARKETINGMARKETING


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DETERMINING A TEST DETERMINING A TEST MARKETING STRATEGYMARKETING STRATEGY


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CONCEPT OF CAUSALITYCONCEPT OF CAUSALITY1. Research Design - Definition2. Research Design – Components3. Research Design - Classification4. Exploratory Research5. Conclusive Research 6. Descriptive Research 7. Six Ws8. Casual Research9. Budgeting & Scheduling10. Market Research Proposal

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Types of Research

Research Types

Exploratory Conclusive

Descriptive Causal

Experimental

Observational

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Conclusive Research

• Conclusive research tends to be quantitative research

• It can further be sub-divided into two major categories: descriptive and causal.

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Conclusive Research

Descriptive Research • Provides data (usually quantitative) about the

population being studied. • It can only describe the situation, not what

caused it.

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Conclusive Research

Causal Research• To determine whether there is a cause and

effect relationship between variables• To determine whether a specific independent

variable is producing an effect on another dependent variable.

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Causal Research

There are two types of causal research:• Experimental• Observational (quasi-experimental)

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Causal Research

There are two types of causal research:• Experimental• Observational (quasi-experimental)

Experimental and observational studies try to demonstrate a causal relationship between two variables.

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Causal Research

• Experimental Research: In experimental studies, units (people, etc.) are put into control or exposure groups by the researcher.

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Causal Research

Observational Research: • In an observational study, members of the

control group are pre-determined. They can be matched according to demographic information to a member of the exposure group.

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Causal Research

Think of some examples of causal research. Are they experimental or observational?

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Causal Research

Examples of causal research:• A drug trial for a new medication that has not

yet been approved by the FDA.• A study testing the long-term health effects of

exposure to high levels of radiation. • A study comparing asthma rates among

children who live on farms with those living in urban areas.

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Types of Research

Research Types


Descriptive Causal

Experimental

Observational

Differences Between Exploratory and Conclusive Research

• Research Project Components: Research Purpose– Exploratory Research

• General: To generate insights about a situation

– Conclusive Research• Specific: To verify insights and aid in selecting a course

of action

Differences Between Exploratory and Conclusive Research (Cont’d)

• Research Project Components: Data needs– Exploratory Research

• Vague

– Conclusive Research• Clear


• Research Project Components: Data sources– Exploratory Research

• Ill-defined

– Conclusive Research• Well-defined


• Research Project Components: Data collection form – Exploratory Research

• Open-ended, rough

– Conclusive Research• Usually structured


• Research Project Components: Sample– Exploratory Research

• Relatively small; subjectively selected to maximize generalization of useful insights

– Conclusive Research• Relatively large; objectively selected to permit

generalization of findings


• Research Project Components: Data collection– Exploratory Research

• Flexible; no set procedure

– Conclusive Research• Rigid; well-laid-out procedure


• Research Project Components: Data analysis– Exploratory Research

• Informal; typically non-quantitative

– Conclusive Research• Formal; typically quantitative


• Research Project Components: Inferences/recommendations– Exploratory Research

• More tentative than final

– Conclusive Research• More final than tentative

Multi-group Design

ControlGroup

All variables stay the same

ExperimentalGroup

Change one variable

Units

Measure the differences.

Experimental (Cont’d)

Exploratory and Conclusive Research

EXPLORATORY CONCLUSIVE

Objectives To provide insight and understanding

To test specific expectations and examine relationships

Characteristics • Information needs are loosely defined

• Research process flexible and unstructured

• Sample is small and non-representative

• Analysis is qualitative

• Information needs are clearly defined

• Research process is formal and structured

• Sample are large and representative

• Analysis is quantitativeFindings Tentative Conclusive

Outcome Generally followed by further exploratory or conclusive research

Findings used as input to decision making

Introduction to Research Design

EXPLORATORY DESCRIPTIVE CAUSAL Chap 4,7 Chap 5,6 Chap 8

Objective Discovery of insights and relationships

Describe respondent or program characteristics or function

Determine cause and effect

Characteristics • Flexible, versatile

• Often the front-end of other designs

• Prior formulation of expectations

• Pre-planned and structured

• Variable manipulation

• Control of mediating variables

Methods • Secondary data• Expert surveys• Pilot surveys• Qualitative

designs• Focus

groups• Depth

interviews• Ethnography

• Secondary data• Meta-analysis• Surveys

• Panels• Observational

designs

• Experiments• Field

Experiments

Qualitative Research Methods

Exploratory vs. conclusive research

Exploratory research

• Insights and understanding of the research problem

• Loose definition of information needed

• Flexible (unstructured) research process

• Small and nonrepresentative samples

• QUALITATIVE analysis of primary data

• Preliminary to further research

Conclusive research

• Test specific hypothesis and examine relationships

• Clear definition of informational need

• Formal and structured research process

• Representative and large samples

• QUANTITATIVE data analysis

• Conclusive results for decision making

A Classification of Marketing Research Designs

Single Cross-Sectional Design

Multiple Cross-Sectional Design

Fig. 3.1

Research Design

Conclusive Research Design

Exploratory Research Design

Descriptive Research

Causal Research

Cross-Sectional Design

Longitudinal Design

Exploratory & Conclusive Research Differences

Objective:

Character-istics:

Findings /Results:

Outcome:

To provide insights and understanding.

Information needed is defined only loosely. Research process is flexible and unstructured. Sample is small and non-representative. Analysis of primary data is qualitative.

Tentative.

Generally followed by further exploratory or conclusive research.

To test specific hypotheses and examine relationships.

Information needed is clearly defined. Research process is formal and structured. Sample is large and representative. Data analysis is quantitative.

Conclusive.

Findings used as input into decision making.


Table 3.1

Objective:

Characteristics:

Methods:

A Comparison of Basic Research Designs

Discovery of ideas and insights

Flexible, versatile

Often the front end of total research design

Expert surveysPilot surveysSecondary dataQualitative research

Describe market characteristics or functions

Marked by the prior formulation of specific hypotheses

Preplanned and structured design

Secondary dataSurveysPanelsObservation and other data

Determine cause and effect relationships

Manipulation of one or more independent variables

Control of other mediating variables

Experiments

Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Table 3.2

Overview of Research DesignsOverview of Research Designs

The Marketing Research ProcessThe Marketing Research Process

Step 1: Defining the Problem

Step 2: Developing an Approach to the Problem

Step 3: Formulating a Research Design

Step 4: Doing Field Work or Collecting Data

Step 5: Preparing and Analyzing Data

Step 6: Preparing and Presenting the Report

Research Design

• A master plan that specifies the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing needed information.

Define the Information Needed

Design the Exploratory, Descriptive, and/or Causal Phases of the Research

Specify the Measurement and Scaling Procedures

Construct a Questionnaire

Specify the Sampling Process and the Sample Size

Develop a Plan of Data Analysis

Tasks Involved In a Research Design

Today’s Topic

A Classification of Market Research Designs

Research Design

Exploratory Research

Conclusive Research

Secondary Data

Experience Surveys

Pilot Studies Case Studies

See next slide

A Classification of Market Research Designs

Research Design


Conclusive Research

See previous slide

Descriptive Design

Causal Design

Cross-sectional Study

Longitudinal Study

Secondary Data Study Observation

Experiment

Survey


• Usually conducted during the initial stage of the research process

• Purposes– To narrow the scope of the research topic, and– To transform ambiguous problems into well-defined

ones

Exploratory Research Techniques• Secondary Data Analysis

– Secondary data are data previously collected & assembled for some project other than the one at hand

• Pilot Studies– A collective term for any small-scale exploratory research

technique that uses sampling but does not apply rigorous standards

– Includes• Focus Group Interviews

– Unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small group of people• Projective Techniques

– Indirect means of questioning that enables a respondent to project beliefs and feelings onto a third party or an inanimate object

– Word association tests, sentence completion tests, role playing

Exploratory Research Techniques

• Case Studies– Intensively investigate one or a few situations

similar to the problem situation

• Experience Surveys– Individuals who are knowledge about a particular

research problem are questioned

Conclusive Research• Provide specific information that aids the decision

maker in evaluating alternative courses of action• Sound statistical methods & formal research

methodologies are used to increase the reliability of the information

• Data sought tends to be specific & decisive• Also more structured & formal than exploratory data

Types of Conclusive Research

• Descriptive Research– Describes attitudes, perceptions, characteristics, activities

and situations.– Examines who, what, when, where, why, & how questions

• Causal Research– Provides evidence that a cause-and-effect relationship exists

or does not exist.– Premise is that something (and independent variable)

directly influences the behavior of something else (the dependent variable).

Common Characteristics of Descriptive Studies

• Build on previous information• Show relationships between variables• Representative samples required• Structured research plans• Require substantial resources• Conclusive findings

Major Types of Descriptive Studies

Descriptive Studies

Consumer PerceptionAnd Behavior Studies

Image

Product Usage

Advertising

Pricing

Market Characteristic Studies

Distribution

Competitive Analysis

Market Potential

Market Share

Sales Analysis

Sales Studies

Sample Surveyed at

T1

Sample Surveyed at

T1

SameSame Sample also Surveyed at

T2

T1 T2

Cross Sectional Design

Longitudinal Design

Time

Cross Sectional vs. Longitudinal Designs

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Designs

Cross-Sectional

Longitudinal

Detecting change Worse Better

Amount of data collected

Worse Better

Accuracy Worse Better

Representativeness

Better Worse

Response bias Better Worse


Secondary Data Analysis

Focus Groups

Conclusive ResearchDescriptive/Causal



Secondary Data Analysis

Focus Groups


Some Alternative Research Designs

(a)

(b)

(c)

Common Characteristics of Causal Studies

• Logical Time Sequence– For causality to exist, the cause must either precede or occur

simultaneously with the effect

• Concomitant Variation– Extent to which the cause and effect vary together as

hypothesized

• Control for Other Possible Causal Factors

How Descriptive & Causal Designs Differ

• Relationship between the variables– Descriptive designs determine degree of association– Causal designs infer whether one or more variables influence

another variable

• Degree of environmental control– Descriptive designs enjoy lesser degrees of control

• Order of the variables– In descriptive designs, variables are not logically ordered

Comparison of Research DesignsExploratory Descriptive Causal

Purpose ID problems, gain insights

Describe things Determine cause-and-effect relationships

Assumed background knowledge

Minimal Considerable Considerable

Degree of structure

Very little High High

Flexibility High Some Little

Sample Nonrepresentative Representative Representative

Research environment

Relaxed Formal Highly controlled

Cost Low Medium High

Findings Preliminary Conclusive Conclusive

Basic Research Methods

• Secondary Data Analysis– Historical analysis

• Surveys– Asking; self-reported

• Experiments– Testing in controlled environments

• Observation– Watching & recording

Which is the “Best” Research Design & Method?

• “You cannot put the same shoe on every foot.”– Publilius Syrus

• It depends on the– problem of interest, – level of information needed, – resources, – researcher’s experience, etc.

Survey MethodsSurvey Methods

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Primary data are originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the problem at hand. The collection of primary data involves all six steps of the marketing research process. Secondary data are data which have already been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand. These data can be located quickly and inexpensively.

Survey Methods Classified by Survey Methods Classified by Mode of AdministrationMode of Administration

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Survey Methods Classified by Survey Methods Classified by Mode of AdministrationMode of Administration

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Survey Questionnaires may be administered in 4 major modes:1.Telephone Methods – Traditional & CATI2.Personal Interviews – In-Home, Mall Intercept & CAPI3.Mail Interviews – Mail & Mail Panel4.Electronic Viewing – E-mail & Internet

Telephone MethodsTelephone Methods

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Traditional: Phoning a sample of respondents and ask them a series of ques & records the responses on paper quest. Using a pencil.Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing –CATI: Uses a computerized questionnaire administered to respondents over telephone. On command, computer dials the telephone number to be called. The responses are directly recorded in the computer thus reducing interview time, coding, data entry process.

Telephone Methods - Telephone Methods - AdvantagesAdvantages

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•Central location, under supervision, at own hours

•More interviews can be conducted in a given time

• Travelling time is saved

• Shorter data collection periods

•More hours of the day are productive

•Repeated call backs at lower cost (WATS)

•Absence of administrative costs

•Lower cost per completed interview

•Less sample bias due to non-response

•Intrusiveness of the phone

• Ease of call backs

Telephone Methods - Telephone Methods - AdvantagesAdvantages

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•Inability to employ visual aids or complex tasks• Interviewer must rely solely on verbal cues to judge the reaction and understanding of respondents• Can't be longer than 5-10 min. or they get boring• Amount of data that can be collected is relatively less• A capable interviewer essential• Potential for sample bias • No phone, unlisted phone or mobile phones

Personal MethodsPersonal Methods

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Personal In-home Interviews: Respondents are interviewed in person in their homes. Mall-intercept Personal Interviews: Mall shoppers are intercepted and brought to the test facilities in the malls where the interview would be conducted.Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): Respondent sits in front of a computer terminal and answers a questionnaire using key board, assisted by the researcher. + Purchase Intercept

Personal Methods - Personal Methods - AdvantagesAdvantages

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•Can arouse and keep interest•Can build rapport•Ask complex questions with the help of visual and other aids•Clarify misunderstandings•High degree of flexibility•Probe for more complete answers•Good for neutral questions•Do not need an explicit or current list of households or individuals

Personal Methods – Personal Methods – Dis-advantagesDis-advantages

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•Bias of Interviewer

• Response Bias

• Embarrassing/personal questions (Money & Age - DOB)

• Time Requirements

• Cost Per Completed Interview Is High

• Trained staff of interviewers geographically near the sample required

Self Administration Surveys– Self Administration Surveys– Advantages Advantages

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•Ease of presenting questions requiring visual aids.

•Asking questions with long or complex response categories is facilitated.

•Asking batteries of similar questions is possible.

Self Administration Surveys– Self Administration Surveys– Disadvantages Disadvantages

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•Especially careful questionnaire design is needed.

•Open questions usually are not useful.

•Good reading and writing skills are needed by respondents.

•The interviewer is not present to exercise quality control with respect to answering all questions, meeting questions objectives, or the quality of answers provided.

Mail MethodsMail Methods

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Mail Interviews: Questionnaires are mailed to potential respondents.(return envelope) Mail Panels: Panel consists of a large, nationally representative sample of households that agreed to participate in periodic mail questionnaires, product tests and telephone surveys.National Family Opinion, Market Fact’s Consumer Mail Panel, Marketing and Research Counselors’ National Neighborhood panel, Home testing Inst.

Mail MethodsMail Methods

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Requires a broad identification of the individuals to be sampled before data collection beginsSome Decisions That Need to Be Taken Are:•Type of Return Envelope•Postage•Method of Addressing•Cover Letter•The Questionnaire Length, Layout, Color, Format etc•Method of Notification•Incentive to Be Given

Mail Methods - AdvantagesMail Methods - Advantages

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•Lower cost

• Better results, including a shorter response time

• Reliable answers as no inhibiting intermediary

• Survey answered at respondents’ discretion

Mail Methods - DisadvantagesMail Methods - Disadvantages

90

•The identity of the respondent is inadequately controlled

•No control over whom the respondent consults before answering the questions

•The speed of the response can't be monitored

•No control on the order in which the questions are exposed and answered

•Respondents’ understanding of the questions

Electronic MethodsElectronic Methods

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E-Mail Interviews: Survey written within the body of e-mail message is sent to respondents to their e-mail addresses. Use ASCII. Internet Interviews: Use HTML, web language & post them on a web site. Respondents recruited on-line from potential databases, maintained by MR firm, are asked to complete the survey.

A comparative Evaluation of A comparative Evaluation of Survey MethodsSurvey Methods

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• Flexibility of data collection• Diversity of questions• Use of physical stimuli • Sample control• Control of data collection environment• Control of field force• Quantity of data• Response rate• Perceived Anonymity• Social Desirability

Flexibility of Data CollectionFlexibility of Data Collection

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• Determined primarily by the extent to which respondent can interact with the interviewer and the survey questionnaire.• Mail Survey, mail panels and e-mail surveys have low flexibility. • Telephone interview – moderate flexibility • Personal interview (@home / mall-intercept) allows highest flexibility of data collection.• CATI, CAPI & Internet surveys allow greater flexibility due to interactive mode.

Diversity of QuestionsDiversity of Questions

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• Diversity of questions that can be asked in a survey depends on the degree of interaction the respondent has with the interviewer and the questionnaire, as well the respondents’ ability to actually see the questions. • Wide variety of ques can be asked in a personal interview as respondents can see the ques and interviewer to clarify ambiguities.• In Internet surveys, diversity of ques is moderate to high.

Use of Physical StimuliUse of Physical Stimuli

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• Necessary to use physical stimuli such as product, a product prototype, commercials or promotional displays. • A taste test for eg in personal interview (Ruchi Pickle); mail panels gives average success.• Use of physical stimuli is limited in traditional telephone interviews and CATI as well as in e-mail surveys.• Internet survey moderately suitable.

Sample ControlSample Control

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•Sample Control: Ability of the survey mode to reach the units specified in the sample effectively and efficiently.• Sampling Frame: A representation of the elements of the target population. It consists of a list or set of directions for identifying the target population.• Moderate to high sampling control can be achieved with traditional telephone interviews and CATI.• Telephones offer access to a geographically dispersed respondents.

Control of Field ForceControl of Field Force

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• Field force is the interviewers and the supervisors involved in data collection.• Traditional telephone interviews, CATI, mall-intercept, and CAPI offer moderate degrees of control because interviews are conducted at central location, making supervision relatively simple.• Many interviewers work in many different locations, making supervision highly a difficult task.• For Eg. Survey on in 4 states.

Quantity of DataQuantity of Data

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• Personal interviews allow large amounts of data collection. (4 different types of people ?)• Mall intercept & CAPI provide only moderate amounts of data. • Typically the interview time is 30 minutes or less.• Mail surveys yield moderate amounts of data.• Mail panels can generate large amounts of data •For eg Hotels lure visitors to undertake survey to get instant money.

Response DataResponse Data

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• The percentage of total attempted interviews that are completed. • Personal, in-home, mall-intercept and CAPI yield the highest response rate (> 80%).• Not-at-homes can be resolved by calling back at different times. • Telephone interviews, traditional and CATI yield response rates between 60 & 80%.• Non response bias : For eg Husband answer for Wife & vice versa

Perceived AnonymityPerceived Anonymity

100

• Refers to the respondents’ perceptions that their identities will not be discerned by the interviewer or the researcher. • Perceived anonymity of the respondent is high in mail surveys, mail panels and internet surveys because there is no contact with an interviewer while responding. • Low in personal interviews• Moderate with e-mail.

Potential For Interviewer BiasPotential For Interviewer Bias

101

• Interviewer selects wrong respondents • Omitting research questions• record answers incorrectly / incompletely.• Understand the respondents wrongly. • IN-home and Mall-intercept personal interviews are highly susceptible to interviewers’ bias. • Telephone & CATI are less susceptible.• Mail surveys, mail panels, e-mail and internet surveys are free from it.

Observation MethodsObservation Methods

102

• The recording of behavioural patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest. • Structured: Researcher clearly defines the behaviours to be observed and the methods by which they will be measured.• Un-Structured: Research monitoring all relevant phenomenon without specifying the details in advance.

Observation Methods classified by Observation Methods classified by mode of administration mode of administration

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Observation Methods

Personal Observation

Mechanical Observation Audit Content

AnalysisTrace

Analysis

Personal ObservationPersonal Observation

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• In which human observers record the phenomenon being observed as it occurs.• He / she does not attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed. • The observer merely records what takes place in a natural or a contrived environment.• For Eg. A researcher records traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a dept. store.

Mechanical ObservationMechanical Observation

105

• An observational research strategy in which mechanical devices record the phenomenon being observed.• Psychogalvanometer: An instrument that measures a respondent’s galvanic skin response (ie increased perspiration) to advertisements, packages & slogans.• Voice Pitch Analysis: Measurement of emotional reactions through changes in the respondents’ voice.• Response Latency: Amount of time it takes to answer a ques.

AuditAudit

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• In an audit, researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis. 2 distinguishing features:• First data are collected personally by the researcher. • Second The data are based on counts, usually of physical counts. • In Pantry Audit, researcher takes an inventory of brands, quantities, and package sizes in a consumer’s home.

Content AnalysisContent Analysis

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• The objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication.• It includes observation of words(different words or type of words), characters (individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message), or topics (subject to the message).• Content Analysis of Advt, Newspaper articles, TV and radio programs.

Trace AnalysisTrace Analysis

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• In Trade Analysis, data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behaviour. • The no. of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the readership of various advertisements in a magazine.

THANK YOUTHANK YOU

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Any Questions

Any Questions

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