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THINKING CRITICALLY WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
1
Critical Thinking- the ability and willingness to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence.
Critical thinkers are able to look for flaws in arguments, resist claims that lack supporting evidence, and recognize that criticizing an argument is not the same as criticizing a person.
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THINKING CRITICALLY WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
2
Eight guidelines emphasized by the text:1. Ask questions- Be curious and willing to ask why.2. Define your terms- Be clear, concrete and precise3. Examine the evidence- Use reliable resources and
empirical evidence4. Analyze assumptions and biases- Analyze and test beliefs
(yours and others) that may be taken for granted5. Avoid emotional reasoning- question your support for an
argument…is it based in evidence6. Don’t oversimplify- gather multiple sources of supporting
evidence and do not generalize7. Consider other interpretations- even after generating a
possible explanation be willing to accept other possibilities8. Tolerate uncertainty- It may be difficult if not impossible to
determine an absolute answer and that’s okay
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ASKING QUESTIONS…. With hopes of satisfying curiosity, many
people listen to talk-radio counselors and psychics to learn about others and
themselves.
3
Dr. Crane (radio-shrink)
http://ww
w.nbc.com
http://ww
w.photovault.com
Psychic (Ball gazing)
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CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking does not accept arguments and
conclusions blindly.
It examines assumptions,
discerns hidden values, evaluates
evidence and assesses
conclusions.
4
The Amazing Randi
From The Secrets of the Psychics
Courtesy of the Jam
es Randi E
ducation Foundation
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CRITICAL THINKING LEADS TO A SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE
5
The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
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THE NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Intuition & Common Sense have limits
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Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth
answers regarding human nature.
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LIMITS OF INTUITION
Personal interviewers may rely too much on their “gut feelings”
when meeting with job applicants.
7
Taxi/ Getty Im
ages
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ERRORS OF COMMON SENSE
Try this !
8
Fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) 100 times. How thick will it be?
800,000,000,000,000 times the distance between the sun and the earth.
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HINDSIGHT BIAS
Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.
After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have
predicted that very outcome. We only knew the dot.com stocks would plummet after
they actually did plummet.
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OVERCONFIDENCESometimes we think we know more than we actually know.
10
Anagram
BARGEGRABE
ENTRYETYRN
WATERWREATHow long do you think it
would take to unscramble these
anagrams?People said it would
take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took
about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).
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PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS EXPLAIN UNSEEN MENTAL PROCESSES? HOW DO THEY DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN OPINIONS AND EXAMINED CONCLUSIONS?
By using the Scientific Method as the basis for psychological research examined
conclusions can leads to a clear understanding of how people feel,
think, and act as they do! 11
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SCIENTIFIC METHOD
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Collect Data/Make Observations
Generate an initial theory based on research
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RESEARCH PROCESS
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ASK QUESTIONS
The Scientific Method begins with wondering: What? Why? Or How?
In the example of depression…the psychologist may have wondered what
is the relationship between low self-esteem and depression
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THEORY
A Theory is an explanation that integrates principles, organizes events
and predicts behavior based on empirical evidence.
For example, low self-esteem possibly contributes to depression.
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HYPOTHESIS
A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a scientific attitude, to enable us to accept, reject or revise a
theory.
If people have low self-esteem then they are apt to feel more depressed.
(Note: The If/Then statement)
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RESEARCH OBSERVATIONS
Research would require us to administer tests and make further observations to
confirm or deny a hypothesis
In our example…Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a
depression test would confirm our hypothesis.
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THREE TYPES OF (BASIC) PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Descriptive Correlational Experimental
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PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Descriptive Research
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The purpose of this type of study is to describe and predict behaviors.
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VARIOUS DESCRIPTIVE METHODS INCLUDE:
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BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION:Case Study
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A technique in which one person or a small group is studied in depth to reveal
underlying behavioral principles. The study of this one individual may include an individual history, careful observation
and/or psychological testing.
Do animals have language?
Susan K
uklin/ Photo R
esearchers
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COVERT BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION:NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Naturalistic observation involves the observation, recording and measurement of behavior without
intrusion into the subjects natural or normal environment.
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a
multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation. 22
Courtesy of G
ilda Morelli
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23
OVERT BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION:LABORATORY OBSERVATION
Observing and recording the behavior of animals and people in a controlled
environment enables the scientist to use more sophistic devices for measurement.
However, this environment may lead to participants acting differently because they
are in unusual surroundings.
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BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS:PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS OR INSTRUMENTS
Psychological tests, also called assessment instruments, are procedures for measuring and
evaluating a wide variety human traits, emotional states and behaviors.
Typically, tests require a response to a series of questions that can be scored and used for statistical analysis.
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PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION
For a psychological test to be acceptable it must fulfill the following three criteria:
1. Standardization
2. Reliability3. Validity
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STANDARDIZATION
Standardizing a test involves administering the test to a representative sample of test
takers in order to establish a basis for meaningful comparison (a norm) and to
establish appropriate test procedures that can easily be duplicated.
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RELIABILITY
A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers
establish different procedures:
1. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.
2. Reliability using different tests: Using different forms of the test to measure consistency between them.
3. Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.
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VALIDITY
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is
supposed to measure or predict.
1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait.
2. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.
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SELF REPORTS:SURVEY
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors
of people. This is usually done by questioning a representative sample that
is both random and proportional.
29
http://ww
w.lynnefeatherstone.org
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REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLEIt is impossible to survey everyone in
any given population. It is necessary therefore to survey a group of individuals that accurately represents the larger population being studied.
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.
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SURVEY
Random Sample -ensures that everyone
in the larger population has an
equal chance of being selected as part of the representative
sample. If the survey sample is not random it may be biased and its results would not
be valid.31
Random Sampling
Errors in Random Sampling
Volunteer Bias- People who volunteer may feel more strongly than those who do not.
Selection Bias- If selection of participants are not random…the order of selection may bias results
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PROPORTIONAL
The sample must represent an accurate proportion of the variations in the larger population in order to be a true representative sample.
For Example: The sample should include the same percentage of males and females as what would be found in the larger population.
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SURVEY
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (allowed vs. forbidden)
Q: How many times in your life have you “cheated”?
(Have you ever? vs. How many? And cheated vs. lied or been dishonest)
33
Wording Effect
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SURVEY
A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our
beliefs and behaviors.
34
False Consensus Effect
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PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Correlational Research Correlation and Causation Illusory Correlation Perceiving Order in Random
Events
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CORRELATION
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two
variables.36
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two
correlate.
Correlation coefficient
Indicates directionof relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)
r = 0.37+
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SCATTERPLOTS
37
Perfect positivecorrelation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two
variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.
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SCATTERPLOTS
38
No relationship (0.00)Perfect negativecorrelation (-1.00)
The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, while the one on the right shows no
relationship between the two variables.
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DATA
39
Data showing height and temperament in people.
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SCATTERPLOT
40
The Scatterplot below shows the relationship between height and
temperament in people. There is a moderate positive correlation of +0.63.
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CORRELATION AND CAUSATION
41
or
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ILLUSORY CORRELATION
The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive
children after adoption.
42
Confirming evidence
Disconfirming evidence
Do not
adopt
Disconfirming evidence
Confirming evidence
Adopt
Do not conceiveConceive
Michael N
ewm
an Jr./ Photo Edit
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ORDER IN RANDOM EVENTS
Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
43
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
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ORDER IN RANDOM EVENTS
Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.
44
Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same
day.
Jerry Telfer/ San F
rancisco Chronicle
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PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Experimental Research Exploring Cause and Effect Evaluating Therapies Independent and Dependent
Variables
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EXPERIMENTATION
Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychology research. The purpose of experimental research is to
isolate causes and their effects.
Exploring Cause and Effect
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EXPLORING CAUSE & EFFECT
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept
under (2) control.
Effects generated by factors manipulated by a researcher isolate cause and effect
relationships.
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MANIPULATED SOME FACTORS WHILE OTHERS ARE KEPT IN CONTROL….
I manipulated whether students had candy to eat while taking a quiz. These students were the experimental group
Students who did not receive a candy were the control group, because their testing condition was the same as it normally is.
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RANDOM ASSIGNMENT
Assigning participants to experimental (candy eating) and control (non-candy eating) conditions by
random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.
Students were randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group based on the row in which they sat within the classroom. If a student
refused the lollipop it was given to the nearest student in the next row.
If I gave candy to the first 15 students who came to class or students in the front of the room, a pre-
existing difference may have accounted for a difference in test scores.
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INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the
focus of the study. For example, when examining the effects of
candy on test scores, candy is the independent variable.
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DEPENDENT VARIABLE
A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a
behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of candy on test scores, test scores are the
dependent variable. The score on the assessment is dependent on whether or not
a candy was eaten
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A SUMMARY OF STEPS DURING EXPERIMENTATION.
Random Assignment: Students are given lollipops by row
Condition Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Experimental
Control
Scores from a 8 point
memory task
No sweet substance
made primarily of sugar
A sweet substance
made primarily of sugar
Scores from a 8 point
memory task
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EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS
Expectations can influence results!
My hypothesis was clearly written on the board when students were taking the test and eating candy. Their expectation that they would or would not perform well could have influenced your actual
performance.
Because of this, psychologists use single blind procedures. Where the participant is unaware of the
behavior being observed.
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SINGLE-BLIND PROCEDURE
In a single blind study, participants would not know whether they are in the experimental
or control group.
Psychologists may use a placebo to keep participants unaware of any differences in
their treatment.Placebo- an inactive substance or fake
treatment used as a control in an experiment or given by a practitioner to a patient
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DOUBLE-BLIND PROCEDUREParticipants are not the only people to bring expectations to the laboratory. Experimenter
Effects can have powerful results
In setting up the experiment and evaluating results, the participants and the experimenter’s
assistants conducting the experiment should both remain unaware of which group was the
experimental group and which was the control.
Think of the Russian scientists conducting the research on psychic ability.
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INTERPRETING RESULTS
If an experiment is repeated and consistently yields the same results, the finding can be deemed reliable.
However, the best interpretation of a finding does not emerge until the hypothesis is further tested in multiple ways.
So, after repeating my candy experiment several times…I may want to change the type of candy, assessment or student to see if that has an impact on my result
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THINKING CRITICALLY …
Statistical Reasoning Interpreting Results Describing Data Making Inferences
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DESCRIBING DATA
A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation
may lead to incorrect conclusions. Statistical procedures analyze and
interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye misses.
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MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCYA GOOD WAY TO SUMMARIZE DATA IS TO USE ONE OF THE FOLLOWING MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDANCY
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together.
Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.
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MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
A Skewed Distribution
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODCANDY EXPERIMENT DATA COLLECTION
Candy Rows (Experimental Condition) 10 Students
2,5,5,5,6,7,8,8,8,8
Mean 6.2/10Median 6.5/10Mode 8/10
Non-candy Rows (Control Condition) 16 Students
3,4,4,4,5,5,6,6,6,6,6,6,7,7,8,8
Mean 5.3/16Median 6.5/16Mode 6/16
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FAQ
Q4. Why do psychologists study animals?
Ans: Studying animals gives us the understanding of many behaviors that may have common biology across animals and
humans.
D. Shapiro, © Wildlife Conservation Society
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FAQ
Q5. Is it ethical to experiment on animals?
Ans: Yes. To gain insights to devastating and fatal diseases. All researchers who deal with
animal research are required to follow ethical guidelines in caring for these animals.
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FAQ
Q6. Is it ethical to experiment on people?
Ans: Yes. Experiments that do not involve any kind of physical or psychological harm beyond normal levels encountered in daily life may be
carried out.