SEKOLAH BERASRAMA PENUH INTEGRASI GOPENG
PREPARED BY :-PREPARED BY :-
MUHD FAZLI BIN DOLLAHMUHD FAZLI BIN DOLLAH
CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT IN HUMANS & ANIMALS
SUPPORT IN PLANTS
TYPES OF SKELETON
Muscles, ligaments & tendon
LOCOMOTION AQUATIC PLANTSTERRESTRIAL
PLANTS
BirdsHydrostatic skeleton
Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton
Fish
Axial skeletonAppendicular
skeleton
Grasshopper
Earthworms
LEARNING OUTCOMESLEARNING OUTCOMES To explain the necessity for support and
locomotion in humans and animals,
To describe problems that could be faced by humans and animals in support and locomotion,
To explain how problems in support and locomotion are overcome in humans and animals,
To name the bones that make up the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton of the human body
The Necessity for Support The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & & Locomotion in Humans &
AnimalsAnimals
WHY DO HUMANS & WHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALS NEED SUPPORT?ANIMALS NEED SUPPORT?
1.1. To find the foodTo find the food2.2. To find partner for matingTo find partner for mating3.3. To protect/escape from To protect/escape from
their predatortheir predator4.4. To shelter from bad To shelter from bad
environmentenvironment
The Necessity for Support The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & & Locomotion in Humans &
AnimalsAnimals Without support, animals & humans Without support, animals & humans
would not be able to maintain their would not be able to maintain their body shape body shape their body collapse their body collapse under the weight of their own tissues.under the weight of their own tissues.
Support are provided by some form of Support are provided by some form of skeletonskeleton..
Hydrostatic skeletonHydrostatic skeleton ExoskeletonExoskeleton endoskeletonendoskeleton
HYDROSTATIC SKELETONHYDROSTATIC SKELETON A A fluid-filled internal body cavityfluid-filled internal body cavity in in
which the fluid is held under pressurewhich the fluid is held under pressure maintaining the body shape & providing maintaining the body shape & providing support for internal organsupport for internal organ
The cavity is surrounded by muscles The cavity is surrounded by muscles arranged in layers.arranged in layers.
The The body shapebody shape of the animal of the animal changeschanges as these muscles contract & relax.as these muscles contract & relax.
The animals are The animals are soft & flexiblesoft & flexible, the , the hydrostatic fluidhydrostatic fluid does protect body does protect body parts by parts by acting as a shock absorber.acting as a shock absorber.
Examples : Examples : earthworm, jellyfish, leech & earthworm, jellyfish, leech & caterpillar.caterpillar.
EXOSKELETONEXOSKELETON A rigid outer covering usually made A rigid outer covering usually made
up of protein, up of protein, chitinschitins &/@ calcium salt. &/@ calcium salt.
Insects – the Insects – the cuticlecuticle (covered with wax (covered with wax to prevent water loss from the body), to prevent water loss from the body), cover the body’s surface.cover the body’s surface.
The exoskeleton is The exoskeleton is jointed / hingedjointed / hinged = = certain points of the skeleton are certain points of the skeleton are flexible & can bend flexible & can bend enabling the enabling the movement.movement.
Exoskeleton restrict the growth of Exoskeleton restrict the growth of animals animals the exoskeleton must be the exoskeleton must be shed from time to time in order for shed from time to time in order for the animal to grow. (the animal to grow. (ecdysisecdysis))
Also found in the shells of Also found in the shells of molluscsmolluscs & the bony plates of tortoises.& the bony plates of tortoises.
Examples : Examples : insects, crabs, lobsters, insects, crabs, lobsters, tortoisetortoise
ENDOSKELETONENDOSKELETON Found in the bodies of all vertebrates Found in the bodies of all vertebrates
including fish, amphibians & birds.including fish, amphibians & birds.
Consist of hard skeleton of Consist of hard skeleton of bones & bones & cartilage found insidecartilage found inside the body – the body – made up of calcium & phosphate.made up of calcium & phosphate.
Works with the muscular system to Works with the muscular system to perform movement & locomotion. It perform movement & locomotion. It support the body & protects the support the body & protects the organs.organs.
The Necessity for Support The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & & Locomotion in Humans &
AnimalsAnimals The functions of skeleton :The functions of skeleton :
Provide shape & supportProvide shape & supportEnables movement (locomotion)Enables movement (locomotion)Protects internal organsProtects internal organsStores calcium & phosphate ionsStores calcium & phosphate ionsProduces blood cellsProduces blood cellsA firm base for the attachment of A firm base for the attachment of musclesmuscles
The Necessity for Support The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & & Locomotion in Humans &
AnimalsAnimalsProblems that could be faced by humans
and animals in support and locomotion, gravitational force, friction & resistance gravitational force, friction & resistance
when moving aroundwhen moving around Aspect need to be considered when Aspect need to be considered when
describing the locomotion of an animal :-describing the locomotion of an animal :- StabilityStability – when it moves, it is temporarily – when it moves, it is temporarily
unstable, but its stability will be restored when unstable, but its stability will be restored when it stops.it stops.
SupportSupport – must have enough support from its – must have enough support from its body’s skeletonbody’s skeleton
PropulsionPropulsion – must be propelled in order to – must be propelled in order to movemove
HOW TO OVERCOME THE HOW TO OVERCOME THE PROBLEMS?PROBLEMS?
RESISTANCE & FRICTIONRESISTANCE & FRICTION – by – by streamlining their bodies.streamlining their bodies.
GRAVITATIONAL FORCEGRAVITATIONAL FORCE – most – most animals have their own supporting animals have their own supporting structures (fins – fishes, wings – structures (fins – fishes, wings – birds & strong limbs – tetrapods & birds & strong limbs – tetrapods & humans) humans) provide the propulsive provide the propulsive force to overcome the problemforce to overcome the problem
The skeletal system together with its The skeletal system together with its muscles are designed specially to muscles are designed specially to overcome the problems associated overcome the problems associated with support & locomotion of with support & locomotion of humans & animals.humans & animals.
To initiate locomotion, the force To initiate locomotion, the force required is generated by contraction required is generated by contraction of muscles, whereas the movement of muscles, whereas the movement is transmitted by the skeleton.is transmitted by the skeleton.
THE HUMAN SKELETAL THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEMSYSTEM
The adult human skeleton consist of The adult human skeleton consist of 206 206 bonesbones..
Divided into Divided into twotwo main parts : main parts : the axial the axial skeletonskeleton & & the appendicular skeletonthe appendicular skeleton..
The axial skeleton : made up of the bones The axial skeleton : made up of the bones that form the vertical axis of the body.that form the vertical axis of the body.
It supports & protects the organs of the It supports & protects the organs of the head, neck & trunk. (skull, vertebral head, neck & trunk. (skull, vertebral column, rib cage)column, rib cage)
The appendicular skeleton : made up The appendicular skeleton : made up of the bones that are attached to the of the bones that are attached to the axial skeleton.axial skeleton.
Include bones of the limbs, the Include bones of the limbs, the pectoral girdle & the pelvic girdle.pectoral girdle & the pelvic girdle.
FUNCTION OF THE FUNCTION OF THE SKELETONSKELETON
PROTECTIONPROTECTION – the skull protects the – the skull protects the brain, the vertebral column protects brain, the vertebral column protects the spinal cord & the rib cage protects the spinal cord & the rib cage protects internal organs such as the heart.internal organs such as the heart.
SUPPORTSUPPORT – act as a framework to – act as a framework to support the soft body parts, to support the soft body parts, to maintain the upright position & to maintain the upright position & to keep the body stable.keep the body stable.
FUNCTION OF THE FUNCTION OF THE SKELETONSKELETON
MOVEMENTMOVEMENT – bones interact with – bones interact with the skeletal muscle.the skeletal muscle.
BLOOD CELL FORMATIONBLOOD CELL FORMATION – most – most of the blood cells are formed in the of the blood cells are formed in the bone marrow of the long bones.bone marrow of the long bones.
MINERAL STORAGEMINERAL STORAGE – bones act as – bones act as a reservoir for calcium & phosphorus.a reservoir for calcium & phosphorus.
SKELETAL SYSTEMSKELETAL SYSTEMHUMAN SKELETON
AXIAL SKELETON
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
SKULL VERTEBRAL COLUMN RIB CAGE PECTORAL GIRDLE
PELVIC GIRDLE
FORELIMB BONES
HINDLIMB BONES
CERVICAL
THORACIC
LUMBAR
SACRUM
COCCYX
THE SKULLTHE SKULL
Made up of Made up of 8 cranial bones8 cranial bones & & 14 14 facial bonesfacial bones including the upper including the upper jaw & the lower jaw.jaw & the lower jaw.
The facial bones also provide The facial bones also provide support & protect the entrances support & protect the entrances to the respiratory system.to the respiratory system.
SKULLSKULL
PARTSPARTS FUNCTIONSFUNCTIONS
8 Cranial bones8 Cranial bones Are fused to form immovable joints Are fused to form immovable joints called called suturessutures..
Protect the brain & the sensory organs.Protect the brain & the sensory organs.
Eye socketsEye sockets to protect the eye ball.to protect the eye ball.
Nasal bonesNasal bones to support nose tissuesto support nose tissues
Ear holesEar holes to protect inner part of earsto protect inner part of ears
Maxilla (upper Maxilla (upper jaw)jaw)
to support upper teethto support upper teeth
Mandible (lower Mandible (lower jaw)jaw)
to support lower teeth, to enable eating to support lower teeth, to enable eating & talking.& talking.
VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN Known as the spine/ backbone.Known as the spine/ backbone.
Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic girdle.girdle.
Made up of Made up of 33 vertebrae33 vertebrae separated from each separated from each other by other by discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs)discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs) which absorb shocks & serve as flex point.which absorb shocks & serve as flex point.
This S-shaped column supports & balances the This S-shaped column supports & balances the body in a vertical plane & protects the spinal body in a vertical plane & protects the spinal cord, supports the skull & provides a base for cord, supports the skull & provides a base for the attachment of muscles to the back.the attachment of muscles to the back.
VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebrae differ in structure & The vertebrae differ in structure & function in different regions of the function in different regions of the vertebral column.vertebral column.
A vertebra typically consists of a A vertebra typically consists of a main body (the centrum), a neural main body (the centrum), a neural arch & transverse processes.arch & transverse processes.
VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN
VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMNSTRUCTURESTRUCTURE FUNCTIONFUNCTION
NEURAL SPINENEURAL SPINE Provides surface for attachment of Provides surface for attachment of ligaments & muscles.ligaments & muscles.
TRANSVERSE TRANSVERSE PROCESSPROCESS
Provides surface for attachment of Provides surface for attachment of ligaments & muscles.ligaments & muscles.
NEURAL ARCH/ NEURAL ARCH/ VERTEBRAL VERTEBRAL FORAMENFORAMEN
Protects the spinal cord.Protects the spinal cord.
CENTRUMCENTRUM Provides support & absorbs shocks.Provides support & absorbs shocks.
NEURAL CANALNEURAL CANAL Provides the passage of nerves from Provides the passage of nerves from the spinal cord.the spinal cord.
ARTICULATING ARTICULATING SURFACESURFACE
Provides surface which articulates Provides surface which articulates with the next vertebra.with the next vertebra.
TYPES OF VERTEBRAETYPES OF VERTEBRAE
TYPE OF TYPE OF VERTEBRAVERTEBRA
EE
POSITIOPOSITIONN
NUMBER NUMBER OF OF
VERTEBRAVERTEBRAEE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
Cervical Cervical VertebraVertebra
Below the Below the skullskull
77 11stst one – atlas one – atlas
vertebravertebra 22ndnd – axis – axis
vertebraevertebrae Large neural Large neural
canal/vertebral canal/vertebral
foramenforamen Short neural spineShort neural spine Flat centrumFlat centrum Short transverse Short transverse
processesprocesses Has a pair of Has a pair of
vertebrarterial vertebrarterial
canalscanals
CERVICAL VERTEBRACERVICAL VERTEBRA
TYPE OF TYPE OF VERTEBRAVERTEBRA
EE
POSITIOPOSITIONN
NUMBER OF NUMBER OF VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
Thoracic Thoracic VertebraVertebra
ThoraxThorax 1212 Neural canal/ Neural canal/
vertebral foramen vertebral foramen
is smaller than is smaller than
cervical cervical vertebra’svertebra’s
Long neural spine/ Long neural spine/
spinous processes spinous processes
(for attachment of (for attachment of
back muscle)back muscle)
Thick & big Thick & big centrumcentrum
Short transverse Short transverse
processesprocesses
THORACIC VERTEBRATHORACIC VERTEBRA
THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)
LUMBAR VERTEBRALUMBAR VERTEBRATYPE OF TYPE OF
VERTEBRAVERTEBRAEE
POSITIOPOSITIONN
NUMBER NUMBER OF OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
Lumbar Lumbar VertebraVertebra
WaistWaist 55 small neural small neural canal/ canal/
vertebral foramenvertebral foramen
short neural spineshort neural spine
thick & big thick & big centrumcentrum
long transverse long transverse
processes for processes for
muscle attachmentmuscle attachment
LUMBAR VERTEBRALUMBAR VERTEBRA
SACRUM & COCCYXSACRUM & COCCYXTYPE OF TYPE OF
VERTEBRAVERTEBRAEE
POSITIOPOSITIONN
NUMBER NUMBER OF OF
VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE
MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER
SacrumSacrum Pelvic Pelvic regionregion
5 fused5 fused Vertebrae fused to Vertebrae fused to
each othereach other
Has four pairs of Has four pairs of
openingsopenings
Triangular shapeTriangular shape
CoccyxCoccyx Caudal Caudal regionregion
4 fused4 fused Bones fused to Bones fused to each other forming a each other forming a triangular shape triangular shape which tapers at one which tapers at one endend
SACRUM & COCCYXSACRUM & COCCYX
The rib cage consists The rib cage consists of of 12 pairs12 pairs of ribs of ribs with the with the thoracic thoracic vertebraevertebrae at the back at the back portion of the body & portion of the body & join to join to the sternumthe sternum in the front portion.in the front portion.
Movement of the rib Movement of the rib cage are brought cage are brought about by intercostal about by intercostal muscles between the muscles between the ribs.ribs.
THE STERNUM & RIBSTHE STERNUM & RIBS
THE STERNUM & RIBSTHE STERNUM & RIBS The sternum & The sternum & ribs ribs enclose & enclose & protectprotect the the internal organs internal organs (the lungs & (the lungs & heart) & play an heart) & play an important role important role in breathing.in breathing.
Consist of Consist of scapula & scapula & clavicle.clavicle.
Links the upper limbs Links the upper limbs bones to the axial bones to the axial skeleton.skeleton.
The scapula :The scapula : bound by bound by muscles to the back of the muscles to the back of the thorax. It is a flat, thorax. It is a flat, triangular bone which triangular bone which provides a surface for the provides a surface for the attachment of muscles.attachment of muscles.
PECTORAL GIRDLEPECTORAL GIRDLE
The clavicle :The clavicle : a rod- a rod-shaped bone placed shaped bone placed horizontally above the horizontally above the scapula.scapula.
It It links the scapula links the scapula to the sternumto the sternum. It . It limits the movements limits the movements of the scapula.of the scapula.
Consists of 6 fused Consists of 6 fused bones – support the bones – support the weight of the body from weight of the body from the vertebral column.the vertebral column.
Also protect the Also protect the internal organs – internal organs – urinary bladder & urinary bladder & reproductive organs.reproductive organs.
Made up of two halves, Made up of two halves, each consists of 3 bones each consists of 3 bones (ilium, pubis & ischium)(ilium, pubis & ischium)
PELVIC GIRDLEPELVIC GIRDLE
The pelvic girdle is The pelvic girdle is attached to the attached to the sacrum of the sacrum of the vertebral column.vertebral column.
The The asetabulum / asetabulum / socketsocket for femur for femur articulates with articulates with each side of the each side of the pelvic girdle at the pelvic girdle at the hip joint.hip joint.
PELVIC GIRDLEPELVIC GIRDLE
FORELIMB FORELIMB BONESBONES
Consists of Consists of humerus, humerus, radiusradius & & ulnaulna..
The HumerusThe Humerus : : The long bones of the The long bones of the upper armupper arm
Rounded head end fits Rounded head end fits into an open socket of into an open socket of the scapula the scapula forming a forming a ball-and-socket jointball-and-socket joint (allow movement in all (allow movement in all planes)planes)
The posterior end of The posterior end of the humerus forms a the humerus forms a hinge jointhinge joint with the with the ulna with the ulna-ulna with the ulna-radius bones, allowing radius bones, allowing movement in one plane movement in one plane only.only.
The The radius & ulnaradius & ulna : : The bones on the forearm The bones on the forearm in which the in which the ulna is ulna is longer than the radiuslonger than the radius..
It has a notch at its It has a notch at its upper end which upper end which articulates the humerus articulates the humerus at the elbow.at the elbow.
The The carpalscarpals : : The bones that form The bones that form the wrist.the wrist.
Consists of 8 small Consists of 8 small bonesbones
The The metacarpalsmetacarpals : : The rod-shaped ones The rod-shaped ones that form the palm.that form the palm.
The The phalangesphalanges : : The bones that form The bones that form the fingers.the fingers.
HINDLIMB HINDLIMB BONESBONES Consists of Consists of femur, tibia femur, tibia
& fibula& fibula..
The The femurfemur : : The longest, strongest & The longest, strongest & heaviest bone in the body.heaviest bone in the body.
Support the tight.Support the tight. Play an important role in Play an important role in maintaining the body’s maintaining the body’s upright position & in upright position & in locomotion as it is locomotion as it is attached to massive attached to massive muscles.muscles.
The head of femur fits into The head of femur fits into the pelvic girdle to form a the pelvic girdle to form a joint.joint.
Other end, articulates with Other end, articulates with the tibia & fibula at the the tibia & fibula at the knee.knee.
The The tibia & fibulatibia & fibula : : The bones of the lower The bones of the lower leg.leg.
Support the shank.Support the shank. TibiaTibia larger than fibula larger than fibula & is the weight-bearing & is the weight-bearing bone of the leg.bone of the leg.
FibulaFibula is a long & thin is a long & thin bone – not bear any load bone – not bear any load more important for more important for attachment of muscles attachment of muscles than for support.than for support.
Articulate with the Articulate with the tarsalstarsals of the ankle. of the ankle.
The The tarsalstarsals : : The 7 bones that form the The 7 bones that form the ankle.ankle.
The The metatarsals metatarsals :: The 5 rod-shaped bones The 5 rod-shaped bones that form the foot.that form the foot.
The The phalangesphalanges : : The bones that form the The bones that form the toes.toes.
The The patella/kneecappatella/kneecap : : A small rounded, movable A small rounded, movable bone.bone.
Protect the knee joint.Protect the knee joint.
