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César D. García PGY-1
H. Son Espases
Adenoid Hypertrophy
& Adenoidectomy
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Boundaries:
Superior: Skull base (sphenoid and basilar part of the
occipital bone)
Inferior: Pharyngeal isthmus at the level of the soft palate
Anterior: Choanas
Posterior: Pharyngeal wall
Its maximum width (and of the pharynx) is at the
level of the pharyngeal recess (fossa of
Rossenmüller).
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Lymphatic structure; part of the Waldeyer ring
Located in the roof and posterior wall of the
nasopharynx.
Shaped as a pyramid
Base at the junction of the roof and the posterior wall
Apex is pointing toward the septum
Can extend to the fossa of Rossenmuller and to the
eustachian tube orifice
The torus tubarius are found lateral to the adenoids
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Transoral mirror visualization
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Arterial:
Ascending pharyngeal artery (external carotid)
Ascending palatine artery (facial artery)
Tonsillar branch of the facial artery
Pharyngeal branch of the maxillary artery
Artery of the pterygoidal canal
Venous:
Pharyngeal plexus
Drains into the facial veins / internal jugular vein
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aa
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Covered by respiratory epithelium
(pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium).
Non-encapsulated (harder to remove)
Lymphatic parenchyma is organized into follicles
Seromucous glands lie within the connective
tissue.
Germinal centers produce antibodies
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50 – 65% of its lymphocytes are B-cells.
Involved in secretory immunity (immunoglobulins).
Produces IgA, IgG, IgM, IgD
Although it contributes to the mucosal immunity of
the upper aerodigestive tract, no major
immunodeficiency results from adenoidectomy.
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Can be identified at 4 – 6 weeks of gestation
They are present at birth and start growing rapidly,
usually become symptomatic by 18 – 24 months
Snoring
Nasal airway obstruction
They usually stop growing by age 5 – 7
Involution and atrophy at age of 8 – 10 years and by
the teenage years they become asymptomatic
They are rarely seen in adults.
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Infectious and inflammatory processes probably induce a
hypertrophy/hyperplasia of the lymphatic tissue.
Exposure to smoke/pollution has been implicated
Associated with:
Snoring/sleep apnea
Mouth breathing
Rhinorrhea
Craniofacial growth abnormalities
Recurrent otitis media
Chronic rhinosinusitis
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Typically B-lactamase producing bacteria are found
in chronically infected adenoids
Chronically colonized/infected adenoids can
contribute to chronic ear/sinus infections
Biofilms are prominent in adenoids of children with
chronic sinusitis.
Biofilims in 94.4% (sinusitis-related adenoids) vs 1.9%
(hypertrophy-only adenoids)
Adenoidectomy regardless of adenoid size can
improve the signs and symptoms of rhinosinusitis
and middle ear effusions in children > 3 years
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Typically B-lactamase producing bacteria are found
in chronically infected adenoids
Chronically colonized/infected adenoids can
contribute to chronic ear/sinus infections
Biofilms are prominent in adenoids of children with
chronic sinusitis.
Biofilims in 94.4% (sinusitis-related adenoids) vs 1.9%
(hypertrophy-only adenoids)
Adenoidectomy regardless of adenoid size can
improve the signs and symptoms of rhinosinusitis
and middle ear effusions in children > 3 years
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Usually associated with other surgical procedures
like tonsillectomy or tympanostomy tube placement.
Tonsillectomy & adenoidectomy is the most common
major surgical procedure in the United States.
When performed alone, it´s usually done as an
outpatient procedure
Outpatient T&A when older than 3 years of age
Infrequently done in teenagers or older individuals
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It was first performed in the late 1800s by Willhelm Meyer in Denmark
In 1885 the first adenoid curette was described by Gottstein.
Crowe-Davis mouth gag in 1911.
Initial recommendations for this procedure included anorexia, mental retardation, enuresis, slow weight gain
In the 1930s and 1940s the indications became controversial following the development of the first antibiotics.
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Adenoid hypertrophy/ airway obstruction
Moderate to severe nasal obstruction/ including sleep apneas
Chronic mouth breathing/hyponasal speech/impaired olfaction (quality of life)
Obstruction is based on their size alone
Must be distinguished from allergy, sinusitis, structural nasal disorders
Adenoidectomy > spontaneous improvement
Failure to improve is usually attributed to a nasal mucosal or structural abnormality
***If obstruction persists despite conservative treatment with intranasal glucocorticoids
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6 randomized trials: 5 showed efficacy in improving nasal obstruction symptoms and reducing adenoid size (8 – 24 weeks of treatment)
Choana:adenoid ratio decreased 15 – 30%
None addressed the minimum adequate dosage or duration
Only 1 study followed-up for 100 weeks after the intervention; 54% of those who had responded initially required adenotonsillectomy after this period
More studies are needed to make a formal recommendation about their efficacy in children. Can be offered as an option. Up to 6 months
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Almost always associated with hypertrophy of the tonsils and
adenoids
Worse when in supine and asleep due to gravity and the
relaxation of the surrounding tissues
Most children have a history of significant snoring.
Daytime sleepiness, morning headache, dry mouth, halitosis,
swallowing difficulty, hyponasal speech.
Obstructive sleep apnea is the most common indication for
adenotonsillectomy.
In children, adenotonsillectomy is usually indicated with AHI
greater than 5; polysomnography isn’t needed as a routine
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Adenoid evaluation is difficult.
A complete ENT exam should be performed to rule
out other possible causes
The palate should be inspected for clefts /
submucosal clefts
Bifid uvula / uvular widening
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Mixed conclusions about the relationship.
Longer total anterior face height.
Downward and backward displacement of the
mandible and tongue.
Hypoplasic maxilla.
Mouth breathing
Observational studies describe improvement
following adenoidectomy.
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Evaluation of the speech should be performed
Hyponasality can be present with obstructive
adenoids
Hypernasality can appear rarely due to tonsillar
hypertrophy
Repeat “Mickey Mouse” which emphasize nasal
emission, and “baseball / Bobby”, which does not
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Has been demonstrated to have some correlation with
adenoid hypertrophy
Isn’t tolerated well by children
Not recommended to be performed for adenoid
evaluation
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Gold standard
Adenoid size can be grading:
1+, 2+, 3+, or 4+ (25%, 50%, 75%, 100% of choanal obs)
Degree of obstruction changes: sitting vs supine
High correlation with obstructive symptoms
Dynamic assessment
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Lateral X-ray of the skull isn’t necessary in all
patients.
The history and symptoms are more important than
the imaging studies.
Those with significant tonsillar hypertrophy most
likely require surgical intervention
If needed, nasopharyngoscopy should be the initial
method used to evaluate adenoid hypertrophy.
Intolerance to nasopharyngoscopy + obstructive symptoms
+ NO evident physical findings X-ray
CT scan / MRI if there is another indication
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A true answer to the benefit of a lateral x-ray of the
skull could not be defined due to the differences in
their evaluation methods
Conflicting results between studies
Concluded that the X-ray is somewhat useful
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Nasal endoscopy:
Safe and reliable in pediatric populations
High correlation with nasal obstructive symptoms
Tolerated by 93% of patients from 6 months to 1 year WITH
topical anesthesia
Tolerated by 66% of patients from 1 year to 3 years WITHOUT
topical anesthesia
X-rays:
Radiation
Two-dimensional image of a dynamic three-dimensional area
Mouth breathing, crying, swallowing cause soft palate elevation
and “reduce” the nasopharyngeal cavity.
X-ray should ideally be performed at the end of inspiration
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The most common measurements assessed
Ratio > 0.8 suggests large adenoids or a narrow
airway.
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Recurrent or persistent otitis media
Eustachian tube function is improved and fluid collection
prevented following adenoidectomy, independent of the
size of the adenoids.
Improvement achieved even if patients don’t present with
obstructive symptoms.
Indicated in those who have previously undergone
tympanostomy tube placement without improvement and
are being considered for a repeat procedure
Studies done in patients older than 3 years
Not recommended in those who have not undergone
tympanostomy tube insertion
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Recurrent and/or chronic sinusitis
Adenoidectomy improves sinusitis symptoms with
independence of the weight of adenoids.
Possibly attributed to biofilms in adenoid tissue.
The European Position Paper on Rhinosinusitis and
Nasal Polyps recommends adenoidectomy with possible
antral irrigation or balloon dilation of the maxillary
sinuses as a the first surgical treatment to be offered.
Adenoidectomy + Balloon sinuplasty was found to be
more effective than adenoidectomy alone
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Conditions in which general anesthesia cannot be
performed
Child at risk of VPI (short palate, submucous cleft
palate, cleft palate, muscle weakness or hypotonia
associated with a neurological disease,
velocardiofacial syndrome, etc)
Atlantoaxial joint laxity > neutral position
Coagulation disorders
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No standard evaluation is necessary.
About 2% of the children have an abnormality on
preoperative coagulation tests.
When combined with tonsillectomy, screening is left
to the discretion of the surgeon.
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Retrospective review:
54,901 patients.
54 malignancies were found (0.087%).
Out of these, 48 had suspicious features
Only 0.011% represented a true occult malignancy
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Pain isn’t a common problem
A sore throat can appear with swallowing or
speaking
A normal diet can be allowed after recovery from the
general anesthesia
Nasal congestion can result after the surgery or
from a concomitant allergic rhinitis. Both can be
improved with intranasal steroids
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Follow-up 1 – 4 weeks after surgery.
Hypernasal speech is observed in at least 50% of
the patients following the procedure, but usually
reverts to normal in 2-4 weeks.
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Rare
Immediate bleeding ocurs in 0.4% of cases. Can be
controlled with a local vasoconstrictive afent
Delayed bleeding is rare
Mandibular condyle fracture: very rare
Eustachian tube injury
Grisel syndrome (atlantoaxial subluxation)
Vertebral body decalcification and laxity of the anterior
transverse ligament between the axis and atlas
Subluxation is usually seen 1 week after surgery
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Nasopharyngeal stenosis
More common in T&A than in adenoidectomy alone
Presents as nasal obstruction or hyponasal speech
Repair involves palatal/pharyngeal flaps
Neck spasm and pain can appear due to
inflammation of the superior constrictor muscle
Velopharyngeal insufficiency
Persistent VPI (>3 months) occurs in 1 in 1500-3000
adenoidectomies)
More often in children w/ decreased muscle tone or palatal
abnormality
Initial treatment involves speech therapy.
Surgery might be required
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aaa
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0.5% to 3.0% incidence of adenoid regrowth that requires repeat surgery.
Adenoid regrowth rate is likely underestimated
Risk factors:
GERD
Younger age at initial adenoidectomy (each additional year decreased the risk by 30%)
Ear indications (10x)
PGY-1 and PGY-2 showed an increased risk but didn’t achieve statistical significance.
Asthma and allergic rhinitis don’t appear to be associated with revision adenoidectomy.
Residual adenoid tissue implicated in recurrence of symptoms.
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Adenotonsillectomy is the most commonly
performed major surgery in children.
Obstructive sleep apnea is the most common
indication.
Other indications include nasal obstructive
symptoms, recurrent or chronic ear/sinus infections,
changes in facial growth.
A complete ENT exam should be performed to rule
out other causes.
The main diagnostic method for hypertrophy is
nasopharyngoscopy
Medical treatment should be offered to patients
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Currettage is the most common method used for
adenoidectomy but has limitations
Suction-diathermy and coblation are more
commonly used in academic centers
Microdebrider is the least used method
Complications and revision surgery are uncommon
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Zhang L et al. Intranasal corticosteroids for nasal airway obstruction in children with moderate to severe adenoidal hypertrophy. The Cochrane Collaboration 2010; 10
Randal D, Martin P, Lester D, Thompson R. Routine Histologic Examination in Unnecessary for Tonsillectomy and Adenoidectomy. The Laryngoscope 2007; 117: 1600 – 1604.
Flint P. et al. Cummings Otolaryngology Head & Neck Surgery. 5th ed. Mosby Elsevier, 2010
Dearking et al. Factors Associated with Revision Adenoidectomy. Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery 2012; 146: 984 – 990.
Hajr E, Hagr A, Al-Arfaj A, Ashraf M. Suction cautery adenoidectomy: Is the additional cost justified? 2011; 75: 327 – 329.
Regmi D, Mathur N, Bhattarai M. Rigid endoscopic evaluation of conventional curettage adenoidectomy. The Journal of Laryngology & Otology 2011; 125: 53 – 58.