2 31�Sustainable Agriculture for the Golden Triangle

Agroforestry Options for Small Upland Farms

Richard R. BurnetteUpland Holistic Development Project

April 2006

Production Assistance:Ellen BurnetteJamlong PawkhamSureerat Daengkhieo

Technical Reviewers:Jeff Rutherford - CMU Social Research InstituteKevin Woods - Images Asia Environment DeskChutima Chandarat - ISDSIMark Ritchie - ISDSIBarry Flaming - Raks Thai FoundationChomchuan Boonrahong - ISACDavid Crist - CSFKlaus Prinz - McKean Rehabilitation CenterBob Morikawa - Floresta

Illustrations:James Tong

The production of this publication was made possible through major sup-port from Floresta (www.fl oresta.org)

4 51�Contents

Introduction 8

1. Agroforestry for Sustainable Hill Fields and Orchards 10

1.1 Agroforestry and Soil Conservation in Hill Fields 111.2 Agroforestry and Soil Improvement in Hill Fields 131.3 Agroforestry and Crop Diversifi cation in Hill Fields and Orchards 17

2. Other Applications of Upland Agroforestry 202.1 Hill Fallow Agroforests 202.2 Home Agroforest Gardens 222.3 Degraded Woodland Agroforests 25

3. Management of Family Agroforest Plots 273.1 Seeking Tenure 273.2 Selection of Agroforest Species 283.3 Planning the Density and Arrangement of Agroforest Plantings 293.4 Establishment of Family Agroforest Plots 303.5 Long-Term Management (weed control, light/shade management, fi re control) 30

4. Family Nurseries for the Production of Agroforest Species 33

5. Community Participation 35

6. Marketing of Agroforest Products 36

� Contents

Summary and Conclusions 38

Appendix 40Useful Plants Commonly Integrated into Agroforest Sites in Northern Thailand

References 48

Glossary of important terms 53

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Figures

1. Key agroforest crops for soil conservation in contoured hedgerows 13

2. Key crops for diversifi ed hill fi elds and agroforest orchards hedgerows 19

3. Key crops found in hill fallow agroforests 22

4. Key crops found in home agroforest gardens 24

5. Key crops found in degraded woodland agroforests 26

6. Comparison of management and production components related to four agroforestry systems 37

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6 71�Illustrations

1. Bamboo, an important forest product, is essential for a wide variety of purposes such as basket weaving. 8

2. Sustainable hill fi elds may contain soil conservation strips, soil-improving legumes and diversifi ed crops. 10

3. Contour hedgerows 11

4. Mixed planting of pineapple and papaya among crop residues within a contour strip. 12

5. Certain viny legume species may be integrated early within a corn crop to control weeds through the rainy season. 14

6. Mature rice bean offers additional income as well as serving as a green manure cover crop. 15

7. Decreasing soil-damaging, intensive tillage is possible through the use of viny legume cover crops. 17

8. Diversifi ed hill fi eld with corn, orchard crops (tea, banana, pineapple) and forest crops (rattan and Indian trumpet). 18

9. Hill fallow agroforest plot with tea, rattan, prickly ash and fan palm as well as natural pioneer and successive species. 20

10. Home agroforest garden with annual vegetables, herbs, snowfl ake tree and clerodendrum. 22

11. Palaung woman in front of stand of bitter rattan in her home agroforest garden. 23

� Illustrations

12. Stand of young, introduced fan palm, black sugar palm and rattan in a degraded woodland agroforest. 25

13. Family agroforest plots should be clearly designated. 27

14. A diverse, new agroforest planting. 29

15. Selective thinning within family agroforest plot. 31

16. Family agroforest nursery 33

17. Community-wide cooperation is essential for agroforestry efforts with widespread benefi ts. 35

18. A bed of recently emerged fi sh tail palm in a family nursery 36

19. Indigenous Burmese grape adds to the biodiversity of a family agroforest plot. 39

20. Uncle Tisae displaying mature rattan canes in his productive agroforest. 43

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8 91�Introduction

The hilltribes of the Golden Triangle* have always depended upon the forest. The once vast woodlands of the region have been the grocery, pharmacy and hardware store for upland people, supplying practically all of their needs (Illustration 1). Additionally, ecosystems associated with the biodiverse deciduous and evergreen forests also restore depleted hill fi eld soils during each 5-15 year forest fallow that is essential for traditional swidden agriculture.

Unfortunately, forest resources in the region are under threat. Encroachment and unsustainable agriculture, particularly commercial fruit plantations, have contributed to widespread forest devastation. Consequently, signifi cant numbers of upland communities are facing the loss of forests and accompanying forest products that hilltribe people took for granted not too many years ago.

Despite dwindling forest resources, various agroforestry options are currently enhancing the traditional, forest-dependant livelihoods of upland people. Agroforestry can be defi ned as “a collective name for land-use systems in which woody perennials (trees, shrubs, etc.) are grown in association with herbaceous plants (crops, pastures) and/or livestock in a spatial arrangement, a rotation or

* The Golden Triangle is a popular term referring to the general area where the coun-tries of Thailand, Burma (Myanmar) and Laos meet. Despite the climatic and cultural similari-ties that are found across the region, this booklet has greatest application to northern Thailand (17ْ -20ْ 30 north latitude and 97 ْ 20 -101 ْ 20 east longitude). Climatically, northern Thai-land is classifi ed as Subtropical Moist Zone below 1,000 meters elevation and the Subtropical Lower Montane Belt, including Wet and Rain Forest Zones above that altitude (Holdridge et al. in Anderson).

� both, and in which there are both ecological and economic interactions between the tree and non-tree components of the system” (Young 1989).

Agroforestry in the Golden Triangle utilizes both woody and herbaceous plants incorporated as mixtures of indigenous forest species and compatible non-native crops. Along these lines, a number of notable agroforestry practices are enabling many upland farmers to sustain the productivity of their hill fi elds, home gardens, orchards and mixed forest plantings.

The various agroforestry approaches described in this publication enable sustained productivity due to the following reasons:

Such systems can be adapted to various sites regardless of size, including hill fi elds and orchards, small spaces around village homes as well as both degraded and healthy forests making more effi cient use of not only space, but light and soil nutrients by the use of various species in different niches.

These agroforests are highly biodiverse, incorporating mainly native forest species as well as other hardy plant varieties that are adapted to local conditions and require few, if any, inputs for sustainable production.

Most plant species in indigenous agroforest systems are well known to upland farmers, therefore such systems are more likely to be readily implemented and replicated.

Depending on the overall diversity of agroforest species in each site, productivity can be maintained throughout the year.

Products (e.g. food and materials) from these agroforest systems are generally in local demand and, therefore, do not require costly or long-distance marketing channels.

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Illustration 1 Bamboo, an important forest product, is essential for a wide variety of purposes such as basket weaving

10 111�1. Agroforestry for Sustain-

able Hill Fields and OrchardsBesides dwindling forest resources, hill fi eld cultivation by farmers

throughout the region is also at risk. Traditionally, hill fi elds were farmed rotationally, whereby clearings that had begun to degrade after a few years of cultivation would be allowed to return to a forest fallow. Over periods of 5 to 15 years, such abandoned hill fi eld plots would reforest naturally, and in the process, allow the soil to recover. Based upon ongoing ecological regeneration, in areas with extensive amounts of forest and relatively small populations, such swidden farming has been sustainable.

However, in an increasing fashion, forestry authorities are limiting the amount of available land allocated for hill fi eld use per family. Such restricted available land makes fallows of even a few years diffi cult to implement. Farmers are often left with degraded hill fi elds that are only a fraction of a hectare in size. Without any sustainable upland fi eld cropping alternatives, the usual long-term options are

to convert production to certain over-planted, monocropped fruit tree varieties, or eventually abandon the degraded land.

With no opportunity for a forest fallow for long-term sustainable crop production, it is recommended that these upland fi elds be farmed with an emphasis on three basic practices (Illustration 2):

soil conservationsoil improvementcrop diversifi cation

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Agroforestry plays a role in each of these three sustainable upland farming emphases.

1.1 Agroforestry and Soil Conservation in Hill Fields

Most upland fi elds are located on considerably steep land for which long-term sustainability will require an appropriate soil conservation measure. One alternative is an agroforestry approach known as alley cropping. This technology involves the establishment of a series of contour hedgerows comprised of fast growing nitrogen-fi xing trees (NFTs) (Illustration 3) such as Leucaena diversifolia and Fleminga macrophylla or multi-stemmed grasses such as vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides). Planted horizontally across steep fi elds, vegetative strips comprised of these and similar plant species can form effective barriers against soil erosion. It is within the 4-10 meter wide bands or alleys, located between each vegetative strip, that crops are grown. The width of the alleys depends largely upon the steepness of the fi eld; the steeper the fi eld the narrower the alley.

A major limitation to alley cropping is that it is often diffi cult to locate and/or produce adequate amounts of NFT seeds or other propagation stock needed to establish and maintain hedgerows. Another drawback is the time and labor required to maintain hedgerow plants (e.g, occasional weeding, regular trimming, replanting).

Additionally, farmers who cultivate limited amounts of land also complain that hedgerows comprised of only NFTs or vetivier, despite serving a valuable purpose with regards to soil conservation, consume too much precious farmland without offering other benefi ts. A limited exception,

Illustration 2 Sustainable hill fi elds may contain soil conservation strips, soil-improving legumes and diversifi ed crops.

Illustration 3 Contour hedgerows.

12 131�however, is fodder production for livestock from certain NFT and grass species within hedgerows, e.g., napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), during the rainy season.

One multi-purpose agroforestry alternative, though, is to establish mixed plantings of minimal-shading, food-producing plants such as papaya, pineapple, rattan, Indian trumpet (Oroxylum indicum), lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) and tea within the contour strips (Illustration 4). Most of these plants are valued by local farmers and are fairly easy to locate and plant. Contour strips comprised of such plants not only contribute to

soil conservation, but also provide edible and marketable products. For maximum soil conservation, gaps between the plants can be fi lled in with crop residues and native grasses. Broom grass (Thysanolaena latifolia), a native grass that produces an infl orescence commonly harvested for local broom production, is one such candidate for incorporation into contoured strips for soil conservation.

Overall, multi-stemmed grasses and NFTs hold topsoils best, especially on steeper slopes. However, the broader appeal of mixed hedgerows comprised of food-producing plants is derived from increased crop diversity and production.

1.2 Agroforestry and Soil Improvement in Hill Fields

In addition to soil conservation, alley cropping has been promoted as a means of improving soil condition and fertility through the production of biomass from NFT hedgerows. Nitrogen-fi xing plants (including NFTs) absorb nitrogen, a major plant nutrient, into their tissues after air-borne nitrogen is secured by special bacteria (Rhizobia) living in their roots. Such plants do not require external sources of nitrogen for natural growth and development. Consequently, nitrogen-fi xers often thrive on less fertile soils and are the major source of nitrogen in many natural ecosystems. Related to agriculture, nitrogen-fi xing plants provide signifi cant amounts of both nitrogen and soil-building organic matter, especially when plant tissues are incorporated into the soil. So naturally, leaf and stem trimmings from NFTs are important components in alley cropping.

There are places in Southeast Asia where NFT hedgerow species are

able to produce biomass year-round due to suffi cient soil moisture and other favorable climatic conditions. In such locations it is recommended that hedgerows be spaced suffi ciently close (fi ve meters or less) so as to produce enough NFT biomass to maintain soil fertility in hill fi elds (Palmer). However, since most areas in the Golden Triangle receive only 5-6 months of little or no rain, signifi cant NFT biomass production is restricted to the rainy season. Therefore, the application of NFT biomass alone from hedgerows

Illustration 4 Mixed planting of pineapple and papaya among crop residues within a contour strip.

Multi-Stemmed Grassy SpeciesLemon grassNapierVetiverBroom grass

Broadleaf Food- Producing Species Papaya Pineapple Rattan Indian trumpet TeaNFT Species

Leucaena Flemingia Pigeon peaWhite hoarypea Indigofera

Key agroforest crops for soil conservation in contoured hedgerows

Figure 1

14 151�would have limited effect on hill fi eld fertility in this region. Additionally, as close hedgerow spacings (no more than fi ve meters) consume almost 20 percent or more of the area within hill fi elds, upland farmers with limited farmland are not generally inclined towards relying only upon green manures produced in NFT hedgerows.

One indigenous alternative for the production of green manures in hill fi elds is the practice of cover cropping with viny legume species. Upland farmers in the region have long planted legume cover crops such as rice bean (Vigna umbellata), black bean (Vigna Unguiculata) and lablab bean (Lablab purpureus). The establishment of these viny legume species allows the fi xation of nitrogen at impressive rates (approximately 80-130 kg/ha (Bunch),) greatly increases levels of soil organic matter, and smothers out weeds.

In northern Thailand, signifi cant numbers of upland farmers practice relay-cropping, a form of accelerated seasonal fallow, on permanent hill fi elds in which traditional forest fallow is no longer possible. Under such a system, legumes are planted thickly in corn fi elds about a month before the maize is harvested. The legumes are valued for their soil improvement properties, such as nitrogen fi xation and organic matter production,

as well as the income derived from the sale of the dried beans.

So as to better control weeds throughout most of the rainy season, certain viny legumes, particularly rice bean, lablab bean and jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis), may also be integrated earlier within the corn crop. (Illustration 5) As such, the beans should be established 1-2 weeks

after the corn has been planted, while the fi eld is still clean, in order to minimize early competition between the legumes and the corn crop.

Jack bean tolerates shading and remains bushy rather than climbing the corn stalks, thereby offering excellent cover against rainy season weeds. However, mature jack beans, which contain a toxin, are not readily eaten and have no local market. Conversely, rice and lablab beans, which are edible and marketable, tend to climb corn stalks. However, up to three months after planting, the vines of these two beans should be gently beaten down at least twice so as to gain better coverage of the soil surface. Managing the spread of rice and lablab bean vines is much easier than hoeing weeds and less expensive than applying herbicides or the labor needed for weed control.

When comparing preferences as well as the pros and cons of relay-cropping and early integration of corn and beans, relay-cropping is largely preferred by farmers who use herbicides to kill heavy stands of late rainy season weeds in corn fi elds prior to planting the bean crop. Farmers observed that both rice and lablab beans that are relay-cropped with corn will grow and produce more vigorously than the same varieties that are integrated earlier in corn fi elds. But without herbicides, effective weed control that is needed prior to establishing stands of relay-cropped beans in cornfi elds will require signifi cant labor. So, if farmers prefer herbicide-free corn and bean production then they may be more inclined to select the earlier-established system of integrated beans, even though production may be less than that of relay-cropped beans.

Illustration 5 Certain viny legume species may be integrated early within a corn crop to control weeds through the rainy season.

Illustration 6 Mature rice bean offers additional income as well as serving as a green manure cover crop.

16 171�In permanent hill fi elds where traditional forest fallows are no longer

possible, as long as there is adequate soil fertility, most hilltribe farmers prefer growing the staple of upland rice. However, when soil fertility is depleted after a few years of upland rice production, many farmers elect to grow relay-cropped corn and viny legumes. One obvious reason is that fi eld corn and dried beans are marketable. Another reason is that fi eld corn tolerates somewhat poor soil conditions. But a very important reason is that

farmers appreciate the overall soil-improving effect of the beans, even when viny legumes are grown in combination with a corn crop. Farmers report that after relay cropping over a few years, that soil fertility often improves enough to allow 1-2 years of upland rice production before relay-cropping of corn and beans is needed again.

Although it is possible to integrate light mixtures of legumes such as cowpea and pigeon pea in upland rice stands for crop diversifi cation purposes, the degree of nitrogen fi xation and overall soil improvement provided by intercropped legumes is too small to enable continuous upland rice production year after year. Therefore, as increasing numbers of upland farmers now lack adequate land so as to allow their hill fi elds to go undergo traditional forest fallow, the option of alternating a year or two of rice production with a few years of relay-cropped

corn and beans helps maintain some degree of upland rice production on small upland farms.

Besides the use of green manures, refraining from seasonal burning, avoiding intensive tillage (Illustration 7) and decreasing the use of herbicides are important soil improvement practices. A no-burn approach enables plant residues to be converted into soil-building organic matter. Minimal tillage (or no-till) helps to conserve soil structure and decreases the risk of soil erosion. And the lack of herbicides (particularly through the use of cover crops) encourages a healthier soil ecosystem that is rich with indigenous soil fl ora and fauna. The ultimate goal is that each hill fi eld will contain topsoil that is dark, loamy and friable; rich in roots, earthworms and other creatures that loosen the soil and in which essential plant nutrients are always accessible to the fi eld crops.

1.3 Agroforestry and Crop Diversifi cation in Hill Fields and Orchards

The third agroforestry-related emphasis in sustainable upland farming is to increase the diversifi cation of crops in hill fi elds and orchards. Regarding fi eld crops, the priority of most hilltribe farmers in this region is to produce upland rice and fi eld corn as well as marketable and edible legumes. Traditionally, upland farmers have integrated these main fi eld crops with various secondary annual crops such as pumpkins, cowpeas, melons, chilies and sesame. It’s also common to see perennials, such as banana, papaya and other fruit trees scattered throughout hill fi elds in arrangements known as dispersed tree systems.

Use of Salt as a Weed Killer in Upland Rice Fields

Whereas viny legumes cannot be integrated into upland rice fi elds to control weeds as effectively as in as in corn fi elds, are there any chemical-free options for controlling weeds in upland rice? For the past few decades upland farmers in northern Thailand have been spraying a solution of common salt (NaCl) at a rate of approximately 2 kg of salt per 20 liters of water (with 2 tablespoons of detergent mixed in). Application with a pack back sprayer is done on a sunny day about 1-2 months after the rice is planted. The spray is applied directly to the weeds, avoiding the rice plants. The salt water solution effectively controls several common broadleaf weeds such as Ageratum. However, there are many broadleaf weed species, as well as most grassy weeds, that are not killed. But does the salt application have a negative effect on the soil? Research by Mae Jo University confi rms that the sprayed salt is leached out of the soil over the rainy season. Obviously, salt solution is not a broad spectrum weed killer, but it does offer upland rice farmers a means of lessening the use of chemical herbicides (Van Keer, et al.).

Illustration 7 Decreasing soil-damaging, intensive tillage is possible through the use of viny legume cover crops.

18 191�Hill fi eld diversity can be further increased by the addition of various

indigenous forest species that offer non-timber forest products (Illustration 8). Many types of forest plants, such as rattan and forest pepper (Piper retrofractum), grow quite well in full to partial sun. Being native, they require no extra watering, are adapted to local soils and have few pests. Whether adequately scattered throughout hill fi elds to reduce competition with the main crops or planted intensively within vegetative strips for soil conservation purposes, such diversifi ed plantings will help extend production throughout the year.

Unfortunately, in recent years, many upland farmers with limited acreage have turned to monoculture production of fruit trees such as litchee and longan. Such single-specie plantings obviously lack diversity and are economically risky, putting farmers at particular risk during years of poor production or low market prices. A more sustainable alternative is to establish agroforest orchard plantings by growing select

non-timber forest species along with the orchard crops.

As in the diversifi ed hill fi eld plantings, various forest species (rattan, forest pepper, fan palm, etc.) can be planted among the dominant orchard trees, along with other fairly shade-tolerant crops such as tea and pineapple. However, the canopy of the dominant fruit trees should be pruned so as to allow fi ltered sunlight to reach the shorter crops as very few species are productive in complete shade.

Indigenous forest speciesrattan bambooprickly ash teaforest pepper fan palmIndian trumpet longanmafai bael fruit

Annual fi eld crop specieswax gourd jack beanpumpkin lablab beanupland rice sorghumrice bean cowpeacorn chili pepper

Perennial orchard and fi eld crop speciespigeon pea pomelopapaya cassavalitchee lemon grasspineapple bananacoffee mango

Key crops for diversifi ed hill

fi elds and agroforest orchards

hedgerows

Figure 2

Illustration 8 Diversifi ed hill fi eld with corn, orchard crops (tea, banana, pineapple) and forest crops (rattan and Indian trumpet).

In summary, the objectives of establishing diversifi ed hill fi elds and agroforest orchards are to:

increase overall sustainability of upland farminglower the risk of complete crop failure increase overall crop production with a broad selection of products

throughout the yearincrease household food suffi ciencyincrease family income Provide farmers with crop systems that closely refl ect traditional

forest-dependent farming systems as well as the ecology of local forests

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20 211�2. Other Applications of

Upland Agroforestry Agroforestry is not limited to hill fi elds and orchards. It can also be

adapted to various other sites, such as home gardens. Another version of agroforestry involves mixed plantings of both native forest species and select horticultural crops within wooded or semi-wooded settings. Again, regardless of the agroforest application, the stress is upon increasing family food suffi ciency and income through ecologically sustainable means.

This section introduces a few basic types of agroforestry applications found on many small upland farms in northern Thailand, including:

Hill fallow agroforestsHome agroforest gardensDegraded woodland agroforests

2.1 Hill Fallow Agroforests

In response to less access to productive forests as well as adequate land for traditional rotational agriculture, some local farmers are now practicing another indigenous form of agroforestry. Prior to allowing their hill fi elds to revert to forest, these farmers establish mixed stands of useful forest plants and shade-tolerant perennial crops in among the upland rice and corn. Once the plots are no longer planted in fi eld crops, natural

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Illustration 9 Hill fallow agroforest plot with tea, rattan, prickly ash and fan palm as well as natural pioneer and successive species.

weeds being cut back occasionally). Within a few years, the old fi elds are transformed into secondary forests, each fi lled with a mixture of useful plants (Illustration 9).

The main benefi t of this permanent fallow is that if managed well, these former hill fi elds never cease to be productive in some capacity. For example, plantings of quicker maturing pineapple, papaya and banana can be harvested within 1-2 years. Tea trees become productive within 3 years. Native forest peppers as well as edible rattan and bamboo shoots can be harvested within 3-4 years. Depending on the species, rattan and bamboo canes are harvestable within 4-8 years.

These biodiverse plots may begin to attain a healthy forest appearance between 5-10 years. As the shade increases, some plants, such as pineapple, will begin to phase out as slower growing forest species, including rattan, black sugar palm (Arenga westerhoutii) and fan palm (Livistona speciosa) begin to mature and become productive. However, useful agroforest crops may be added continually. Ultimately, farmers may choose to allow these diversifi ed fallow hill fi eld plantings to remain as productive agroforests or, after several years of fallow, they may clear the land again for swidden agriculture.

One important issue, however, is whether hill fallow agroforests should be allowed to attain a predominantly forest appearance. Many highlanders hold concerns that once a former hill fi eld plot achieves an appearance of forest fallow then local forestry offi cials may not allow the previous cultivator to continue to utilize the land for traditional agriculture or even agroforestry.

Without clear state land use policies for forest communities within reserve forests or national parks, residents should seek dialogue with local authorities regarding allowable practices related to rotational farming and the establishment of hill fallow agroforests. And in locations where the use of fallow land for hill fallow agroforestry remains in question, the establishment of agroforest orchards on previous farmland may offer a more secure alternative.

22 231�

2.2 Home Agroforest Gardens

Increasing numbers of upland families lack access to farmland with many barely managing to survive on meager incomes from seasonal commercial plantation work. So as to supplement family diets, through backyard agriculture, some households are making effi cient use of cramped spaces around their homes for supplemental food production and income despite overcrowding, shade and limited water. Home agroforest gardens are important

components of backyard agriculture systems.

Home agroforest gardens of less than 50 square meters may have a multi-storied mixture of at least 10-20 food-producing plants (Illustration 10). Some species, such as leaf pepper (Piper sarmentosum), sweet potato, forest yams, konjac (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) as well as numerous cooking

Short-term cropsupland rice cucumberpumpkin pineapplecowpea bananachili pepper cornsorghum papaya

Long-term cropsrattan prickly ashtea fan palmforest pepper bamboosnow fl ake tree mafaiforest banana coffee

Key crops found in hill

fallow agroforestsFigure 3

and medicinal herbs are either low growing or produce root crops. Many other types, such as various perennial eggplants, are bushy and grow to medium heights. Fruit trees, such a papaya and jackfruit, in addition to clumps of bamboo and certain palms, grow taller, which form the canopy of home agroforest gardens.

Besides common fruit and vegetable varieties, such as pineapple, pumpkin and long bean, a signifi cant portion of home agroforest gardens may be made up of indigenous forest species. Many of these indigenous plants adapt well to varying amounts of shade. Native, perennial food-producers include those with edible leaf shoots and fl owers, such as a few fi g varieties (e.g., Ficus virens, F. racemosa) as well as Acacia pennata, Clerodendrum glandulosum, kassod tree (Senna siamea), katuk (Sauropus androgynus) and snowfl ake tree (Trevesia palmata).

A major benefi t of planting such variety of forest plants in home agroforest gardens is the production of edible leaves and shoots throughout the year. This is particularly important during the dry season when conventional shallow-rooted garden crops often lack adequate water to survive.

Of course, home agroforest gardens do not have to be restricted to limited spaces adjoining village homes. Some households have established similar intensively mixed plantings in larger areas (1/2 rai* or more) for the production of food and to increase family income.

Home agroforest gardens are not limited to food production only. In the Golden Triangle, women of the Palaung hilltribe seek rattan strips with

* 1 rai = 0.16 hectare

Illustration 10 Home agroforest garden with annual vegetables, herbs, snowfl ake tree and clerodendrum.

Illustration 11 Palaung woman in front of stand of bitter rattan in her home agroforest garden.

24 251�which to fashion belt-like hoops that are an important component of their traditional dress. So besides growing only edible plants, some Palaung households include faster growing, cane-producing rattan such as bitter rattan (Calamus siamensis) in their backyard agroforest gardens for personal use or to sell (Illustration 11). Additionally, it’s not uncommon for hilltribe families to grow backyard clumps of bamboo in order to produce construction materials and edible shoots. Some household plots include fan palms with leaves that can be made into a durable type of roof thatch.

The amount of plant diversity within hilltribe gardens can be astounding. Anderson reports having counted more than 90 species of plants in various upland gardens and villages of the region.

2.3 Degraded Woodland Agroforests

Near upland communities, patches of degraded woodlands covered with trees, brush or grass are sometimes available on which to plant family agroforest plots. Such land may be off limits or unsuitable for conventional fi eld or orchard crop production. However, these areas might support select agroforest crops and thereby increase overall productivity.

Such sites may be selectively cleared so as to maintain some of the indigenous vegetation along with a mixture of introduced agroforest plants (Illustration 12). Many of the useful indigenous woody plants often found on such sites include bamboos (for construction, weaving, fi ber and edible shoots) as well as native oaks, chestnuts and chinkapins that produce edible and marketable nuts. Additionally, various medicinal herbs and wild vegetables, such as ferns, are often present. Any useful, pre-existing plants should not be cut but rather incorporated into the care and management of the agroforest plots.

Larger indigenous trees, though possibly lacking edible or otherwise useful products, should be preserved in such plots as they contribute to the overall forest integrity. Such trees will also produce considerable leaf fall that will biodegrade into nutrient-rich humus for the benefi t of the companion plants growing in the understory. Additionally, with cool, foggy mornings during the early dry season, tree foliage captures condensation from the moist air. Trees enable moisture to be recycled back into the topsoil of the agroforest plots as seen when water drips off of the leaves. Consequently, when compared to non-wooded plots, the soil underneath trees generally retains moisture longer into the dry season, thereby benefi ting

Non-indigenous annual speciesivy gourd pumpkinchili pepper rosellesweet potato bottle gourdbalsam pear long beanmelon cucumber

Indigenous forest speciescha-om forest yamsmooth fi g red shoot fi gclerodendrum fi sh tail palmtaro leaf pepperkatuk snow fl ake tree

Non-indigenous perennial speciespineapple jackfruitpomelo lemon grassmoringa guavabanana eggplantsesbania passion fruit

Key crops found in home

agroforest gardens

Figure 4

Illustration 12 Stand of young, introduced fan palm, black sugar palm and rattan in a degraded woodland agroforest.

26 271�crops in woodland agroforest plantings. Additionally, larger trees serve as perches for birds which also help in the natural establishment of plants in the plots.

However, there will be likely competition from the larger and/or more numerous pre-existing plants for sunlight, nutrients and water. Such competition can result in potentially slow and stunted growth for the introduced agroforest species. As a result, certain non-forest agroforest crops best suited to sunnier environments (i.e., papaya, pineapple) may not adapt well to plots where considerable shade is already present.

Therefore, sites with considerable amounts of pre-existing of bamboo, grasses or other prolifi c types of vegetation will require a signifi cant amount of thinning if introduced species are to be grown in association with these natives. Ultimately, farmers may decide that certain plots with extremely thick stands of bamboo may be best suited only for the production of bamboo poles and shoots.

Another special challenge for mixed woodland plantings includes the potential for dry season wildfi res. The development and maintenance of fi re breaks are mandatory activities in degraded woodland agroforests.

Indigenous forest speciesblack sugar palm tearattan fi sh tail palmbamboo forest yamforest banana fan palmsnow fl ake tree prickly ash

Non-indigenous speciespineapple jackfruitTree of Heaven pomelomango neemcoffee fragrant screw pinepassion fruit perennial eggplant

Key crops found in degraded woodland

agroforests

Figure 5

3. Management of Family Agroforest Plots

3.1 Seeking Tenure

Besides farming, many hilltribe communities have a strong interest in participating in local forest management. Unfortunately, due to unattained citizenship and the absence of a national community forestry policy that clearly allows agroforestry and other forms of agriculture in designated protected forest areas, most hilltribe households in the region are still denied ownership or full legal access to the land around their communities. Still, many would-be agroforesters are willing to access almost any type of land that’s available; whether their own backyards or plots of degraded forestland.

Depending upon the availability of land, non-backyard agroforest plots may be as small as a fraction of a hectare. But regardless of the size, unless plots are located in areas where some degree of tenure already exists (e.g., in and around long established upland fi elds) permission must be sought from local authorities for the establishment of family agroforest plots. After permission has been received and land divided among participating families, each plot should be clearly marked with signs to designate the owner and to request others to respect the resources within (Illustration 13).

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Illustration 13 Family agroforest plots should be clearly designated.

28 291�3.2 Selection of Agroforest Species

Forest management is often equated with the production of a single forest crop species; basically tree farming. Timber species such as teak, pine and eucalyptus are commonly grown in such fashion. Additionally, monocropped plots of indigenous food-producing species, particularly cha-om (edible leaf shoots), rattan (edible cane shoots), fruit-producing longan and bael fruit as well as tea are often encountered. Despite being composed of native plants and therefore better adapted to local conditions, these monocropped plantations lack the biodiversity that many upland farmers prefer. On the contrary, diversifi ed agroforest systems are generally rich in a variety of catch crops should main crops fail for any reason.

The choice of plants to include in biodiverse family agroforest plots will depend on the objectives of each household. Other factors related to plant choice include the agroforest products in demand as well as local community forest policies. For example, some communities may limit the inclusion of certain fruit trees, such as litchee or tangerine, so as to prevent sites designated for agroforestry from becoming orchards. Another key consideration is the availability of various types of agroforest plant seedlings such as rattan or tea. However, the ultimate factors are the local climate and the physical characteristics of the each site, including seasonal soil moisture, exposure to sunlight, soil quality and resident plants.

Each agroforester needs to know the site requirements of each plant

species. Certain forest plants, such as various types of rattan and bamboo, forest pepper, fi shtail palm and snowfl ake tree prefer somewhat unexposed, moist sites such as north slopes and creek bottoms. Others, including Indian trumpet, fan palm, prickly ash (Zanthoxylum rhetsa) and white thorn rattan (Calamus viminalis) grow well in well-drained, sunny locations. Regarding elevation, in northern Thailand, arabica coffee performs best in the highlands above 800 meters whereas tea adapts to both higher and lower elevations (down to approximately 500 meters).

3.3 Planning the Density and Arrangement of Agroforest Plantings

The density of plantings will depend upon the availability of seedlings, the types of agroforest plants to be established and the plant cover already existing within the plots. Given the scarcity of available land for family agroforestry in many upland communities, it is recommended that plants be established as closely together as possible while minimizing competition. Species that have large canopies at maturity, such as black sugar palm, or plants that are prone to spread (i.e., rattan and various bamboos), should be spaced no less than 5-6 meters apart. However, various smaller species, such a snowfl ake tree, tea and coffee can be established much closer (i.e., every 1 ½ - 2 meters) and even scattered between larger agroforest plants (Illustration 14).

Smaller viny plants, such as forest yams and native peppers, are space effi cient as they can grow up tree trunks. Pineapple and leaf pepper can be planted very densely, particularly in plots that are somewhat open and less shady. Given effi cient selection and arrangement of plants, every square meter within multi-storied family agroforest plots can be occupied by productive forest and horticultural plants.

However, bamboos may limit the overall density of agroforest plantings. Typically aggressive spreaders, bamboo plants produce substantial shade and have extensive root systems that out-compete most other agroforest species. Because bamboos play a very important role in agroforesty, they should be managed through the segregation of clumps away from most other species and/or by limiting the spread of clumps via the harvest of shoots and poles as well as by culling less desirable growth.

Illustration 14 A diverse, new agroforest planting.

30 311�3.4 Establishment of Family Agroforest Plots

Hardened seedlings (i.e., those that have been gradually acclimatized to fi eld conditions) should be planted during the early-mid rainy season (mid June-early August). Young established plants need to be clearly marked so as to be protected during occasional weeding.

Depending on factors such as the presence of weeds such as imperata grass and the degree of sunlight/shade, weed control (slashing weeds and digging out roots) will be necessary at least 3 to 6 times per year, particularly during the rainy season. Weed control will be needed each year until weeds have begun to be shaded by established plants.

So as to develop agroforest sites with a strong forest integrity (in contrast to conventional orchard plantings), most of the plants within agroforest plots, whether planted or having been naturally established, should be native forest species. The most effi cient means of restoring forest plants in family agroforest plots is to use the technique employed by farmers establishing hill fallow agroforests. After planting an initial stand of desired, productive agroforest species in appropriate densities they allow nature to take its course. In the long run, allowing various pioneer and successive species to establish themselves and fi ll in the gaps is easier than attempting to replant an entire forest plot.

3.5 Long-Term Management

Regarding pioneer species, natural stands of aggressive weeds, such as imperata, can smother out small agroforest seedlings, making weed management mandatory. One effi cient means of controlling weeds, thereby reducing frequent weed cutting and ultimately providing agroforest seedlings a better chance of survival and good growth, is to establish a stand of fast-growing, shade-producing trees such as kassod tree (Senna siamea). If planted densely enough (approximately every 1 ½ -2 meters), and weeded as necessary during the fi rst 1-2 years of establishment, within a few years the young trees will begin to form a canopy. The resulting shade will curb even most aggressive weeds, including imperata.

Unfortunately, excessive shade is detrimental to many forest species, especially at the seedling stage. Overly shaded seedlings may grow extremely slow or remain stunted, thereby delaying potential benefi ts from agroforest plantings.

Therefore, light management is another important consideration. As mentioned previously, in degraded woodland agroforests where resident trees are already quite large and/or where there are aggressive fast-growing species such as bamboo, thinning will be needed so as to allow at least 50 percent fi ltered sunlight to penetrate into the understory. However, where thinning and partial clearing are employed to facilitate agroforest plantings, care must be taken not to allow the forest integrity to degrade (Illustration 15). Should there appear to be excessive harm done to the forest associated with the management of agroforest plots, increased risk of confl ict between upland communities and local forestry authorities is likely. Therefore, so as to minimize damage to the forest, only partial thinning of the undergrowth as well as limited trimming of limbs and branches of larger trees should be occasionally done to allow increased penetration of sunlight for improved agroforest production. Trimmings can be used as fi rewood and fodder or for construction.

Fire Management is another priority related to agroforestry. Within a few minutes a wind-driven fi re can wipe out all of the established agroforest plants in a plot. Unlike bamboo, certain crops such as tea and rattan simply cannot tolerate fi re. From the beginning of the dry season, fi re breaks must be established and maintained around entire community forests as well as each family agroforest plot.

Illustration 15 Selective thinning within family agroforest plot.

32 331�Fire breaks, with recommended widths of 10-15 m, should be established

around each family agroforest at the beginning of the dry season. The Forest Restoration Research Unit recommends slashing vegetation along the two edges of the fi re break, piling it up in the middle and burning it. Meanwhile, adequate numbers of persons, tools and water sprayers should be on hand to control any fi re that escapes during the process. During the remainder of the dry season, community fi re watches should be in place with strategically located barrels of water and fi refi ghting tools at ready. Also, each fi re break should be occasionally swept of dry leaves until the rains return.

Despite the potential damage to agroforests, orchards and the top soil of fi elds due to fi res, many people consider burning to be a useful land management tool, claiming improved production of wild mushrooms and other desired forest products. Therefore, fi re should only be used on a limited basis with extreme discretion. Communities should also develop policies related to the use of fi re in agriculture, forest management and even hunting. Fines and other penalties must be imposed in cases when fi re is misused, particularly where damage to property occurs.

4. Family Nurseries for the Production of Agroforest Species

The establishment of nurseries within each community is essential for family agroforestry programming so as to foster self-suffi ciency and sustainability. Family nurseries may also help generate additional income from the sale of seedlings (Illustration 16).

Besides possessing familiarity with local forest species, most hilltribe agroforesters already hold indigenous knowledge related to plant propagation. What may be lacking, however, are various materials and equipment needed to establish family agroforest nurseries, including:

Shade cloth, wire and nailsTools and equipment (e.g., wheelbarrows, shovels, hoes, buckets,

water hoses, watering cans)Materials such as seedling bags and plastic basins for propagationBarrels in which to store water and produce natural fertilizers

(manure/compost teas)Air-tight containers in which to store certain types of seeds

A major limitation to upland nursery management is the shortage of water, especially during the dry season. Water storage in barrels and tanks is a necessary precaution.

Another challenge is locating seeds and cuttings for many increasingly rare forest species. It is illegal to remove plant stock from protected forests. However, desired species can often be found within upland

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Illustration 16 Family agroforest nursery

34 351�5. Community Participation

For effective agroforestry programming, it is essential that upland communities work together to agree on common goals. Residents must outline strategies related to seeking and/or strengthening land and forest tenure. With local authorities, they should negotiate appropriate agroforest activities within designated community forests. Additionally, equitable distribution of family agroforest plots among participating residents will be needed. And, collectively, they must determine their own community forest policies.

Related to the implementation of agroforestry, so as to conserve labor and improve overall production, families might cooperate further to facilitate:

The establishment of agroforest plotsFire preventionProtection against theft and vandalism The harvest of family agroforest products

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Illustration 17 Community-wide cooperation is essential for agroforestry efforts with widespread benefi ts.

upland communities and farms. Therefore, networking and bartering are useful for locating and obtaining hard-to-fi nd plant stock. Addi-tionally, understanding the fl owering and fruiting schedules of desired plant species as well as the storage and propagation requirements of each type of seed is vital.

Given adequate skills, proper equipment, reliable water supplies and viable plant materials, a surprisingly large number of seedlings can be produced in a small family nursery. However, plant propagation should not be restricted to nurseries only. Many upland agroforesters are experts at scattering seeds of various forest species such as tea and rattan in appropriate sites for more effi cient and natural crop establishment. Wildlings of rattan, prickly ash and other species may also be located and transplanted within agroforest plots. Additionally, farmers are known to stick root and stem cuttings of various species, including forest pepper, snow fl ake tree and bamboos for establishment in appropriate sites during the rainy season.

36 371�6. Marketing of Agroforest

ProductsCommunity-wide participation will also be needed to determine viable

markets for the sale of local agroforest products. Although the main priority of agroforestry is to improve family food suffi ciency, a related goal is to increase family incomes through the sale of agroforest products. By and large, adequate regional demand exists for these goods in northern Thailand. But while many agroforest products may be marketed locally (e.g., bamboo shoots and other types of forest produce), a few types, such as coffee, may require more distant and sophisticated marketing systems.

In northern Thailand, there is considerable demand for raw materials, such as rattan and bamboo, with which to make baskets and other handicrafts. Producers of such raw materials may have the choice of selling these products to manufacturers or producing value-added baskets and handicrafts themselves.

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Illustration 18 A bed of recently emerged fi sh tail palm in a family nursery

Com

parison of managem

ent and production components

related to four agroforestry systems

Agroforestry

systemD

iversity of agroforest products

Fire control require-m

ents

Light/shade

managem

ent requirem

ents

Labor

require-m

ents

Land

require-m

ents

Agroforest

crop densitiesW

eed man-

agement

requirements

Diversifi ed

hill fi elds and agroforest orchards

High

Low-

medium

Low-m

ediumM

edium-

high≥ ½

raiM

edium-high

High

Hill fallow

agroforests

Medium

-high

Medium

-high

Medium

-highM

edium-

high≥ ½

raiM

edium-high

Medium

-high

Hom

e agroforest gardens

High

LowLow

Low< ¼

raiH

ighLow

-medium

Degraded

woodland

agroforests

Medium

-high

Medium

-high

Medium

-highM

edium≥ ½

raiM

edium-high

Medium

-high

Figure 6

38 391�Summary and Conclusions

The basic principles related to productive family agroforestry are:

Use every space available, no matter how small, whether in or around fi elds and orchards or within degraded woodland plots or in the vicinity of homes for the production of appropriate agroforest crops.

Diversify agroforest plantings as much as possible to ensure short- and long-term returns, to maximize year-round production and to reduce the risk of complete crop failure that’s more likely where there’s less diversifi cation.

So as to maximize effi ciency and productivity on limited land, establish multi-story plantings that maximize the use of light and nutrients.

Continue to establish new seedlings each year so as to maximize planting densities and replace dead or unproductive plants.

The primary family agroforest systems include:

Diversifi ed hill fi elds and agroforest orchards – Hill fi elds or orchards in which fi eld and/or orchard crops are planted along with native forest species so as to diversify overall crop production and stabilize farm incomes.

Hill fallow agroforests – Established in former hill fi eld sites, a mixture of native forest species and shade-tolerate perennial crops are planted for the purpose of maintaining the long-term productivity of fallowed plots.

Home agroforest gardens – Gardens often located in small spaces around village homes that are comprised primarily of an intensive mix of native, food-producing forest species and common perennial/annual fruit, vegetable and herb varieties that are grown to improve family food suffi ciency.

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Degraded woodland agroforests – Patches of woodland or degraded areas on which site-appropriate agroforest species are established so as to increase the productivity of land off-limits to conventional agricultural practices.

Each of these primary agroforest systems can be encountered in the uplands whereby their characteristics may be distinctly observed. However, in many places one may also come across integrated agroforests that are made up of components of two or more of the primary systems. Ultimately, each upland farmer should have the opportunity to select and implement agroforest systems in whatever form that is appropriate based upon local factors such as land availability, climate, economy, etc.

The benefi ts related to family agroforestry include:

Improved food suffi ciency, whether from the production of food or from income derived from selling agroforest products.

A means of thwarting hunger during years in which conventional fi eld crops might fail.

Increased forest biodiversity, including the production of increasingly rare forest species.

Creation of buffer zones that help to blunt the possible negative impact of upland communities upon remaining natural forests.

Preservation of local forest knowledge through the recognition of the indigenous value of local forest species and conservation of skills related to the preparation of traditional foods and materials.

An opportunity for hilltribe people to participate in the management and stewardship of forest resources.

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Illustration 19 Indigenous Burmese grape adds to the biodiversity of a family agroforest plot.

40 411�Appendix

Useful Plants Commonly Integrated into Agroforest Sites in Northern Thailand

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Family Agroforest Site Key1 = home agroforest gardens2 = diversifi ed hill fi elds and agroforest orchards 3 = hill fallow agroforests 4 = degraded woodland agroforests 5 = mixed plantings in contour strips for soil/water erosion control

Indigenous Species Common Name Thai Name Uses (site key)1. Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC. sompoi sompoi/ส้มป่อย Edible leaf shoots,

fl owers and pods (1,2,3,4)

2. Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. ssp. Insuavis (Lace) Nielsen

cha-om cha-om/ชะอม Edible leaf shoots(1,2,3,4)

3. Archidendron jiringa (Jack) Nielsen

jiringa, dog fruit bateung/niang/บะตึ๋ง/เนียง

Edible fruit (1,2,3,4)

4. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. bael fruit matoon/มะตูน Edible fruit (1,2,3,4)

5. Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. galangal kha/ข่า Edible rhizome; natural pesticide (1,2)

6. Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Denn.) Nichol.

konjac buk/บุก Edible tuber; pig feed (1,2,3,4)

7. Arenga westerhoutii black sugar palm tao/ต๋าว Edible core/fruit (2,3,4)

8. Baccaurea ramifl ora Lour. Burmese grape mafai/มะไฟ Edible fruit (1,2,3,4)

9. Broussonnetia kurzii (Hk. f.)Corn.

salae salae/สะแล Edible fruit/young leaves (1,2,3,4)

10. Broussonnetia papyrifera (L.) Vent.

paper mulberry paw sa/ปอสา Natural paper; leaves used as livestock feed (2,3,4,5)

11. Camellia sinensis (L.) O.K.var. assamica (Mast.) Kita

tea cha/miang/ชา/เมี่ยง Beverage; edible leaves (1,2,3,4,5)

12. Calamus rudentum Loureiro black thorn rattan wai nam dam/หวาย หนามดำ

Weaving; edible shoots (1,2,3,4,5)

13. Calamus siamensis Becc. bitter rattan wai khom/หวาย ขม Weaving, edible shoots (1,2,3,4,5)

14. Calamus viminalis Wildd. white thorn rattan wai nam khao/หวาย หนามขาว

Weaving, edible shoots (1,2,3,4,5)

15. Calamus wailong S.J. Pei &S.Y. Chen

striped rattan wai hin/หวายหิน Weaving; edible shoots (1,2,3,4,5)

16. Caryota mitis Lour. fi sh tail palm tao rang daeng/เด่าร้างแดง

Edible core (1,2,3,4)

17. Caryota urens L. fi sh tail palm kheung luang/เขืองหลวง

Edible core (1,2,3,4)

18. Cephalostachymum pergracile Munro.

rice bamboo pai khao lam/ไผ่ข้าวหลาม

Construction; weaving; cooking vessels for rice (1,2,3,4)

19. Clerodendrum glandulosum Colebr. ex Lindl.

clerodendrum nang yaem pa/นางแย้มป่า

Edible leaf shoots (1,2,3,4,5)

20. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott

taro pheuk/bawn/tun/เผือก/บอน/ตูน

Edible tuber/stalks; pig feed (1,2,3)

21. Daemonorops jenkinsiana (Griff) Mart.

husk rattan wai faat/หวายฝาด Weaving; edibleshoots;thatch (1,2,3,4)

22. Dimocarpus longan Lour. spp. Longan var. longan

longan lam yai/ลำไย Edible fruit (1,2)

23. Dendrocalamus giganteus (Wallich) Munro

giant bamboo phai paw/ไผ่ปอ Construction; edible shoots (1,2,3,4)

24. Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees

male bamboo phai sang/ไผ่ซาง Construction, vessels, weaving, edible shoots (1,2,3,4)

25. Dioscorea alata L. forest yam man/มัน Edible tuber (1,2,3,4)

26. Elaeagnus conferta Robx. elaeagnus malawt/มะลอด Edible fruit (1,2,3,4)

42 431�

The list above does not include many useful forest species often found in native stands where agroforest plots are sometimes established. These include bamboos such as Dendrocalamus membranaceus (phai sang doi) and Bambusa tulda (phai bong), both used for construction, weaving and edible shoots; Oxytenanthera albo-ciliata (phai rai), valued for its edible shoots and poles; and Cephalostachyum virgatum (phai hia), harvested for weaving and construction purposes. Various native oaks, chestnuts and chinkapins (Quercus,Castanopsis and Lithocarpus) have edible/marketable nuts. Among the hardwoods, the varnish tree (Gluta usitata) produces a valued lacquer-like resin whereas the leaves of Dipterocarpus tuberculatus (mai teung) are used to thatch roofs.

Many resident, non-woody forest plants are also useful, including edible ferns such as Selaginella involuta (phak kap kae) and Athyrium esculentum (phak kut). And as mentioned previously, during the cold season in northern Thailand many families collect the fruiting stems of broom grass (Thysanolaena latifolia) to sell to local broom

42. Thysanolaena latifolia (Robx. ex horn.) Honda

broom grass yaa mai kwat/หญ้าไม้กวาด

Soil conservation; infl orescence har-vested and sold to make brooms (3,4,5)

43. Tinospora crispa (L.) Hk. f. & Thoms.

boraphet boraphet/บอระเพ็ด Herbal medicine; natural pesticide (1,2,3,4)

44. Trevesia palmata (DC.) Vis. snowfl ake tree tang luang/ต้างหลวง

Edible shoots and fl owers (1,2,3,4,5)

45. Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC.

prickly ash makwaen/มะแคว่น Edible fruit used as spice (1,2,3,4,5)

Illustration 20 Uncle Tisae displaying mature rattan canes in his productive agroforest.

27. Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce jambolan wa/หว้า Edible fruit (1,2,3,4)

28. Ficus racemosa L. var. racemosa

cluster fi g madeua kliang/มะเดื่อเกลี้ยง

Edible leaf shoots(1,2,3,4)

29. Ficus virens Ait. var. sublanceolta (Miq.) Corn.

red shoot fi g phak hued/ผักเฮือด Edible leaf shoots (1,2,3,4)

30. Gigantochloa apus (Schult.) Kurz

large bamboo phai hok /ไผ่หก Construction, edible shoots (1,2,3,4)

31. Livistona speciosa Kurz fan palm mai khaw/ไม้ค้อ Leaves use for thatch; edible core and fruits (1,2,3,4)

32. Mangifera caloneura Kurz

forest mango mamuang pa/มะม่วงป่า

Edible fruit (3,4)

33. Musa acuminata Colla spp. siamea Simm.

forest banana kluai pa/กล้วยป่า Edible fl owers/in-ner core; leaves for wrapping food; inner core used for pig feed (2,3,4)

34. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz Indian trumpet malik mai/ มะลิกไม้

Edible fl ower/pod (1,2,3,4,5)

35. Phyllanthus emblica L. Indian goose-berry

makham pawm/มะขามป้อม

Edible fruit; me-dicinal (1,2,3,4)

36. Piper retrofractum Vahl forest pepper jakhan/จะค่าน Edible stem used as spice (1,2,3,4)

37. Piper sarmentosum Roxb. leaf pepper chaphlu/ชาพลู Edible leaf (1,2,3,4)

38. Sauropus androgynus (L.)Merr.

katuk phak wan ban/ผักหวานบ้าน

Edible leaf shoots (1,2,3,4,5)

39. Senna siamea (Lmk.) Irwin & Barn.

kassod tree khi lek ban/ขี้เหล็กบ้าน

Firewood; ediblefl owers/leaf shoots (1,2,3,4,5)

40. Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz hog plum makawk pa/มะกอกป่า

Edible fruit/leaf shoots (1,2,3,4)

41. Thyrsostachys siamensis (Kurz ex Munro) Gamble

umbrella bamboo phai ruak/ไผ่รวก Construction; toolhandles; edible shoots (1,2,3,4)

44 451�

Non-Indigenous Species Common Name Thai Name Uses (site key)1. Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston

Tree of Heaven mayom pa/มะยมป่า

Leaves, bark, fruit are medicuinal and used to make natural shampoo/pesticide (2,3,4)

2. Allium cepa L. onion hawm/หอม edible bulb (1,2)

3. Allium sativum L. garlic grathium/กระเทียม

edible bulb (1,2)

4. Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. pineapple saparot/สับปะรด Edible fruit (1,2,3,4,5)

5. Annona reticulata L. custard apple noi na/น้อยหน่า Edible fruit (1,2)

6. Arachis hypogaea L. peanut thua lisong/ถั่วลิสง

Cash crop, edible nut (1,2)

7. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.

jack fruit kanun/ขนุน Edible fruit (1,2,3,4)

8. Azadirachta indica Juss. neem sadao/สะเดา Natural pesticide; ed-ible fl owers (1,2,3,4)

9. Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.

wax gourd fak khio/ฟักเขียว Cash crop, edible fruit (1,2)

10. Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth pigeon pea mahae/ถั่วมะแฮะ Green manure/cover crop; soil conserva-tion; edible fl ower/pod/seed (1,2,5)

11. Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC.

jack bean thua phra/ถั่วพร้า Green manure/cover crop; edible tender pod – mature seed toxic (1,2)

12. Capsicum frutescens L. chili pepper prik khi nu/พริกขี้หนู

Edible fruit (1,2,3,4)

13. Carica papaya L. papaya malakaw/มะละกอ Edible fruit; livestock feed; natural medicine (1,2,3,5)

14. Citrus maxima (Burman) Merr.

pomelo som oh/ส้มโอ Edible fruit (1,2)

15. Coccina grandis (L.) Voigt ivy gourd phak khaeb/ผักแคบ

Edible shoots/fruit (1,2)

16. Coffea arabica L. coffee kafae/กาแฟ Edible fruit/bever-age (1,2,3,4)

17. Cucumis melo L. melon taeng mo/แตงโม edible fruit (1,2)

18. Cucumis sativus L. cucumber taeng kwa/แตงกวา

edible fruit (1,2)

19. Curcubita moschata (Duschesne) Poiret

pumpkin fak thawng/ฟักทอง

Edible fruit/fl owers/ shoots; livestock feed (1,2)

20. Cymbopogon citratus (DC. ex Nees) Stapf

lemon grass takhrai hawm/ตะไคร้หอม

Herb; natural pesti-cide (1,2,5)

21. Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr.

fl emingia mahae khi nok/มะฮะขี้นก

Soil conservation; green manure; fod-der (5)

22. Glycine max (L.) Merr. soybean thua leung/ถั่วเหลือง

Cash crop; edible pod and seed (1,2)

23. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. roselle krajiap/กระเจี๊ยบ Edible leaf shoots/ fruit/beverage and preserves (1,2)

24. Indigofera anil L. indigofera khram yai/ครามใหญ่

Soil conservation; green manure; fi rewood; used as shade for other crops (3,4,5)

25. Ipomea batatas (L.) Lam. sweet potato man thet/มันเทศ Edible tuber/shoots livestock feed (1,2,5)

Family Agroforest Site Key1 = home agroforest gardens2 = diversifi ed hill fi elds and agroforest orchards 3 = hill fallow agroforests 4 = degraded woodland agroforests 5 = mixed plantings in contour strips for soil/water erosion control

manufacturers. As much as possible, indigenous plants such as these should remain integrated in family agroforest plots. Their inclusion not only helps to maintain access to useful products but also increases biodiversity as well.

The following common, non-indigenous food/herb crops are readily associated with the previously mentioned indigenous forest species in various types of agroforest plantings. Many of these species tolerate some degree of shade as well as seasonal dry conditions.

46 471�26. Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley

bottle gourd nam tao/น้ำเต้า Edible fruit and shoots (1,2)

27. Lablab purpureus (L.) Sw. ssp. purpureus

lablab bean thua pae yi/ถั่วแปะยี้

Green manure/cover crop; edible tender pod, cash crop; (1,2)

28. Leucaena leucocephalia (Lam.) de Wit

leucaena krathin/กระถิน Edible leaf shoots; fi rewood; soil con-servation; green manure; livestock feed; used as shade for other crops (1,2,3,4,5)

29. Litchi chinensis Sonn. litchee linchee/ลิ้นจี่ Edible fruit (1,2)

30. Mangifera indica L. mango mamuang/มะม่วง Edible fruit (1,2)

31. Manihot esculenta Crantz cassava man sam palang/มันสำปะหลัง

Edible tuber and leaves; livestock feed (1,2)

32. Momordica charantia L. balsam pear mara khi nok/มะระขี้นก

Edible fruit/shoots (1,2)

33. Moringa oleifera Lamk. moringa marum/มะรุม Edible leaf shoots/ fruit (1)

34. Musa x paradisiaca L. banana kluai/กล้วย Edible fruit/fl ow-ers/ and inner core; leaves for wrapping food; livestock feed (1,2,3)

35. Ocimum sanctum L. holy basil kraphrao/กระเพรา

Herb (1,2)

36. Oryza sativa L. upland rice khao rai/ข้าวไร่ Staple; animal feed (2)

37. Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.

fragrant screw pine

toei hawm/เตยหอม

Beverage/tea; food fl avoring (1,4)

38. Passifl ora edulis Sims passion fruit sawarot/เสาวรส Edible fruit (1,2)

39. Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.

napier grass yaa nepia/หญ้าเนเปียร์

Fodder; soil conser-vation (5)

40. Psidium guajava L. guava farang/ฝรั่ง Edible fruit (1,2,3,4)

41. Saccharum offi cinarum L. sugar cane oi/อ้อย Edible stem (1,2,5)

42. Sesamum indicum L. sesame gna/งา Edible seed; oil crop (2)

43. Sesbania grandifl ora (L.) (Poiret)

sesbania kae ban/แคบ้าน Edible fl owers (1,2,5)

44. Solanum indicum L. Indian nightshade

mawaeng/มะแวง Edible fruit (1,2)

45. Solanum stramonifolium Jacq.

red-fruited nightshade

ma euk/มะอึก Edible fruit (1,2)

46. Solanum torvum Sw. Thai pea eggplant

makheua puang/มะเขือพวง

Edible fruit (1,2)

47. Sorghum bicolor L. Moench sorghum khao fang/ข้าวฟ่าง

Animal feed, limited human consumption (2)

48. Tamarind indica L. tarmarind makham/มะขาม Edible fruit/leaf shoots (1,2)

49. Tephrosia candida DC. white hoarypea khram pa/ครามป่า soil conservation; green manure (2,5)

50. Vetiveria zizanioides Nash vetiver yaa faek/หญ้าแฝก soil conservation (5)

51. Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & Ohashi

rice bean thua daeng/pae/ถั่วแดง/ถั่วแป๋

Green manure/cover crop; edible tender pod/pulse; cash crop; animal feed (1,2)

52. Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.

long bean/cow-pea

thua dam/thua fak yao ถั่วดำ/ถั่วฝักยาว

Green manure/cover crop; edible tender pod/pulse; cash crop; animal feed (1,2)

53. Zea mays L. corn khao phod/ข้าวโพด

Commercial grain crop, animal feed (1,2)

54. Zingiber offi cinale Roscoe ginger khing/ขิง Cash crop; edible rhizome; medicine (1,2)

48 491�References:

Anderson, E.F. 1993. Plants and People of the Golden Triangle: Ethnobotany of the Hill Tribes of Northern Thailand. Portland, Oregon: Dioscorides Press.

Bertossa, G. and Jacquat, C. 1990. Plants from the Markets of Thailand. Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol.

Beuphaw (Thawarn Kamphonkun). 2004. Rotational Hill Fields: Inside the Circle of Life of the Sgaw Karen (Thai Language Book – Rai Mun Wian: Nai Wongjawn Chiwit Phao Phakakoenaw). Chiang Mai: Khreuakhai Kawng Boon Khao.

Brady, N.C. 1974. The Nature and Property of Soils. 8th Edition. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc.

Bunch, R. Changing Our Understanding of the Fertility of Tropical Soils: Nutrient Banks or Nutrient Access? Paper developed during a regional technical workshop on Shifting Cultivation for Sustainability and Resource Conservation in Asia.

Bunch, R. 1998. ‘High Potential Hillsides, Soil Conservation and Recuperation in Meso-America’ in C. Reijntjes, M. Minderhoud-Jones and P. Laban, LEISA in Perspective. pp. 34-36.

Burgess, A., G. Maina, P. Harris and S. Harris. 1998. How to Grow a Balanced Diet: A handbook for community workers. London: VSO Books.

Burnette, R.R. 2004. Useful Plants Commonly Integrated into Agroforest Sites in Northern Thailand. UHDP, Mae Ai, Thailand.

Burnette, R.R. and J. Pawkham. 2002. Tisae’s Forest. The Small Farm Newsletter 38:2-5.

Evans, T.D., K. Sengdala, O.V. Viengkham and B. Thammavong. 2001.

� A Field Guide to the Rattans of Lao PDR. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew: Thanet Press Limited.

FOREST RESTORATION UNIT. 1998. Forests for the Future: Growing and Planting Native Trees for Restoring Forest Ecosystems. Biology Department, Science Faculty, Chiang Mai University, Thailand.

Gardner, S., P. Sidisunthorn and V. Anusarnsunthorn. 2000. A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. Bangkok: Kobfai Publishing Project.

Gliessman, S.R. 2000. AGROECOLOGY: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers.

Hodel, D.R. 1998. The Palms and Cycads of Thailand. Lawrence, Kansas: Allen Press.

Mannetje, L. and R.M. Jones. (ed). 1992. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No.4: Forages. Bogor, Indonesia: Prosea Foundation.

Maxwell, J.F. 1999. Personal Communication.

______. 2004. Personal Communication

Maxwell, J.F. and S. Elliott. 2001. Vegetation and Vascular Flora of Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Northern Thailand. Bangkok: The Biodiversity Research and Training Program (BRT).

Morton, J.F. 1987. Fruits of Warm Climates. Miami: Julia Morton.

Nusa Tenggara Community Development Consortium and the Ford Foundation. 2000. Family Forests: Practical Guide to Dryland Farming (English Version). Dryland Farming Series VI. World Neighbors, Oklahoma City, USA.

Nguyen, V.S. 1999. The Potential of Local Tree Species to Accelerate Natural Forest Succession on Marginal Grasslands in Southern Vietnam. Paper presented in the regional scientifi c and technical workshop on: “Forest

50 511�Palmer, J.J. 1996. Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT);

Nitrogen Fixing Agroforestry for Sustainable Soil and Water Conservation. Mindanao Rural Life Center. Bansalan, Philippines.

Porcher, H.H. et al. 1995 – 2020. I.L.F.R. – The University of Melbourne. Australia. <http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/ Solanum_eggplants.html.

_________. 1995-2001, The University of Melbourne. <http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Thyrsostachys.html.

_________. 1995 – 2000, Sorting Baccaurea names. Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database – A Work in Progess. Institute of Land & Food Resources. The University of Melbourne. Australia. <http://gmr.landfood.unimelb.edu.au/Plantnames/Sorting/Baccaurea.html.(2004).

_________. 1995 – 2000, Sorting Ficus names. Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database – A Work in Progress. School of Agriculture and Food Systems. Faculty of Land & Food Resources. The University of Melbourne. Australia. <http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/sorting/Ficus.html>(2005).

_________. 1995 - 2003, Sorting Thai names of bamboos. Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database. Bamboo names Thai index romanisation order. The University of Melbourne. Australia. <http://gmr.landfood.unimelb.edu.au/Plantnames/Sorting/Bamboos_Thai_index.html>(2003).

_________. 1995 – 2000, Sorting Zanthoxylum names. Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database – A Work in Progess. School of Agriculture and Food Systems. Faculty of Land & Food Resources. The Univeristy of Melbourne. Australia. <http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/sorting/Zanthoxylum.html>(2004).

Rao, A. N. and V. Ramantha Rao (editors). 1999. Bamboo and Rattan Genetic Resources and Use. Proceedings of the INBAR-IPGRI Biodiversity, Genetic Resources and Conservation Working Group Meeting and Research Reports. IPGRI-APO; Serdang, Malaysia.

Genetic Resources and Conservation Working Group Meeting and Research Reports. IPGRI-APO; Serdang, Malaysia.

Reijntjes, C., B. Haverkort and Ann Waters-Bayer. 2004. Sustainable Agriculture: Agricultural Methodologies for the Future. (Thai Language book – Kaset Yang Yeun Withi Kaset Phua Anakhot translated from Farming for the Future: An Introduction to Low-External Input and Sustainable Agriculture). Earth Net Foundation, Bangkok.

Roshetko, J.M. (ed). 2001. Agroforestry species and technologies: a compilation of the highlights and factsheets published by NFTA and FACT Net 1985-1999. Taiwan Forestry Research Institute and Council of Agriculture, Taiwan, Republic of China; Winrock International, Morrilton, Arkansas, USA.

Senanayake, R. 2000. Analog Forestry: An Alternative to ‘Clear and Simplify.’ LEISA, No.16. pp. 12-12.

Somchai Ongprasert and K. Prinz. 1997. Use of Viny Legumes as Accelerated Seasonal Fallow: An Innovation of Intensifi ed Shifting Cultivation in Northern Thailand. Poster paper presented in International Workshop on Indigenous Strategies for Intensifi cation of Shifting Cultivation in S.E. Asia. Bogor, Indonesia. June 1997.

USDA, NRCS. 2005. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5 (http://plants.usda.gov). Data compiled from various sources by Mark W. Skinner. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Van Keer, K, J.D. Comtois, F. Turkelboom and Somchai Ongprasert. 1998. Options for Soil and Farmer Friendly Agriculture in the Highlands of Northern Thailand. Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn.

Wina Chertboonchart. 1990. Planting Thai Vegetables for Food and Medicine (Thai language book – Pluk Phak Thai Dai Thang Aharn Lae Ya). Amarin Printing, Bangkok.

52 531�Glossary of important terms:(based largely on previous references, particularly Van Keer, K. et al.)

Accelerated seasonal fallow – A brief, intensifi ed fallow system by which viny legumes are planted as green manure cover crops (often relay-cropped) so as to improve fi eld soil conditions (i.e. soil fertility, soil structure) between the seasonal production of main non-legume crops such as corn or upland rice.

Agroforestry – An agricultural land use system which deliberately combines trees with arable crops and/or livestock.

Agroforest orchards – Highly diversifi ed orchard plantings in which useful indigenous forest crops, as well as shade-tolerant common perennial crops, are planted in the understory of the main orchard crops.

Alley cropping – Soil cropping systems in which primarily annual crops are grown in between contour hedgerows or strips composed of fast-growing nitrogen fi xing shrubs, trees, multi-stemmed grasses or other plants suitable for planting in such arrangements.

Backyard agriculture – Small-scale farming comprised of agricultural activities that can be conducted in small spaces in the vicinity of homes (i.e. raising small fl ocks of chickens, pigs, fi sh, vegetable gardening, mushroom production).

Biodiversity – The number of species of living organisms (plants and/or animals) within a certain area.

Biomass – The organic matter produced by living organisms (plant or animal).

Buffer zone – A designated area where activities related to livelihoods (i.e. agriculture, forestry) are managed so as to minimize human impact on adjacent protected areas.

�Young, A. 1989. Agroforestry for Soil Conservation. CAB International, International Council for Research in Agroforestry. Exeter: BPCC Wheatons Ltd.

Yot Santasombat. 2003. Biodiversity: Local Knowledge and Sustainable Development. Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development (RCSD), Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Thailand.

_____ _____ _____ _____

As authoritative sources of information regarding agroforestry and forest ecology in northern Thailand, special appreciation goes to Jamlong Pawkham and other staff of the Upland Holistic Development Project, Lahu village headman, Tisae Jaseupheu, and numerous other agroforestry partners in 12 UHDP focus communities.

54 551�Canopy – The uppermost layer of a plant community.

Catch crop – Secondary crops that diversify farm production and income as well as offer increased stability should main crops fail.

Contour hedgerows – A closely planted contour strip of shrubs, small trees or multi-stemmed grasses.

Cover cropping – A close-growing crop grown primarily for the purpose of protecting and improving the soil between periods of regular crop production or between other crops or trees.

Crop diversifi cation – Combining several crop species in one hill fi eld, orchard or agroforest site.

Deciduous forest – A forest composed of trees that shed their leaves every year at a certain season.

Degraded woodland agroforests – Patches of woodland or degraded areas on which site-appropriate agroforest species are established so as to increase the productivity of land off-limits to conventional agricultural practices.

Dispersed tree system – A system of planting tree crops at a very low density within fi elds so as to allow other crops to be grown in the same fi elds as well.

Diversifi ed hill fi elds – Hill fi elds in which fi eld crops are planted along with indigenous forest crops as well as common perennial crops through the use of dispersed tree systems and/or mixed plantings within contour strips for soil conservation.

Ecology – The science of interactions between living organisms and between living organisms and their environments.

Ecosystem – The communities of all living organisms and their physical environment in a certain area, including all the interactions that exist.

Evergreen forest – A forest composed of trees that retain their leaves and remain green year long.

Fallow – A piece of land left uncultivated for a certain period, but which has been cultivated before and will be cultivated in the future.

Fire break – Strip of land cleared of vegetation to prevent the spread of wildfi res.

Fodder – Fibrous livestock feeds comprised mainly of plant leaves, stems, husks or vines.

Food suffi ciency – Having the capacity to produce essential types and amounts of food that is required by an individual, family, community, etc.

Friable – Easy to crumble (concerning soil structure).

Green manure – Fresh or dry plant biomass that is applied to the soil as a fertilizer.

Hardening – The process of gradually acclimatizing seedlings in a nursery to the conditions they will be subject to after planting out.

Herbaceous plant – A non-woody plant.

Herbicide – A substance used to control weeds.

Hill fallow agroforests – Agroforest plots in which a mixture of native forest species and shade-tolerate perennial crops have been established in former hill fi eld sites, both prior to and during fallow, for the purpose of maintaining the long-term productivity of fallowed plots.

Hill fi eld – Upland sites of cultivation in which annual crops (e.g. traditional plantings of upland rice, corn, legumes, vegetables) are grown seasonally on either a permanent or semi-permanent basis or in swidden farming systems, possibly in combination with perennial crops.

56 571�Hill tribes – General term used to refer to various ethnic groups that

populate the highlands of northern Thailand and other areas of the Upper Mekhong eco-region.

Home agroforest gardens – Gardens located in small spaces around village homes that are comprised primarily of an intensive mix of native, food-producing forest species and common perennial/annual fruit, vegetable and herb varieties.

Humus – The fraction of organic matter in the soil resulting from decomposition and mineralization of organic matter.

Indigenous – Local or native.

Indigenous knowledge – Concepts that have been common to an area for a very long time.

Intercropping – Raising two crops in a fi eld at the same time, mixed together or in alternate rows.

Leaching – The transport (by water) of nutrients or other soil compounds to deeper layers in the soil.

Legume – Any plant species belonging to the leguminosae family, the vast majority of which carry out nitrogen fi xation.

Loamy – Soils that contain a good mixture of clay, organic matter, sand and silt that are reasonably fertile and not hard, sticky, dry or sandy.

Minimal tillage – Modifi cation of the topsoil structure for various agricultural purposes (e.g. weed control, seedbed preparation), but at the least amount necessary, for the purpose of minimizing any negative impact on overall soil condition (i.e. soil structure, organic matter levels) as well as to lessen the risk of soil erosion.

Monocropping – The repetitive growing of the same crop species on the same piece of land.

Multi-story agroforest plots – Agroforest plots that consist of numerous variable- sized plant species which provide products at various levels of height, possibly ranging from the subsoil on up to the canopy.

Niche – A specifi c “portion” or “area” of the environment occupied by a certain species.

Nitrogen (N) – An essential plant nutrient that is required in great amounts by most plants.

Nitrogen fi xation – The biological conversion of elemental atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into organic compounds.

Nitrogen-fi xing trees – Tree or shrub species that carry out nitrogen fi xation.

Non-timber forest products – Forest products that are not harvested for timber purposes but rather as food, medicines, dyes, woven goods, etc.

Pioneer plant species – Types of plant species that have been naturally reestablished where previous vegetation has been disturbed by natural or human processes in the recent past.

Plant nutrients – Chemical elements that plants need for their growth.

Raw materials – Unprocessed materials produced on farms, forests and/or agroforests which are used to produce other usable/sellable products.

Relay-cropping – Growing two or more crops simultaneously during part of the life cycle of each crop. The second crop is planted after the fi rst crop has reached its reproductive phase but before it is ready to harvest.

Secondary forests – Forests that have been disturbed by human practices such as logging or agriculture or by natural occurrences in the recent past but have been reestablished by natural growth.

58 591�Soil organic matter – The organic fraction of the soil that includes plant

and animal residues in various stages of decomposition, cells and tissues of living soil organisms and substances synthesized by soil organisms.

Subtropical zone, subtropics – Climatic zone characterized by one or more months with monthly mean temperatures below 18°C but all months above 5°C.

Staple – The main subsistence crop.

Successive plant species – Types of plant species that naturally succeed pioneer species on sites where vegetation had been previously disturbed.

Sustainable agriculture – Management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of the environment and conserving natural resources.

Swidden agriculture – Farming based on rotating fi elds rather than crops whereby natural vegetation is cleared and generally burned followed by cultivation from one to several years. Afterwards, the land is left fallow for varying lengths of time until the farming cycle is repeated.

Tenure – The right to occupy a location for residence and/or livelihood.

Topsoil – The uppermost part of the soil (0-30 cm), which, under agricultural land use, is generally disturbed by tillage.

Understory – The level of a plant community that is underneath the canopy.

Undergrowth – Vegetation that grows beneath a forest or crop canopy.

Upland rice – Rice grown under rainfed conditions.

Value-added products – Marketable products that are processed from local raw materials and sold for a signifi cantly higher price than the raw

materials from which the products were made.

Wildling – Seedling that has germinated under natural conditions (e.g., within the forest) which can be transplanted into a managed plot.

60 611�Notes

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