Download - Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition
![Page 1: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition
Ami Krasner
NCSU-CVM
Class of 2010
![Page 2: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Goals for today
• Amphibian Basics
• Handling
• Housing
• Environmental Control
• Nutrition
![Page 3: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Amphibian Basics
• Ectothermic vertebrates
• 3 Chambered heart
• Glandular Skin
• Cryptic
• Scaleless
![Page 4: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Metamorphosis
• Aquatic to land• TH dependent• Primary Changes: -Legs -Lungs -Eyes -IT -Tail (anurans) -Skin
http://www.dnr.state.md.us/wildlife/art/tadpole-to-frog.gif
![Page 5: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Metamorphosis Exceptions
• Environmental stress induction
• Terrestrial egg metamorphosis
http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,356774,00.html
![Page 6: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Timeline for Metamorphosis
• Weeks to years
• Species and environment dependent
![Page 7: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Taxonomy-Three Orders
• Caudata
• Anura
• Gymnophiona
![Page 8: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Caudata• 10 families,
>500 species• N./S. America, Europe, Asia• Common Pets:
-Ambystoma
tigrinum (Tiger
Salmander)
-Ambystoma
maculatum
(Spotted Salamander)
-Cynops pyrrhogaster
(Fire Bellied Newt)
http://michaelcravens.com
![Page 9: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Salamander vs. Newt
firstfriday.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/http://www.washingtonnh.org/
http://imagecache2.allposters.com/images/pic/NIM/AF397~Drop-of-Water-Posters.jpg
![Page 10: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Salamander vs. Lizard
• Water requirements
• Skin
• Eggs & young
AMPHIBIAN VS. REPTILE
![Page 11: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Anura• 33 families,
>5000 species• Worldwide*• Common Pets/Research:
-Xenopus spp. (African clawed frog)
-Rana spp. (Leopard frog)
-Dendrobates spp. (Poison arrow
frog)
-Hylidae family. (Tree frogs)
http://www.johnelkington.com/weblog/african_clawed_frog_500w.jpg
![Page 12: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Frog vs. Toad
-Water
-Skin
-Leg length and power
-Predators
http://64.226.23.133/woodycarr/images/toad.jpghttp://www.isd12.org/bhe/
![Page 13: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Gymnophiona
• 6 families,
172 species
• Pantropic
• Not kept
as pets
http://farm1.static.flickr.com/149/415329423_cd21aeb1cb_o.jpg
![Page 14: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Order Differences• Limbs
• Tails
• Vision
• Fertilization
![Page 15: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Owning an amphibian
• Research and Plan!!!!!
LIBRARY!!!
• KNOW Natural History
![Page 16: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Owning an amphibian
• Life Span: up to 55 years!
• Aggressive vs. Friendly
http://www.maroochy.qld.gov.au
![Page 17: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Size-Largest
-Chinese Giant Salamander-up to 180 cm
-Goliath Frog-up to 32 cm
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/gallery/2008
www.sandiegozoo.org
![Page 18: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Size-Smallest
Smallest-
Thorius sp. - 15 mm.
Eleutherodactylus sp.- 10 mm
http://www.science.psu.edu/alert/FROG.htmhttp://www.state.tn.us/twra/tamp/salamanders.htm
![Page 19: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Pet Trade Restrictions
• Within the U.S.:
ex. African Clawed Frog
• CITES listings -Appendix I= 16 spp.
~Giant
Salamanders
-Appendix II- 98 spp.
~Dendrobates
www.cites.org
![Page 20: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Handling Concerns-Amphibian Skin
• Permeable
-gloves
-nicotine
-cleaning supplies
• Delicate
• Secretion
![Page 21: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Nicotine Toxicity
• Tadpole and hypercapnic challenge
-Brain stem: ventilation
-Surfacing frequency
• Systemic vasodilation
• Melanocyte Activation
http://www.puregreen.com.au
![Page 22: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Handling-Restraint
• Caudata Goals:
-Support and comfort
-Netting
-MS-222
-Avoid tail and gills
http://aqualandpetsplus.com/Amphibian,%20Salamander.htm
![Page 23: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Handling-Restraint
• Anura Goals:
-Support and comfort
-Netting
-MS-222
-Avoid kicking out
www.uwm.edu/Dept/EHSRM/ACP/MANUAL/Frog2.jpg
![Page 24: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Handler Concerns
• Scratches and bites
• Infectious disease
• Toxic secretions:
-Irritant
-Hallucinogens
-Consultants
-Vasoconstrictors
-Neurotoxin
![Page 25: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Toxin Uses• For people: -Weapon (poison dart frogs) -Pharmacology (pain killers, psychoactive)
• For the animal: -Defense (unpalatable, paralysis)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anura#Poison
![Page 26: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Toxins• Aposematism and mimicry• Curious Dogs -Symptoms: foaming mouths, shaking,
vomiting, diarrhea• Derived from: -Diet -Alkaloid manufacture
http://www.gilroydispatch.com
![Page 27: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Gender Determination• Most not sexually dimorphic
-Size
-Color
• Observe courtship
• Candling abdomen for eggs
http://www.xlaevis.com/sexing.html
![Page 28: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Gender Determination
Females
• More rotund body shape
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/
![Page 29: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Gender Determination Males • Caudata Crests, bright colors, tail swellings in
some during breeding season
• Anura Vocal sacs, nuptial pads during breeding season
http://www.xlaevis.com/sexing.html
![Page 30: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Accommodations
![Page 31: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Housing
• Vivarium basics• Enclosure Design • Substrate• Ground cover• Plants• Retreats• Water• Location
http://www.darkroastedblend.com
![Page 32: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Materials for Housing
• Glues and Sealants approved for aquaria, Avoid others including:
-Coal-tar based sealants: PAH and amphibian larvae
-Dental Sealants: Bisphenyl A• Plastic or Glass Material, Avoid Metals
-Hg, Cu, Al, Zn, Fe
www.everythingforpets.com/
![Page 33: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Housing Considerations
• Hinged lid
• Small holes
• Striking behavior
![Page 34: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Enclosure Design Options
• Aquatic Pond
• Aquatic Stream
• Stream-Side
• Terrestrial
• Terrestrial Fossorial
• Arboreal
![Page 35: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
http://www.blackjungle.com/terrarium2.jpg http://www.amphibiancare.com
![Page 36: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
http://www.brianstropicals.com/building.html http://www.amphibiainfo.com
![Page 37: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Substrate Options
• Medium-grade gravel -Size and texture
• Soil and Sand -Parasites -Fertilizers
• Moist paper
![Page 38: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Substrate-Functions
• Camouflage
• Bio filter
http://www.uvm.edu
![Page 39: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Ground Cover Options
• Moss or leaf litter
• Sphagnum vs.
Sheet Moss
• Rocks
![Page 40: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Ground Cover-Functions
• Enrichment
• Security
• Breakdown Waste Products
www.driedflowersrus.com
![Page 41: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Plants-Benefits
• Cover/Rest spots• Elevated perches• Sites for oviposition• Filter overhead light• Purify air• Oxygenate water• Utilize organic wastes• Increase humidity • Green algae and larval diet
![Page 42: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Plant Considerations
• Low light levels
• Pots vs. buried in substrate
• Rinse, repot plants
• No sharp tips
http://www.dkimages.com
![Page 43: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Retreats
• Secretive, time spent hiding
• Dark, low sealing, deep
• Cork bark or
darkly colored
plastic containers
![Page 44: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Water
• Fresh or Brackish
• Same as for fish
![Page 45: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Location
• Minimal surrounding activity
• Vibration
• Controlled environment
• Avoid Direct Sunlight
• Escapes
![Page 46: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Environmental Control
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Lighting
![Page 47: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Temperature• Achieved by: -Lighting: air -Heater: water
• Thermal gradient -Max-min thermometer -Basking Spot
• Common Ranges: -Green tree frog: 75°F-88°F (24-31°C) day, 68°F (20°C) at
night-Tiger salamander: 55°F- 78°F (13-26°C)
![Page 48: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Humidity• >70% Relative humidity• Gradient with retreats • Skin problems• Gauge
Methods:• Reduced ventilation • Water (spraying, moving, contained)• Live plants• Humidifier
![Page 49: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Lighting
*Spectrum, Intensity, Duration*
• Full-spectrum lights
• Intensity: <46 cm from cage floor
• Duration Photoperiod: equatorial (12:12) vs. temperate (16:8)
![Page 50: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Lighting Considerations
• Source of heat• Subdued lighting & gradual changes• Plants
![Page 51: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Nutrition
• Accurate Records!!!
• Dead vs. live feeding
• Considerations:
-Swallow prey whole
-Cannibalistic species
-Dermatophagy
-Prey comes predator
![Page 52: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Nutrition
• Pre- vs Post-metamorphosis • Variety -Schedule ~small, active foragers vs. ambush
predators ~larvae vs. adults ~time of day -Content
![Page 53: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Larval Amphibian Diet
Larval salamanders and neonatal caecilians vs.
anurans
![Page 54: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Larval Amphibian Diet-Herbivorous Anurans
• Fish flakes, live aquatic vegetation and algae, heat treated greens*
![Page 55: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Larval Amphibian Diet-Omnivorous Anurans
• Fish Flakes/pellets, live aquatic vegetation and green algae
![Page 56: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Larval Amphibian Diet-Carnivores
• Zooplankton cultured protozoa small crustaceans small earthworms/chopped adults mosquito larvae small live fresh water fish/chopped larger fish fish pellets/flakes
www.wildlifetrust.org.uk http://www.glaucus.org.uk/
![Page 57: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Adult Aquatic Amphibian Diet
• Whole or Chopped Invertebrates:
• Water fleas, fly larvae, feeder fish (guppy), smaller fresh water fish (whole smelt), fish pellet feeds, and…
http://www.geocities.jphttp://dcsbible.files.wordpress.com http://www.guppy-fish.com/
![Page 58: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Terrestrial Amphibian Diets
• Invertebrates
![Page 59: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation
• Ca -Absorb with H20 -Misting: no distilled water -“Gut-loading” - Dusting - Ca:P• Frozen fish + thiamine• Rodents + Vit D3
http://www.repcal.com
![Page 60: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Nutritional Disorders
• Tadpoles: spinach
• Iodine deficiency
• Metabolic bone disease in frogs
http://www.ultimatecoupons.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/03/popeye.jpg
![Page 61: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
Breeding
• DIFFICULT!
• Manipulate environment:
-Hibernation: gradual temperature changes
stop feed 1 week prior
-Precipitation
http://www.i-esfera.com/fotos/rain.jpg
![Page 62: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Diseases to Look Out For
• Red leg- often stress/IC; control with proper sanitation and environmental quality
http://www.xenopus.com/disease.htm
![Page 63: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Key Points
• Pre-purchase research
• Life history considerations!!!
• Appropriate handling
• Appropriate environment with options
• Balanced diet with accurate records
![Page 64: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Now for some fun….
![Page 65: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Our New and Fabulous Frog Vivarium!!!
![Page 66: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
• Species:
4 Poison Dart Frogs,
Dendrobates azureus
• Purchased: Breeder
in Dunn
• Sex: Juveniles,
Undetermined
• Handling: N/A
![Page 67: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
The House
• Enclosure Design: Stream-side• Substrate: Coconut husk Dried moss Live moss• Retreats: logs• Plants: Rooted in substrate, glued• Water-DI
![Page 68: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Environment
• Temperature: 72-75° F (22-24° C)
• Humidity: 90% (hygrometer)
-fans
-misters (every 6 hrs/30 s
-spray pre-eating)
• Lighting: UV fluorescent bulbs
-10 hrs daylight currently
![Page 69: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Diet
• Cultured fruit flies -15/day -A.M. -Territories • Supplements: rotating EOD -Ca (dusting) -General supplement• Springtails (for mold)
dendroworld.co.uk
![Page 70: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Special thank you to Kristine Alpi, Dr. Suzanne Kennedy-Stoskopf , and Jenessa
Gjeltema for their help and input
![Page 71: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
ReferencesBank, M.S., J. Crocker, B. Connery, and A. Amirbahman. (2007). Mercury bioaccumulation in green frog (Rana
clamitans) and bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) tadpoles from Acadia National Park, Maine, USA. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 26:117-125.
Brown, D.D. and L. Caia. (2007). Amphibian Metamorphosis: A Review. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna. Geneva, Switzerland. 29/7/08.
<www.cites.org> Flank, L (1998) Herp Help. New York: Howell Book House. HEDIN, C.A. and A. LARSSON. (1986). In vitro activation of amphibian dermal melanocytes by nicotine. European
Journal of Oral Sciences. 94.1: 57-65.Horne, M. T. and W. A. Dunson. (1995). Effects of low pH, metals, and water hardness on larval amphibians. Archives
of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 29:500-505.Kupfer, A., Kramer, A. and W. Himstedt (2004). “Sex-related growth patterns in a caecilian amphibian (genus
Ichthyophis): evidence from laboratory data” Journal of Zoology. 262.2: 173. Linzey, D., Burroughs, J., Hudson, L.; Marini, M; Robertson, J.; Bacon, J.; Nagarkatti, M.; and P. Nagarkatti.
(2003). “Role of environmental pollutants on immune functions, parasitic infections and limb malformations in marine toads and whistling frogs from Bermuda” International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 13.2: 125-148.
Marquis, O.; Millery, A.; Guittonneau, S.; and C Miaud (2006) “Toxicity of PAHs and jelly protection of eggs in the Common Frog, Rana temporaria” Amphibia-Reptilia. 27: 472-5
Mattison C (1992). Care of Reptiles and Amphibians in Captivity. Revised Third Ed. New York, NY: Sterling Publishing.
Stoskopf, M.K. (2008) “Amphibian Medicine” in Introduction to Physical Examination Skills Part B: Lab Animal and Zoological Species.
Taylor, B.E., Croll, A.E., Drucker, M.L. and A.L. Wilson. (2008). Developmental exposure to ethanol or nicotine inhibits the hypercapnic ventilatory response in tadpoles. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology. 160.1: 83-90.
Wright, K.M, and B.R. Whitaker (2001). Amphibian Medicine and Husbandry. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.
![Page 72: Amphibian Husbandry and Nutrition](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062222/56815969550346895dc6a92d/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
Other Photo Websites
• www.zoosamara.ru• www.crazy-frog.us• http://artfiles.art.com/
• www.wikipedia.org