Three stages of memory
EncodingPut in memory
StorageMaintain in memory
RetrievalRecover from memory
Memory
Short-Term Long-Term
Encoding Storage Retrieval RetrievalEncoding Storage
Addingmeaningfullconnections
Retrieval failuresInterference;Search and
activation models
Limited capacity
7chunks +/- 2displacementAnd decay
Consolidation
Role of hippocampus
acoustic
visual
Fades quickly
Memory
Short-Term
Encoding
acoustic
Fades quickly
Storage Retrieval
Limited capacity
7chunks +/- 2displacementAnd decay
visual
SRUOY YLERECNIS
SINCERELY YOURS
Memory
Long-Term(Explicit)
Encoding
Retrieval failuresInterference;Search and
activation modelsRole of
hippocampus
Storage Retrieval
Addingmeaningfullconnections
Consolidation
The Great Divide
Anterior Commisure
The anterior commissurea more primitive connection between hemispheres links unconcious areas only
The Sexual Brain
The INAH3Hypothalamic Nucleus2.5 x male/female
The Corpus Callosum A thick band of Axons- approx 80 millionwhich connect the brain cells inone hemisphere to those in theother. The two sides keep up aconstant communication viathis neural bridge
Different Cognitive StylesWomen• Score better then men on some language tests• Show a faster rate of language development• Have a lower risk of developmental dysphasia• Score better then men on some tests of social
judgement, empathy and co-operation• Are better at matching items• Are better at test that involve generating ideas
Early cognitive impairment [E C I]
This condition involves a loss of brain function that steadily progresses over the years, ending in Alzheimer’s disease or other forms of dementia. Affects around 500,000 Britons ???
Early cognitive impairment [E C I]
tests available, effective measures to prevent or postpone further impairment before the damage is done
Early cognitive impairment [E C I]
cognitive function testscomputerized cognitive function tests
Automation of Cognitive TestsAutomation of Cognitive Tests
• Is the only way to definitively assess attention and recognition memory
• Increases sensitivity• Rules out inter-rater reliability problems• Permits automatic collection of responses• Maximises integrity of data• Saves time and effort in reporting
Early cognitive impairment [E C I]
There are no prescription drugs as yet to treat ECI
Enhancement to memory with a ginkgo/ginseng combination
• Combination shown to selectively and significantly enhance ability to store and retrieve information in working and secondary memory. No effects on attention or speed of retrieval from memory
• Effects seen in 4 acute and chronic dosing trials conducted in UK, Holland and Sweden in healthy young and middle aged volunteers
Wesnes K, Faleni RA, Hefting NR, et al (1997). The cognitive, subjective and physical effects of a Ginkgo biloba/Panax ginseng combination in healthy volunteers with neurasthenic complaints. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 33, 677-683.
Wesnes KA, Ward T, McGinty A, Petrini O. (2000) The memory enhancing effects of a Ginkgo biloba/Panax ginseng combination in healthy middle aged volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 152: 353-361
Kennedy DO, Scholey AB and Wesnes KA (2001). Differential, dose dependent changes in cognitive performance following acute administration of a Ginkgo biloba / Panax ginseng combination to healthy young volunteers. Nutritional Neuroscience, Vol 4 : 339-412.
Kennedy DO, Scholey AB, Wesnes K (2002). Modulation of cognition and mood following administration of single doses of Ginkgo biloba, Ginseng and a Ginkgo/Ginseng combination to healthy young adults. Physiology & Behaviour 75: 1-13.
Early cognitive impairment [E C I]
EITHER avoid many of the factors that can potentially damage memory smoking, drinking, eating the wrong foodOR ENCOURAGE factors that are are good for memorydietary and nutritionaluse it or loose it
Early cognitive impairment [E C I]ways of alleviating or postponing age-related memory loss
all about keeping as much of your hippo-campus as possible
Oxford Project To Investigate Memory and Ageing (OPTIMA), where the cognitive function of hundreds of healthy and impaired volunteers has been intensively studied since the late Eighties
Early cognitive impairment [E C I]
By exercising and challenging your memory, you can postpone age-related memory loss.
Early cognitive impairment [E C I]
It’s this part of the brain that controls memory. While normal ageing involves shrinking of the hippocampus by 1% a year from our forties onwards, it can become as much as 15% for Alzheimer’s sufferers.
maintain a robust hippo-campus.
tango dancing as an activity which reduces the risk of developing Alzheimer’s by an astonishing 75% – the same being true of playing either chess or the piano. These, it seems, demand an unusual combination of multi-tasking-- mixing mental and physical activities, thereby helping to maintain a robust hippo-campus
Early cognitive impairment [E C I]
Testosterone body of evidence to suggest that men with low testosterone levels are more at risk of the disease
Early cognitive impairment [E C I]
homocysteine levels
high homocysteine levels normally only occur in people with low vitamin B levels
one in 10 people inherit a gene, MTHFR, that reduces the body’s ability to process homocysteine whatever the level of B vitamins
The New “Bad Boy”- Homocysteine
a decade ago, little interest in homocysteine. Now rivals elevated blood cholesterol as a major contributor to heart disease.
Stroke
cognitive function, alzheimer’s,dementia .
fractures
Homocysteine
Before 1993, most cases of high circulating homocysteine were thought to be of genetic origin
Homocysteine
Most mildly elevated homocysteine in elderly populations is linked to low vitamin B status.
The body requires folate , vitamin B 6, and vitamin B12 to convert homocysteine to other amino acids that aren’t toxic to the lining of blood vessels.
Blood folate levels appeared to have the most influence on homocysteine levels.
Homocysteine high levels relate to:
low vitamin B 6 a riboflavin (B2) intake, high alcohol intake high caffeine intake smoking hypertension
Homocysteine
Men and women who had blood homocysteine levels over 12 mmol/l were more than twice as likely to have experienced a heart attack or stroke.third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, NHANES III
Homocysteine
BUT- homocysteine not related to heart attack or stroke in pre-menopausal women , whereas the relationship was strong in men of the same age.
Conversely, the relationship faded among the older men and surfaced among postmenopausal women
Homocysteine
Estrogen helps keep homocysteine levels down. Pre menopausal women, those who use oral contraceptives, and pregnant women all have lower blood homocysteine than men and post menopausal women — except those who take estrogen replacement !!
Homocysteine
8,400 people ranging in age from 17 to over 70 years (NHANES III.)
higher estrogen status is associated with a decreased mean serum homocysteine concentration
Estrogen may explain the previously reported differences in homocysteine concentrations between males and females.
Homocysteine
association between memory loss and elevated homocysteine levelshigh folate levels appeared to protect from memory loss even if homocysteine levels are high
Homocysteine & BoneThe quarter of men whose homocysteine concentrations were highest were nearly four times as likely to later break a hip as were the quarter of men with lowest blood homocysteine.
Women with the most homocysteine were about twice as likely to break a hip as were women with the least ( Framingham Study.)
Men and women with the highest homocysteine concentrations were roughly twice as likely to have broken a hip or other bone frequently fractured in elderly people as were those with lower homocysteine
People with the highest and lowest homocysteine readings don’t have appreciably different bone densities, even though the high homocysteine group have more fractures. WHY?
effect on collagen - a possible explanation. In vitro studies indicate that homocysteine weakens the cross-linking between collagen fibers in bone, ligaments and tendons,
a robust hippocampus
maintain a robust hippo-campus.
tango dancing as an activity which reduces the risk of developing Alzheimer’s by an astonishing 75% – the same being true of playing either chess or the piano. These, it seems, demand an unusual combination of multi-tasking-- mixing mental and physical activities, thereby helping to maintain a robust hippo-campus