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II
C
2
A C 2A 2
I 3
I E C 5
C ; I I C 6
A C 7
C 7
E F 7
H C F 10
11
12
12
13
E 14
15
16
C F 19
I D C : I C
I C 22
C 23
E 24
G A G 22
C 27
D 28
A 30
E A 32
I G E G 34
35
A 36
I E 37
E A 39
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III
41
42
44
A 47
C A 48
B 50
E 54
C 54
59
C 60
A E 61
C 62
C 63
D 63
C 65
D 66
C D 67
69
I 70
C C 72
F 72F H 73
74
H 75
75
A E 75
77
C 85
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I
86
C E 87
G E 87
E E 88
E C 89
E C 91
E 92
H E 93
C E C 94
98
C E C 100
C 101
104
A A A B 105
B A B B 105
C A B 107
A B 108
A 110
H 112
H 112
A B 114
E E A B 115
A B 116
E E A 116
C H 117
D A I 11
C H 120
E E B 121
C H B 121
E C A 123
B 124
A B /H 125
A B C 127
C I E 128
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D H E C I E 129
B 131
B C 131
H B H H E 132
H B A B A 135
A B 136
C 137
A B 137
A B B A 140
A B C 144
C , 147
F A 150
, 153
E 154
D 155
F 155
I E 156
F 159
E 160
E 161
H 162
B E 164
H F 167
C 169
173
E 173
G F E 177
E E 18
C C 185
E 186
E 187
E C 187
E 188
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I
189
I B 190
B H C 191
C B 194
G B 195
B 196
B 197
198
D 198
D B : F C 202
203
E 205
E 207
E D G 209
G 210
B A 218
H 218
, 225
I : I , C B 226
E 227
I F 228
I D F 229
D D F 229
D F 230
H B 232
I F 233
B 234
I F 235
C 238
H C 239
C C 242
D 243
245
D 246
F A 247
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II
C 248
249
B E 250
F D 251
252 G G B 254
B 254
C 255
C G 256
A 256
G 257
I G E 257
I G E 258
D 259
F 261
G 261
D I B 262
E 264
D E 264
C G 265
267
I 268 269
D 270
271
D ( ) 272
H 273
A 273
274
A 275
E 276
C C 276
C C 277
278
,
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ADVANCED PLACEMENT CHEMISTRY
S d b ab :
d c a ac , ca a d a d c b a b
b a d c a
ca c a a a a c a a d c b a c a c
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d
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2
F 2. T 6. T 6 . T
1 . T .
A Z.
P 1: ATOMIC CHARACTER AND STRUCTURE
B B ' d a , c a ac ab
ca a . T c ad b d c d, d
b a d c , a d a , . T c d c
a a da a d c .
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add d a d d a .
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a c ca
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ATOMIC NUMBER
Eac a a a c b ,
c a
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a a b
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a . N a
a a c b , a d c a
a c b c a
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F 1. A . T
.
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T a c b ca d a d a
a c a ac ca
a :
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b a a ; ,
a a d a c b .
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b ad a b a
a c b d c a a
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b a a , b b
c a a .
MASS NUMBER & ISOTOPES
P a d a ba c a c a a a , a d a ca d c . T ,
c b a c a a a . T a b a a b a d c .
a c a a .
A a ca a d
b c .
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b c .
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c c c c d . F a
ca b 12 c c d b
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6 0 . T 13, 6 + 7 0. T 14, 6 + 8 0.
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T .
A a a a , c d a c a ad ad a ca . F a , a a 70%
10% a d ab a 20%. Y ca a a c a a a ac
ad a a a . I a a a , a a a a d
a 70% a a a cc , d c a a a a c a
a a a c a ( c a a a a ad d b a a a ). T a
a c a ca d a c a .
P 1.1
F ab ca a a c 28
c b a a a cc
a a a c a c , c 28.09.
W ca ca c a a a a c a b d
d a a a .
T d a a a a a c a ca c a d b ca c a
:
100 =
D a a a c a c a ba d da a ab .
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?
I A c a P c ab da c
c 28 28 92.23
c 29 29 4.67
c 30 30 3.10
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5
IONS AND ELECTRICAL CHARGE
A . H , a ca a ac a d , c a c ca c a d c ca c . T d d c a
c ca c a c c a . R ca a c a a a c ba d
a c a ac , a d a b c a d a d a c c .
M . F a , a a d ad c a d d , c a a c a 1+. T c a d d c b
c a ( ) a d a c a ( c ): a a d c a 11 a d 11 c ; a
c a 11 a d 10 c a c a (+11) + ( 10) = +1. M a a a d a a
W b ac c a b : d d a Na+.
N . F a , a a ad a c a c a d , c a a c a 3 . T c a d
b c a ( ) a d a c a ( c ): a a c a 7 a d 7
a c a 7 a d 10 c a c a (+7) + ( 10) = 3. N a a
c a a d d . T ca d d . W b ac
b : d a N3 .
P 1.2
A ab a , a d .
W a b , a d c a a a c 31?
H a a d a a ad 204? 82; 0 = 122
W a a b a ca b a c a 8 a d 6 c ?
Id c a a d a b c c . W
c ca b c .
ca c c ad c
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6
P 2: MOLECULES AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS; IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS
A d , a c a
d c c c c a b d d a a a
, d c d c b
c c d , a c c d a . M c
c d a (H2O), a (C6H14 ) a d a a (NH 3). F
a c c d a a :
M c a a c d a d b
( a ) a c a b d d a . U c
c d c ca b b a c b d a d
a a d b d c a c a
b d a ca b b a c ca c a cc .
I c c d a ad a a a ac d b c a c a ac d c a d
c . T , b ca c c d a a c , d a c ;
d a a .
N c F 5 a b a b d d c
c a c ca c d . H ,
b ca a NaC a NaC c a
c ca a a a Na C d a
a (F 6).
I a a a c a c a ca
c a b d d . T b d b a
a c a c a , a ac a d
a a a a c b d. C d a
a a c a c c d a a
d a c b d a d a c a
b d a c . A a , b a a c a b d
a b a c .
F 5. A . T .
F 6. A N C . T " ."
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P 3: QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF COMPOUNDS
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
P d ca c c b a a c d. I a da a c d : d d a a b a a a c d.
P 1.3
W a c c b a d d ca b a ?
A 2.424 a a d ca b b d c d c 3.756 a a d 7.342 ca b d d .
U a d c c ca b a d d d ca b .
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS
E d a b a d d a a c a c d. H ,
c a ac a b ac a a b a a c
, b c a , ac a b a d d a a c d a
a. T ca a ca b a c a a ac a b a a c d b
a.
I c a a a c d, ca a d ca a, b d a
d a c a a ca a.
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D
D
W
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Y d d ca a a c d b d : a c
c a d c b a a
P 1.4
A c a c d d b 71.40% b a ca b , 9.59% b a d a d 19.02% b a .
D ca a c d.
C ;
52.14 / 12.011 = 4.34 C 13.13 / 1.0079 = 13.02 H 34.73 / 15.9994 = 2.17 4 / 2.17 = 2 C
I a a 14.50 a a c d c a a d a d c d ; a
a 3.76 a a c c d. W a ca a c d?
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I d c a ac a a a c a c d d , ca a a d c d
c a c d. T a d a c d ca a. F a
a a c d c a ca b , d a d ( . ., a a ) b d. T d c ac
ca b d d a d a . W 4 d ca a a :
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P 1.5
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a ?
M c a a a b ca a ; a , a c a a a d ca a
a a , d d c a a, d d a d
b a ca a, a d ca a b .
D
D
M
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P 1.6
T a d a c d 38.7 ca b , 9.70 d a d 51.6 100.0 a
a . I a a a b d b 62.1 / . W a c a a a ?
HYDRATED COMPOUNDS AND THEIR FORMULAS
A
. F a , c d C C2, a c d, d d a d c d C C2 6H2O, c c a a c a a c . T a c d a d d a d a d a d c
. I a d d, c ba (II) c d ca d a d c ba (II) c d , dca d c ba (II) c d a d a . T a a d a add d d a a a
c d. W ca d b a c a a c a d d a d b ad d a , c d a b a .Y
.
P 1.7
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c c a d a , a d a b c a d a
Na c d.
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MASS RATIOS
M d ca a a a c ca c d. T ca b a d d b da ac a d ab a b . A a a ,
a a A B ac A a a d B d a !
P 1.8
W a a a c c d c (VI) d ?
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P 4: STOICHIOMETRY REVIEW: LIMITING REACTANTS & THEORETICAL YIELDS
T a ca b ad b
c a c c :
W c d c , b
c d :
F a a b a d ? I c ca a ba a c d? A a b a b
d ( ca c a a,
c a c
ac a )?
C c a
a c d d
a ca c .
I a b a b d
a a d ( c d, c )?
A c c c
a , d d d ca a 6.022
10 23 a a a d c c
a a a 6.022 1023
a a ? I a a , d d
c c c d b a
a ?
D d b c c ca c a a a d a c c a d a c ?
LIMITING REACTANTS
A a ac a a c ca a a c c c a
c ca . Y a a ca c a a ac a ca c a c c d a
d a a ac a c a d c ac a b
A a , a d a ac a d a a a
c . D ac a d c b a
ac a c a b .
R
G a S b a c A
M S b a c A
U A
M S b a c B
G a S b a c B
U B
T A ,
[O a a c
6.022 10 23 a c .
T a c c d b a ,
c .]
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P 1.9
A 35.0 a ac d a a d c a a 5.00 a a d . A 100%
ac , a a a a ca b d c d?
THEORETICAL YIELD AND PERCENT YIELD
A c c a d c a c d ca c a a c d a c ca ac 100% c . H , ac d d ca d d c a a a
T a d c a ac a c c d d a c ca ac ca d . L ac ca c a , c d a a b a ac a a a d a a a :
F → 100 =
F →
P 1.10
A d c c d a a 0.2850 a ad(II) d d ac d a 0.2500 a a ad(II)
a a c a a d d acc d d b d ac ac :
Pb(NO 3)2 + 2 KI → PbI 2 + 2 KNO3
W a d c d?
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A 200.0 a CH4 a b d 35.6% d, a d H2O d c c c d. W a a H2O a c c d?
T ac b a a d a a ca d a b ac c a d a
ac d b a a a .
W ac b b a d a .
I ac cc ab 29.5%, a a b d a 500.0 HB ?
PERCENT ERROR
A d a a c a ab a a acc d a a a
c c a a !
: 100 =
: , , .
P 1.11
W a a d c c c 5.55 ca b d d a b 2.50 a a ?
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15
T c b c a , C8H18 , d c ca d c d ca b c b .
W ba a c d c ca a c b c a .
H a a H 2O a d c d 265.5 C 8H18 b d c 685.0 O2?
H a a a d ac 1.00 c a b ?
H a c ca b d d a d c d a 4.00 a c a b c ?
P 5: REVIEW OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
E c a b c ca b a a . A d, , a c
a a a a ca c . W d a c b b b a ? T a
a a a a d a d c a :
• I d ac a , a , a a c . W d b d, , a
a a a a " a " c c d a . T ,
a c b b d c ca b a a .
• F a a ac . A a b a a ' a a . T ,
a a d a b c ca b a a . T b a (G
a ac ; G 18 a a a a .
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A a a , a d .
a : 1, 2 & 3. L a c
a . O a 6 c
T c a ac
c d c ab a a
b a a c c , a d
• V a c a
. B ca a
c . I ad, a c
.
• Va c c a b c
a a c ca b a a
• A a a c a c c
c ca b a a d ca
b ) c b
b a . F a ,
b a c
d .
OXIDATION NUMBERS
T a c c a
,
da b da a d
a , c d NaC , c c a
a a c a d c a a d a
d c b ca a
? T da a ( da
c a b d a a a ca
. O a c a : 1 a d 2. S
a ac , c
a (22 a d 2 4), a d a a
a a ' a c c , a d ca
b a c c ; c a d
a a a c a "2 4."
a a a ' a . T a
a a a a ' , a
a a 2. E c a a a c c
ca b a , a d a a c
a a c c , c d
a c d ca dH R , c ca b
. Da a a ac b a a b (
b a . T ad a a a
a c a a d
, c a d b a . W a
d c c d , c a
d c d b d a d d c a
d 1+, c c a c
c d. H , ab ca
a c . H d a c a ac
b ) c . T a ac
c a d c a c b d.
16
a c
6 c (32 a d 3 4).
a a
a . O a
c a
a a c
a ca d
d c ab
c ab b .
a
. ., b a
a d a d d
b a ; a ,
c a
. T
c ca c d . F
1 . T b ca d
NH3, c d
c a
c a d a
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1
W a da b a a b d acc d a , c a ba d a
M , a a d d :
T T T 2 ; , 1+; , 1
T T ;
Y d d a da b a a a ad c c , a d d a a ac a c a a
c b d c d, a b ca . W a c c a c a a b
ca c , b a c c a ab c a a a d c
c a ca ca c a ca d d a ab c a a a d b d . H , a
da b a d a c a , a a a a d c a d a c ca ac .
E a d c da b a c a :
M ,
. T
. T , 1+ 4+,
.
N N N
( )
A a a , d a da b b a d a da a ! A d,
ab b a ab !
P 1.12
F ac c b , d da b a :
1) CaB 2 2) H 2O 3) NaNO 3
4) Pb(NO 3)2 5) NH 4OH 6) SO 42
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18
7) C 2O72 8) NaNO 2 9) S B 4
10) P 2O5 11) NC 3 12) PO 43
F ac b , d da b ac .
Cd( ) + N O2( ) + H2O( ) → Cd(OH) 2( ) + N (OH)2( )
W c c a ac b , a d a d c
a d b b d.
S
Na
C
S
T
.
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19
P 6: NAMING COMPOUNDS USING THE STOCK SYSTEM AND WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAS
Y a a d a c a c d a a d b , a c c d b a d
a d ca c a a d a ca a c a ca b a d R a a .
Y b a b a c d ( c a ) ca ALL b a d
a , a d b b c a d ! V a a da a
a a d ca a a c d c d d b a ab da a .
• N .
1. Id c d.
2. Id da a R a a b c d a a d
a . (N ac b a d R a a .) I d b a , , d ca
da a d .3. C a a c d d d , a d a .
• N .
1. Id c c d.
2. Id da a R a a b c d a a d
a . (N ac b a d R a a .)
3. D c a a a c a a d c d a c d a a c d.
• N .
1. Id c c d.
2. Na ca d c .
3. C a a c d d d , a d a .
• N .
1. Id c c d.
2. Na ca a d a d c , a d a .
• W .
1. Id c d a d c a R a a a a c c a .
2. S c b a a d a a c d.
• W .
1. I c d a d , d ca d b ac a . (E c H2O a a
a a d NH3 a a a a. )
2. I c d a d c , d b a d da a ac . S c
a a d a a c .
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• N A
Ac d a a d acc d a c a ac d d d.
P 1.13
Na ac d b .
HC O
HC O2
HC O3
HC O4
W a ac d .
c ac d
ac d
S c a c a d a ac d .
A d d C d ac d a d a d c
A d a
C d ac d a c(R )
A d C d ac d a (R )
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P 1.14
Na c d , a , a a a . I c d c a d a
c a c d .
(III) a
ca b (IV) d
(V) d
d c d
PF3
a ca b a
C SO4
C 2SO4
C C 6 5H2O
H2O2
d ac a
HC
(VI) c d
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P 7: INTRODUCTION TO DESCRIPTIVE CHEMISTRY: SOLUTIONS AND INTRODUCTORY SOLUTION CHEMISTRY
Ma ac a d c a d
a ab b d
, c a ad a b c d
d d a . A d c
d a a a , a a a
d a d a d a a
c :
• A a ad
b a c a d c ca c b . I ad,
b a c .
• T a b a c
a a b . U a ,
a .
• T b a c a d d .
I F 7 ab , ca a c c d ( d b +/ ) d a . T
a ac d a d a a c , a a ac d d
S a b a c c a ad a a a a
b a c d a b a c ( c b a c ), a b a c d a b a c .
THE SOLUTION PROCESS FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS
T a c , a NaC a , c d
R ca a a c a , a c c a a c a c a a
d d a a c a . T a a b c c d a ac d
a c , a ac d a d a c . W
a , a ac c d a a ac b a d ca d c a . F a c c
c cc b ca a ac b a a d a a a a a
A . F a , c dNaC a a d a d c d c c c d
c ca b d .
F 7.T
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P 1.15
I a d c d d c a ?
NH4OH
NaCH3COO
H2SO4
THE SOLUTION PROCESS FOR MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
I a c a c d a b , d a . H , c c d , d d ac a c d d a a . T a , c c a c d a
c a a d d a c a c a a . A a3OH,
a , d a a OH a d CH 3+ a c b a . A a c
c a .
F a , a
b , c a d a
a c (1 a ). W
b a c d a ,
d d a a a a
c d a a a
d c c d d .
S c c
a a ab c a
c d b a a
c d d c c ac d, c
c d
a d c d , a d ac ca a ac a
, c d a a.
(N c a d c a
d c c d
a a ,
d d c b c a
c d a a .)
F 8 . T
I ,
. I
,
.
T
.
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ELECTROLYTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
P a ca c d c c c , b d c d d c a d c
E c ca c d c d c a c c a .C
, .
S ( ) . S , .
W ( )
W , .
T ac d , c a ac d a d ba a d d b , a d a d b
c d d d Pa 25. Y d , a d a a a ac d a d ba a a . A
a a c d d a b b .
C T 100% ;
HC d c c ac d
HB d b c ac d
HI d d c ac d
HNO3 c ac d
HC O4 c c ac d
HC O3 c c ac d
H2SO4 c ac d
S T
HF d c ac d
CH3COOH ac c ac d
HCN d c a c ac d
HNO2 ac d
H2CO3 ca b c ac d
H2SO3 ac d
H3PO4 c ac d
C T 100% ;
NaOH d d d
L OH d d
KOH a d d
Ca(OH) 2 ca c d d
S (OH)2 d d
Ba(OH) 2 ba d d
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GENERAL AQUEOUS SOLUBILITY GUIDELINES
1. T c a c ac d a b . L c a a c ac d , . ., ac c ac d, a b .
2. A c c d G 1 a a b .
3. A c a c d a b .
4. A c a , ac a , c a a d c a a b .
5. T c a d c d a b c a d: d c d a b : M F2, CaF2, S F2, BaF2 &PbF 2; a d c d a b : A X, H2X2, PbX2.
6. T c a a b c ba a , ad a a d c a
7. T c a d d a b c G 1 a a d Ca, S a d Ba G 2.
8. T c ca b a , a a d a a a b c G 1 a a d a
9. T c d a b c G 1 a , G 2 a a d a .
10. P a c d a a b .
11. N a c d a a b , a b c c a .
S
S b c
c d
ba ?
I c da ac d?
I a ac d?
I c da a
c a ba ?
S E
YES YES
NO NO NO
W
N
YES
NO
S
YES
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P 1.16
F c d :
d c d a c c a
d a a ac d , ba a
d a ac d ba a a
d a a b b
ab a ac d , ba a d a a a c
a c d a d c a , d c a a a
CaC 2
HNO3
C2H5OH
L OH
HC
C6H12 O6
CH3COOH
HB
HF
NaF
PbF 2
Ca(OH) 2
M (OH)2
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I a a c d a d c a c a a a a a
d ca a . F a , c d a a 1M NaC . T a a
1 d c d ac . H , d c d a c c d a d c a
d a d c d . T , a 2 : 1 d a d 1 c d
, , 2M . T d b b d c a c d .
P 1.18
H a c ( c ) a 0.750 L ? W a a ,
d . G a a d c a .
0.50 M NaC 2.3M c 1.2M c ac d 0.750M (NH4)3PO4
DILUTIONS
C ab a d a d , c c c a d . T d a a
d , a ca b d:
M 1V 1 = M 2V 2,
M 1 a d V 1 a a a d c
M 2 a d V 2 a a a d d d
T a d a c d d ac a a ,V 2, a d
M 2.
P 1.19
W a L c d a 1.20 L 0.500M HC ? S c HC 12.5M .
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I a a d a a d d a a . I ca , d
a ad b , d a a a d
P 1.20
H c a d b add d 110.0 L 0.5000 M HC a a 0.0850M ?
I a a a d 45.0 L 2.00 M ca c ac a .
W a a d b add d a 0.350M ?
H a a a ?
W d b b a a c c a d a a ? E a .
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P 8: REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION
I a
c a
ac .
B c a
a ,
a d: 0.70 M
Pb(NO 3)2 a d 1.4 M KI.
I a
, Pb(NO3)2,
a
c : Pb2+
a d NO 3 . I a c d
a c a a c . I
a b c d. T a a
c a . T a K+ a d
a " a ;" . ., ad a c a
W d d ad
a d d d d: c
ab a c d K
a a d a a ,
G R
W d c a d b d ac
a NH3 ( NH4OH d c NH
d c SO2 a d HOH) H2S (d c
c a a d c c
S( ) +
N 2CO3( ) +
S
a a c : K+ a d I . W
d a , , Pb2+ a d I ac a
b c d ca d c a , a d b
O3 d ac . I ac ca
d d d a d a a c a
a c ca ac c b a d ?T
d ab a . B ca
O3, d a c d . H
a c d b ca a ab
ac a a , ac cc . M c
3 a d HOH), CO 2 ( H2CO3 d c CO2 a d H
c b a d a d d ). G
d a d a ac d.
HC( ) →→→→ H2S( ) +
HC( ) →→→→ H2CO3( ) +↑↑↑↑
H 2CO3 (H 2O + CO 2 )
H 2SO3 (H 2O + SO 2 )
NH 4OH (H 2O + NH 3 )
30
a d,
b d a d PbI2,
c d ca d a
ac c d c d
d a .
. H , a
, K+ a d NO 3 , a
, a
a c d KNO3.
, a a
OH), SO2 ( H2SO3
ac a
C2( )
N C( )
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M C
A d b ac cc a c a c d d. T c a c d a a
ca b , c d a ac d . C a ac a ac d ba ac , c a a ca d ac
a a ac . I ac a ac d a d a ba ac a a a d c H2O. T a
d b ac ac :
CH3COOH( ) + N OH( ) →→→→ N CH3COO( ) + HOH( ) ↑↑↑↑
P R
A d b ac c a ac c b , d c a d c d a d a d b
c a c a b a . Y d a c d a b a d a c d a b
d c a a c a ac a a c a d b . T ac c a ac :
A NO3( ) + KC( ) →→→→ A C( ) + KNO3( )
↑↑↑↑
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WRITING EQUATIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION
P 1.21
F d ac c a a d c a . G a a ac
ba c d add d d a
a c d d d a
YES
YESYES
NOA b ac a b
c c d ?
I ac a ad ac d a d
a d ca b a ,d d ,
d ?
NO
STOP .
N .
S 1:
C c ac a
I a d c :
a c a c d ( . ., H2O,
NH3, a ac d)
a d c c d a b a
a b c c d?
NO STOP .
N .
S 2:
C c d c
1. Id d c d c NH4OH, H2CO3
H2SO3,
2. W a c a
3. W a b c d , ac d a d
ba d c a d a a c ca
c a
4. Ca c a c a a c a d ac a
d d c d
S 3:
W c
S a 2 c a
a
S a 3 c
a
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c ac d d d a d a ca c ca b a
a HC add d a a a d d d
a d d a d c ba (III) a a d
a a a ca c c d a d d a a d
c d ac a a d d d c c ac d
a c a a add d c d a
d d d d ad(II) ac a
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P 9: USING THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION AND GAS STOICHIOMETRY
W d a a a d a a a a d , d
a . T , a d a add a d a b add d a . Acc d
a , a d a a b a acc d d a a a :
= P = a ( a , a ca , H );V = a ( d a
R); T = a a ( d a a R: C + 273 = K);R = 0.0821 a , 8.314
Pa U a 760 = 760 H = 1 a = 101.325 Pa c .
U , 1 22.414 L
273 K (0 C) 1 (101.325 P ).
M , a a d a ab a c b a a d a d
c a . T a c .
P 1.22
C a d d a a a .
1.25 a 85.0 Pa a
T ac b d a a d a d c d a .
W ba a c d a ac
W a a a ca b d c d 2.5 L d b d c a STP?
U d a a a d a a ab a d a c a
a 0.500 L a a a 200 C.
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T b a c da a d a c ad , a , c a a
a ca b d c ab . M c d c ab b c a d add
d .
P 1: ATOMIC RADIUS
A c ad c a d
( Z ) c d b c a a . T c c a c a
a a c a c a
c d b a c . A
c c a c a c a
c , b d c
c . F a , c a
c a 7+,
8+. T , 2 c
a c d
a ac b c 2
c a
a ac d, c ad a a
ad c a d
.
A c ad a d c a
ac d c ab a
b c a a d
c c a c a c a .
A c ad a c a
d a a
c c a c a d c a
c a a d
b c c a .
T a c ad a a
a d c : b d
ad a d b d ad .
F 9. T
.
F 10. I ,
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T ad a c a b d b ca b d d a c a a c
ca a b d b c d d a d d b c a c a ac b c a
a d.
T b d ad a a a a b d ad b ca a a b c d
c a a c .
A c ad a d SI c , , c 1012 , 1/1 000 000 000 000 . A a a c ad
a ab 30 d ab 300 a a G 6 a d 7.
P 2: IONI ATION ENERGY
A a b c a , d b
ab a a d c a a
a b c a a
a a d a c a
b c a a a a
c . T ,
.
F a , a
c d ( ) :
Na ( ) → Na+( ) + ∆H = +496 J/
T ca d a
,I 1, d b ca
d
d a c c . T c d a ,I 2, d a d
d c d , Na+ ( . ., c d c ). N c a (a d) c a
c d c d, a b a c a a a :
Na+ ( ) → Na2+ ( ) + ∆H = +4560 J/
F 11.T . Y .
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T 1. T a a c c a ca a d a a c
ab a P d 3 .
I E Na M A S P S C A
F 496 738 578 787 1012 1000 1251 1520
S c d 4562 1451 1817 1577 1903 2251 2297 2665
T d 6912 7733 2745 3231 2912 3361 3822 3931
F 9543 10540 11575 4356 4956 4564 5158 5770
F 13353 13630 14830 16091 6273 7013 6540 7238
S 16610 17995 18376 19784 22233 8495 9458 8781
S 20114 21703 23293 23783 25397 27106 11020 11995
T d a ca b ad a d b a c c a c a : c a a ( a , c a c a c a ) a c c . T d ca d b
c b a c a d c . C a , a , c a d d a a
c a b . T , c b a a a c a d
c a a a ( 1) c .
T d a c d b a . I a a a a a
a ac b c a d c a d a a a . T , a a b a
a a a .
A a d a a c a ac d c ab , a c
d c a a d c d. F a , a d c a c d a G 15 G
a d H d : a G 16 d b a , c c a c
a a a d b a G 15 c
a a b ca c a a d.
F 12.F , . T ,
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P 3: ELECTRON AFFINITY
I a a
c a a
c a d . I a c d a a
a c . A a
a c a d a a c a d
a a a c a c
d a a . T add
c a a c, c
a a c a1, a :
C ( ) + → C ( ) ∆H = 349 J/
T a a ∆H c d a
a a a c
a a ; a a a a
ab a a . A∆H b c a d c a . I d d, a ∆H
d ca a add d add a c .
P 2.1 P ac ac d c a a c ad :
P, S , S, A Na, B , M
A a c a d d c d a : N , Na, P, A , K
1 T ∆H . R , .
F 13.T ( ) .
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C d a :
I 1 = 577.5 J, I 2 = 1816.7 J, I 3 = 2744.8 J, I 4 = 11577 J, I 5 = 14842 J, I 6 = 18379 J
I a a ca d? J .
P ac d c d d c a a c a (
c a ( ).
Na, A , C , S
T G 1 a a a a c a , G 2 a a
a . E a b a .
W G 15 a c a a a a ,
ca a ?
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ADVANCED PLACEMENT CHEMISTRY
O
I
S d b ab :
d da a d d c
d c a
d c b a a d ac
ac
ba a c d ac b c a ac c a d
c , c d d c
a da a d d c d c b da a a d c a d d c a
a d c c a a d a d d a ba
R R
E
c ca c ; d da a d
aca d c c a d d
a ac d
d c , a d d c d a
d c a da a d d c
b d c ab
c c ca c , a d d a c a ac
a c
a ac d c
c c ca c
b c c ca c
d c a c
41
c a c
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P 1: OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTIONS
U d a d c a c d a d ac , c a ac a cc a c c a . F a , a ac , c cc ac d :
2 H+( ) + ( ) →→→→ 2+( ) + H2( )
D a d ac , c c a da b , a c d c a da b
a d c a da b a d a b d c d, c a c a da b
b d d. A d ac a b a d d a d d c d c .
A
. T , . T .
A
. T , . T .
2 H+( ) + ( ) →→→→ 2+( ) + H2( )
I a a , da b c a c a d ; c a b d d,
c . T da b d a ; d a b d c d,
a c . I ca , c ( ) , a d d ( ) . T cab a ca b d c a cc c
a a a d :
A . A
. T
, .
T a a c a ac a a c : da a b ac d a d da
T c a cc a a d c b d ab : c ca c d d (a a ), a d a c d
d a a ).
+1 0
+20
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O
T da a a b a ac d a a a a d d a . Ma ac
ab a . O c da a a b d c c ac d:
M ( ) + 2 HC( ) →→→→ M C2( ) + H2( ) ( c a a )
M ( ) + 2 H+ ( ) →→→→ M 2+( ) + H2( ) ( c a )
S , a a ? Y a a d ac c d c d a d d. I ca a
a c c a a b a d d , d c d +1 2.
Ma a b d d
0 +2 a c .
O
T da a a b a a c
a ac a ac d
c a a ac
T ac a d c d;
ac a d d (F . 1
T d c ac
a a d d ac
da a a d c
a c a a a c : a
ac a ad c
a ac a . T a , a
ac a b d d b a
ac a , a d a ac a
b d c d b a ac a . W
a a
d c ca a a
a ac a .
ER d c
acE E R d c ac E
L L + + → L 3.05 F F 2+ + 2 → F 0.440
K K+ + → K 2.925 N N 2+ + 2 → N 0.28
Ba Ba2+ + 2 → Ba 2.90 S S 2+ + 2 → S 0.136
Ca Ca2+ + 2 → Ca 2.87 Pb Pb 2+ + 2 → Pb 0.126
Na Na+ + → Na 2.71 H 2H + + 2 → H2 0.00
M M 2+ + 2 →M 2.37 C C 2+ + 2 → C +0.337
A A 3+ + 3 → A 1.66 A A + + → A +0.799
M M 2+ + 2 → M 1.18 H H 2+ + 2 → H +0.854
Z Z 2+ + 2 → Z 0.763 P P 2+ + 2 → P +1.188
C C 3+ + 3 → C 0.74 A A 3+ + 3 → A +1.52
T 2. A S S E . E . A . R
, .
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REDUCTION POTENTIALS,E
W d c b a a a a d c b a a. W ca c a a d c a a a d a a d
d a d a d b a a a a d c , c a d , V. Y
Tab 2 a a d c , a 2H+ + 2 → H2 , c a d d a .
M , ca d c a b a a c d a a d c a
ac cc a a da . T d :
A
. A
,
. T , , .
T , ,
,
, . T
,
, .
F 14. Z . W Z C SO4 ,
, ;
, . R , C 2+( ) + 2 → C ( ),
, , Z ( )→ Z 2+( ) + 2 , .
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P 3.1 C d a d c ad ac d a c a c (II) . W a d ad d c c (II) a c a d b d d ad(II
ac cc ?
Pb ( ) + C 2+(a ) → Pb 2+(a ) + C ( )
F , , E . I
.
C d a d c A ac d a c a c (III) . W a c ca ac
I ca , d c ca ac b b .
P 3.2 A c a (II) . W add c c ca a ? B a d ac b b . C a a d c
a .
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P 3.3 U d c a d ac ac b cc . W ac , a d c a a ac a cc . J
d c a .
1) d d a a c a
2) a ad(II) a , a c a add d
3) d a b bb d a c (II) c d
4) ba add d c d a
5) a ac d d c c ac d
C d a c a , c (I) a d (IV) . Ca a d a
c c a ac ? T a , c d d c a
? (A a a a a d b a d a a .)
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E = E ( ) E ( )
W c c d a b a :
I E ( ) ,
; , . N , ,
.
P 2: OXIDI ING AND REDUCING AGENTS
T a a E ca c a d a a d c a ; a a
a E a a a ac , a d c ac a a ac b
, d a c .
F a , ca da c b d :
2 H+(a ) + Z ( ) → Z 2+(a ) + H2( )
I ac , c d d (Z→ Z 2+), d d c d (H+ → H2). T a E d c d
d a 0.00 V; a E d c c c a ( da c a
B ca a 0.00 V a a 0.76 V, ca a d b d c d, c
d a .
O A E .
O d a a c a ca ca da a c ; d a a a d c d
d b ab a c a c , a , a d a a ( a
a , d c a ) a d . T a a d c d d c d : a→ , c
a → c , a d d c a → c (III) [ c (VI)]. O c d a c d d
a d a . S d a a d c .
R A E .
R d c a a c a ca a c c . A c d c a a
ca a c d c a c ; a a a d d. S d c a a
R P T
I b d c ab a a d c da d c c a ac : c
c a c a d , a ca b d c d. S c a ca d c a c
a ca b d d. B d , c d c a c d ca acc
c , . F a , a a a a c d ca b d c d d d a d .
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COMMON OXIDI ING AND REDUCING AGENTS
• C ,
. O .
M O4 ac d → M 2+
M O2 ac d → M 2+
M O4 a ba → M O2( )
C 2O72 ac d c → C 3+
HNO3 (c c) → NO2
HNO3 (d ) → NO
H2SO4 ( , c c) → SO2
a c → a ( da a )
a → a d
Na2O2 → NaOH
HC O4 → C
H2O2 → H2O
S2O82 → SO42
C O42 → C 3+
• C ,
. A . R .
a d → a
a → a
SO2 → a
→ a
a , d ba c → a
a , c c ba c → a a
a → a c ( da a )
C2O42 → CO2
M O2 ba → M O4
Y a c a b a , c a , a c c , d c
a c c a ac d a a b d c c a d ac a
a , a b c a c a c b c c a a a . Y
a c d .
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P 3.4 Id a d d d d c . F c , d c .
(A)
(B) c
(C) d
(D) C 2O72
(E) d
Ra d c a d c ab
a c c a .
A , F , B
P d c c a b d c b d . B a d
c . F ac , d c da ac .
B B 2 NO3 M O4
U d c a d a a d c ac
S a d d a d c c
A c d a ac d a d c c ac d.
T ac cc a . W d c ac . Id d a
d c a .
M O4 ( ) + F 2+( )+ H+( ) → ?
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P 3: BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS
Y a d b d a a ba a c a b c a a . H , a c d a
ac ba a c c a , ; c ac ba a c a c a a d a a . W
d ac b . T a ac d a a da a ac
d c a ac , ba a c ac a a a a d c a , a d a bac
a a d ad c d c ! T a ac d b ca .
W ba a c d ac , a ca d c ac a a cc ac d c ba c .T
!
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B
Id da a
ac a d d c a
ac
C + NO3 →→→→ NO2 + C 2+
W a ac : da a d
d c
Ba a c a a c O a d
H b a ac
Ba a c b add
a c ac
a d d
Ba a c d b add H+
a d d ac .
Ba a c c a b add
c ac .
T add
d ac a d
d .
M
a ( ) a d d ca c
c . T c
MUST ca c .
Add ac ca c a
c c ;
b .
W c a .
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B
Id da a ac
a d d c a acP (OH)42 + C O →→→→ P O2 + C
W a ac :
da a d
d c
Ba a c a a c O a d H
b a ac
Ba a c b add
a c ac
a d d
Ba a c d b add H+ a
d d ac .
Ba a c c a b add
c ac . T
add
d ac a d
d .
M a ( )
a d d ca c c .
T c MUST ca c .
Add ac ca c a
c c ;
b .
Add a OH ac H+
. C b a . Add a b
OH d , .
Ca c c a c .
T
T H+ !
W c a .
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P 3.5 Ba a c d ac b a ac d.
CN (a ) + M O4 (a ) CNO (a ) + M O2( ) ac d
C ( ) + NO3 (a ) C 2+(a ) + NO2( ) ac d
C (OH)3( ) + C O (a ) C O42 (a ) + C 2( ) ba
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P 4: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
VOLTAIC CELLS
R ca a a a d ac a a d c . W ac cc ,
ca b a d c ca (a , b ca S c d La , ca a a
b , c a d d a c ).
A ( )
. T a d a c a a d .
T S V
I a ca a c c ,
a ac d
2; . ., c a ac d
c , a d c
a ac d
c . B ca
a a c ac
a , d ac
ca cc a d
a c
d d. T ca bacc d b c c
a c . T
d a c d
a c
c d . A
, a c c .
I a c a a c c , a d c ac cc . H , d c ac C2+(a ) → C ( ). I a c
a c c , a da ac cc . H , da ac Z( ) → Z 2+(a ) . T c a a a c c a
a : a d c a a d ca d c a .
2 F ,
AP C , .
F 15. A .
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R , . T ,
. T
.
B c , ca d ab d , a d ab d a ; , c d c a
ac , c d c a a c ca c a , a c c c a a .
T a a c a a c c :
• A d c a c ; ca d
• A da a c ; a d
• A c d a c ; c c
• A d a d c c c ; b a c
• A c a d a a c d c a a a a
a b d , a d d a a a ca d c a (a d a b d;
a d )
T O V C
A) Z .T
. T
. T .
C) C . T
, . T
. T
.
B) T .
D) A
.
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A a c c a a a a a d c b a d a d ca d . F a a
a d d d c , a d c a a ca d a d c
a d , b ca a c a b . T ac d c
E = E ( ) E ( )
E = E ( ) E ( )
E = E ( ) E ( )
N
Y ca d ca d a d a d a c b a d c a a ac
d c a cc a a d c , c a ca d . Y ca a a E d a
d c a ac b a a a E .
P 3.6 T ac cc a a c c : Z( ) + C 2+(a ) Z 2+(a ) + C ( ). W a a E ?
A a c c a a ; c c d c c a N (NO3)2(a ) a d N ( ) a d C NO 3(a ) a d C ( ).
A) D a ac cc ac c , ba a c d ac a d d
c d da a d c d d c . Id b
c b a d.
B) W c ac cc a ca d ? J c c .
C) I c c a a c d c a ? J c c .
D) W a a c a ?
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A a c c a a E = +1.46 V. T ac c a :
I +(a ) → I 3+(a ) + 2
B 2( ) + 2 → 2B (a )
A) W ba a c d a ac , a d d ca b c a d.
B) W c ac cc a ca d ? W c ac cc a a d ? J ac c
C) U a ab d c a a d a c d d , d
E d c d (III) d (I).
P 3.7 C d ac : C2O72 (a ) + I (a ) C 3+(a ) + I2( )
Ba a c ac ac d , d a d a d ca d a ac d a a c
a d d a E . (I ca b a c c a . ., a c d a
a ad a a a c a P . T , ad d a , c
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T d c ac a
a d a a c c . Id
c c . T , b a b
d a a b ab d c
La , a c c a
c a c a 298 K 1M .
S N V C
W ca a d a a a
a d a d c b c . W
a c , a a ac a
a ba . W a a c b
c a b d , a d
c a a a d
P 3.8 S cad c
P 5: APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROCHEMI
R d a , ba , c a d c
add d d d a c a .
. U da a Ed ac , d
ac a cc a ca d a d ac a c
c c a a c c . T
c a c .
Cd2+(a ) + 2 → Cd( )
S2+
(a ) + 2 → S ( )
ac a a d a c . F , a
c b
da
d c
a d b ba ,
d c a
a d ac .
P ac c 3.7 a d a .
TRY: BATTERIES, CORROSION AND ELECTROLYSIS
b d a ab a , a d
58
ac a cc
c a a d . J
a a a
,
c c b
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ADVANCED PLACEMENT CHEMISTRY
C K
S d b ab :
E a c c ac D c b , d c a d d c
ac
E a ac a a
c ca ac
D c , d a d a Ca c a a a D c c a ba I a ca da a d a E a ac a a d U A a a d
a
R c a ac a D
D , d a d d c
R M
a
ac a a c a
a c
c a
d a a d a a a d a
c c ab ac d
a a
a ca c ; d ac a a d a
c , a d d c a ac
d c a ac a c b d
ca c a ca a a c ca ac
59
c a a a ab
ac
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P 1: COLLISION THEORY
A a a d ac ,
. (T a d .) B d c ac
acc d d c ca ac ca d
a d ac . T a
H , a c ad a c ca
a d c ca b d d a d a
c cc . C T
add :
• T
• T
S A , c c ;
T , ca a c a
a a a b a
, , b b d cc c c c
, c a ac a a c
a b a ab c ca ac , c d
ac . W b ca d a a
. Acc d c , d a c ca ac
c d a a a a c a
a a d ac d , a a d 1888.
: C
60
c a c
a ac . A d
ca ac c d
d c
ac
c d a
c d ac . I
a c c
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F 17. I (A) . I , .
ACTIVATION ENERGY
L a a . I
c a a
a a c a d ac
:
CO + NO2 →→→→ CO2 + NO
Y ca a ac a
c a a
a d
c ca c a d
ac ba
a c a d a
c . Acc d c
, a add a a
b d
a a ac a
T ac a CO a d NO2
a c a a c c d ac c d , , c a a a d a c ca ac .
D a a , ab a d d. I a a c ca ac
c d d c bac ac a . T a ab b d ac a a a
, E , ac , c a d a ac cc .
A ab , ac c, a d c a a ac a
d c b a a
a d a a
a c a ac ,∆H .
I d ac cc ,
ac a (CO2 a d NO
ac ) ac a
a ∆H a d
ac a d E a d
ac .
T a a add a
a a a a
c ca ac ; cc (A), b
a c (B)
d d c .
F 16.R .
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I a a , a c a ac
c
c ac . Y
ca a , a
a a a c a ,
ac c
c ac
c a .
T a a a c a
c a ac c: a
B , c a
a a bab
c c ca a
c a c a a
cc a a
a . L d B a d d
b a b a
a a a a c d
b d d c c a
b a ; , c a d a
a d b b a .
B a b d c
ba c a c , c a a d d b a 1800 . U ab ac c c a d a ac
B a c d c d 1906, a ba c d b ca a a
T , Ma d , G , R d a d .
COLLISION ORIENTATION
T c d a c a
c . T a a a ac
b a c a d c a c ca ac . I
d d c d ca b a CH3B , c a
a a ab . I (b), d d c d b a
c , c c c d a a
cc . T a a b a a a , a
a c d c a a ac a c ac
a a c .
W a a a a a c d ab 1010
c d, b 1013 c d c a ac . R
c , a a d c c a
ac cc .
F 19.T ( )
. N ( ) /
.
F 18.T M , . A
, . H ,
.
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P 2: CHEMICAL KINETICS AND RATES OF REACTION
C a a c c c d a c ca ac , d a c c ca cc . Ra ac ca b a c d b a ac , c a d c d.
P 4.1
F ac : d c b a a b a , d a a a c
ac c , a d d a a ac a a .
C
T
P
S
DEFINITION OF REACTION RATE
I a a ac a ca b d a A→ B.
B ca c 1:1, ac c
a c d ac a c B
d. I ac 60 ,
c c da a ab a .
ca c a
B ,∆∆∆∆ B,
,∆∆∆∆ . T d d
ac , a a c b a c B d
=∆ B
∆
N c a a c d a ac a a a c b a c B. W c d a a
a d a a a c b a c A:
=∆ A
∆
, ( ) M A M B
0 1.00 0.00
10 0.75 0.25
20 0.55 0.45
30 0.40 0.60
40 0.30 0.70
50 0.22 0.78
60 0.16 0.84
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P 4.2
Ca c a a ac ac ab Pa 63. L a a , ac a
c a . I ca , c a c d b d c b a c B c b a c
A R A P , B
A R D R , A
W a ac a a d a a a c B a d a a a c A a
a ?
H a c a a d c d c d?
a ∆ B a B a ∆ B A a a , 1
= 0 = 10
= 10 = 20
= 20 = 30
= 30 = 40
= 40 = 50
= 50 = 60
a ∆ A a A a ∆ A A a a , 1
= 0 = 10
= 10 = 20
= 20 = 30
= 30 = 40
= 40 = 50
= 50 = 60
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RATES IN TERM OF CONCENTRATION
T ac d a ab a a ac a a d d c ac b a c . H , a
c c a ac a a d d c a ac . L a ac :
C4H9C (a ) + HOH( ) → C4H9OH + HC
I a a 0.10 M C4H9C (a ) , c a a c c d ca d
c b a . I a d a a a c c b a
a da a ab a .
N c a a a d c c a ac a a
ac a a a ac a a . Ra a a
c a , a d c a a b a d a , a
a ; , a c a d a a
c d .
(T ac ca ac , a c c d a
a a ac d a a a c . T
a ac d OH a , a d a a c a d
a c ac d. T d c ac ab a a c b a
a d d c c ac d: R X + HOH→ R OH + HX.)
P 4.3
W a a d a a a c a a d a a a c c b a
a d c b a c a d d c c ac d.
Ca c a a c a M 1d a = 50.0 = 150.0 a d a = 500.0 = 1000.0
H d a ac c a c a a ab ? P a a a b
, ( c d ) [C4H9C (a ) ], M
0.0 0.100
50.0 0.091
100.0 0.082
150.0 0.074
200.0 0.067
300.0 0.055
400.0 0.045
500.0 0.037
800.0 0.020
1000.0 0.000
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STOICHIOMETRIC DIFFERENCES
S a a d a ac , b c ad c c a 1:1 b a c . L
ac c c a a 1:1, ac b d a d d d c d
2 HI ( ) → H2( ) + I2( )
I ac ab , ca a 2 HI a d ac H2 d c d a d ac I 2 d c d. T c a
ca c a a ac b ca d acc ac a 2 HI a d ac a
a c a a a a a c H2 I2 a d a a a c HI.
I a a a a c H2 a
= ∆[H2]∆ d c a a d a a a c HI c a ,
=∆[HI]
∆ = 2 ·∆[H]∆t
(A b a c a a d a d a a a c a a a c c a c ca ac
a , a d d c a ac a a d a a a c HI a , ac ,∆[HI] / ∆ .)
W ca c c d a a , a ac
A + B → →→ → C + D a a c a a b :
=∆ A
∆ =∆ B
∆ =∆ C
∆ =∆ D
∆
P 4.4
Acc d a 2 O3( ) → 3O2( ) , a a d a a a c , O3, a a a a c
a 6.0 105 M 1?
N d d d d N2O5 b d c . W ba a c d c ca a a
I a a a a a a c N2O5 4.2 10 7 M 1 a a . W a a d a a a c ac ac a
a ?
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P 3: CONCENTRATION DEPENDENCE OF
c a d a a a c
d a ac ca d ac . T , ca b d d c a
a a a ab
d a c d a a a a ab .
O a c c a
a a c c a a
c b ac a . Y d
b ad ac d d.
P 4.5
I c ,
c c a ac a ?
F 20. P . T .
RATE
L a
b
a
a a
a
ca
ca
ca
ac
ab
c
a :
d d
a
M
ac
ca ac a a c c c a ac a
d a a a d ac ac a a ac ( . ., d a a d a
a b a d a c ca ac a d
ac a a c a ac a a
c a a c a ac a ; a , a a
da a c ab
d c a a c ca ac d b d
∆[NO 2 100
6
a . A
Pa 65 d a
: c
a c ca ac
d c a a ac a
ac . T
c ca ac , a
ac a d c
bac a ac a
a d Pa 64
a da a
. T b a
a ab
a c ca ac
c c a
a , a .
a c a a
c c a
, , a
. T d
a c a a a a ). T
a c , a
d
a a
a . Y c c
d
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E N b I a [A],M I a [B],M I a Ra F a AB,M /
1 0.0100 0.200 0.540 10 3
2 0.0200 0.200 1.08 10 3
3 0.0400 0.200 2.15 10 3
4 0.0600 0.200 3.23 10 3
5 0.200 0.0200 1.08 10 3
6 0.200 0.0400 2.16 10 3
7 0.200 0.0600 3.24 10 3
8 0.200 0.0800 4.33 10 3
E T : T E c I a R ac a C c a R ac Ra I A a d I B A S F AB.
E P : T d a b a a ac b a c c a a a d.
C : H d c c a ac a a c a a ac ? S c ca , a a ca a a ca b a d?
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T ab :
Ra ∝ [A][B] A d, ca a a ca b d a a b b a c a , c
a = [A][B] ac . T a c a d a a a d c ,
. T d d c a c c a ac a ca d a . T ,
. Y ca a a a a d c c a a d a ca a d a c a .R
.
P 4.6
U da a Pa 68 d a a c a ac b I
a d I B.
U a c a ca c a d ab d a ac a [A] 0.100M a d a [B]
0.100 M .
REACTION ORDER
T a a = [A][B] d ca a c c a b b a c a a d
a a . T a a ca . S a add a a a a :
2N2O5( ) → 2NO2( ) + O2( ) a a = [N2O5]2
H2( ) + I2( ) → 2HI ( ) a a = [H2]0[I2]
T ( a a d ) a a a a ca d , a d d d a ac a d
a c ca a , a d ca b d d a . T a ac d
a a ac , ac d a ac ab a a d , c
R b , a ac d a c ca ac d ac a .
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T ac d ca a b ab a a c c a ac a a c a
d b c c a a ac a a d , ca a a c a a ac
ac a c d d , a c a a c a ac a c c a ; . ., d b ac a
c a c a a ; ac a c c a c a c a a . T
• :
• : • :
METHOD OF INITIAL RATES: USING INITIAL RATES TO DETERMINE RATE LAWS AND RATE CONSTANTS
R
L d d a a ac Pa 68, c ca a c c a
a c a ac ; a d d a a a .
1. U da a d d, d c c a c c a ac a ( ) a
a d ( ) ac a ( ).
2. W a a ac : a = [A] [B] , a d a a d .
3. U a a d a c a b a a a a ( b da a
ca ! Y ca a d a ac a a a a a a b d d.
P 4.7
U da a d d d a a a d a c a ac A + B→ C.
T a [A],M [B], M I a Ra ,M /
1 0.100 0.100 4.0 10 5
2 0.100 0.200 1.6 10 4
3 0.200 0.200 6.4 10 4
D a a ac . J a a a ca a d .
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W a a d ac ? E a a .
D a c a ac a a a .
W a a ac [A] = 0.050M a d [B] = 0.100 M ?
W a c c a d b d b a a a a c a a d ?
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CONCENTRATION CHANGES OVER TIME
• FIRST ORDER REACTIONS
R ac c a d d c c a a ac a a d , a a a [A] a
d d ac , a d a
[] = + [ ] a ca c a c c a a ac a , [A] , a a a d a c c a , [A0,
a d a c a . T .
P 4.8
) W a c c a a c c d a b d a 6 a a ? T a c c a
4.5 10 4 /c 3, a d d a c a ac 0.94 1.
) H a [ c c d ] a a EPA c d d a 1.0 1012 /c 3?
T a c a d ac d c ac a , ac d
0.0001103 1. I c c a 1000.0 d d T a 0.00063 /L a b d , a
c c a a 8.0 ?
A ab c a ac c d
ac a a c c a
. B ca da d a a a
= + , a [A]
a a a
a d a c [A]0, c
c d b d
d a ac da a
d a a c a
a ca da a.F 21.T
.
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FIRST ORDER HALF LIFE
T a a d ac a , ,
d c c a a ac a d
a a a . T a a
d ac a b :
= 0.693 [T
[A = [A 0 = 1.]
Ha ca c a a a d c , a
c c , a d
a a a a d c a
c . N c a a a dac a d c a a c c a a ab
.
W ca a a d a d a a , , a a c c a . T , a
a d d c a d c a d ca .
P 4.9
W a a T Q B Pa 72?
W a a a a d c c a ac a d b 0.0000014 L1?
F 22.N
. N
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A c a a a a 455 a . C d a a c a c a c a d a
c b d d. T a a a
0.0065% a a a da . H a d d a d ?
F ab , d a a a d da a d a a d.
SECOND ORDER REACTIONS
R ac c a d d c c a a ac a a d c d , a a a [A]2
ac a ac a d , a a a a = [A][B] a d c d d ac , a d a
=[ ] −[ ] a ca c a c c a a c d d ac a A a a a d a
c c a , [A]0, a d a c a . T . A
d ac a d c d Pa 72, a a c a c a ac c ab a a c d d
, ca a
c d d ac a ,
. I
,
,
1/ A 0. F 23.T .
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SECOND ORDER HALF LIFE
F ,
,
. T a
F 24.
T c d a c d d
ac c c b d c
a c c ; a c , a
d a . H , d a
a a b d c d ab
d a .
P 4: RATE AND TEMPERATURE
W a a c d a c ca ac c
a a a ac a c a d
a a ab ba c d a a . Y
a , , a
.
THE ARRHENIUS EQUATION
A c d a c a a ac
a a c a d a a . I ad, d
c a a ac a a
a c c a . A d a a
b d a , A :
= / A a c a ca d ( a d b c a b a ab d aE
ac a ac ,R a c a 8.314 J/ K, a d T a . N ca d ca F 25 a d Pa 76.
F 24.T . (C F 22.)
F 25. T A E . S = E /R. B
E , 8.315 J/ K R.
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B c :
A E , A T ,
I a a a A a , a b , b a a c a = + ,
c a = , = E /R = , = 1/T a d A = . (P a a A c
[A] a d c c a .) A , c c c ca
b d. T a a ca d ac a a ac a a a
a .
= W ca a a d a a a d d d a b d ac a
c a a a . A a , ac a a d a c a a
a c a a a a .
= −
P 4.10
W a a c a a a c a ac a 430.0 K ac a ac 160 J/
c a a 462.9 K 2.52 105
1
?
W a ac a ac a d F 25?
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P 5: REACTION MECHANISMS
G a , c ca ac d cc
cc a a c ca ac c d .
A a a a , a a a d
b a . Y a a
a a a
d c b a R 4
11, B a I 95
, d a , c. T d c
d a a a
c a d a b
a d a cc b
• E S
W
. T aMa ac a
ac b NO( ) a d , O3( ) , cc
c a d a
I a ac a cc d a
c d a d b NO2 a d O 2 a d c
T b c a c d a
, c a c
T c a a , a
c c .
• A M M S E
L a ac b , c
a .T
. R ac c a a
a a a a B
a d B . O c , d c
. F a , a c
Ca C , B a a E
C Pa , d a b a d
d a d a d a a cc d
b a d d. S a , a ac
a d d, b ad a b , d
.
,
ac a a .
a b a d c a d. T
a a c c d
:
NO( ) + O3( ) → NO2( ) + O2( )
, a , d c
d b ca .
a d : a a d c a c
c c d a
S
a ac NO2( ) a d CO ( ), c d c NO( ) a
NO2 ( ) + CO( ) → NO ( ) + CO2( )
7
a d a
a NO a d O3
c a c a
a
, a c
d CO2( ) :
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A a a c ca ac a cc , , ac , a ac a
a cc c d c NO( ) a d CO2( ) :
E a S 1: NO2( ) + NO2( ) → NO3( ) + NO( )
E a S 2: NO3( ) + CO( ) → NO2( ) + CO2( )
I ac c a , ca a c cc c c NO2( ) NO( ) a d
NO3( ) . T NO3( ) d a c d CO( ) d c d c NO2( ) a d CO2( ) . T NO2( ) d
c ac add a NO2( ) a S 1. T a ac ca b :
NO2( ) + NO2( ) + NO3( ) + CO( ) → NO3( ) + NO( ) + NO2( ) + CO2( )
Ca c c a cc a b ac a a d d c NO2( ) + CO( ) → NO( ) + CO2( ) a a ac .
T c d a a a d b a a ca d . I d a c c
c a a a c a . D c a d a ac a d c a
ab a d a a ab c ca c a a c ca ac cc ; a a a
b c a a a ac a d c .W
; .
P 4.11
T c a a a c : a
d c d a c c a a d a c a ; c d a a
ac b a d a c d d c d a c
A) W c ca a ac a
B) Id c a ac
C) Id a d a a
D) W a a c ca a c a a
E) W a c a a ac ?
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L a ac :
M (CO)6 + P(CH3)3 → M (CO)5P(CH3)3 + CO
I d ac c a c a ac ? T a , c
b a ac ab a ? E a
S 1: M (CO)6 → M (CO)5 + CO
S 2: M (CO)5 + P(CH3)3 → M (CO)5P(CH3)3
• R L E S
T a a a a ca b d d b c a . (T
ac .) R ca a a a a d c b c c a ac a a c a a ac . T , ca
a a b c a a a a d a a . I d d, ca . I
a a a ac cc a ca b d d b c .
U
A ac a c a d d c c a a ac a ; , a c a
d ac a .
A → d c = [A]
B
A ac a b c a d d c c a ac a ; ; a b c a a
d a , a d ac ac a .
A + B → d c = [A][B]
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P 4.12
W a a a ac
I d c c
d c .
A) W a
B) W a c a
C) W a a a
D) I c a
• R S R L
I a B a
d a a a c
. P a a 1 4 a d P a a
b ca a 300 ca a
P a a 6 a a ? W ca a
d b a a c a c ca
P a a 1 P a a 2 P a a 3
1000 1 1000 1 1000
b d a a d b a ac d
NOB , a b d a c a 2 NO +
ac
ac ? J a .
ac d c a ?
? E a .
. A d d d c a , c
. N a a a a
ca a 1000 ca , b P a a 5 d c
. T , a c bac a a a. H a ca a
a a a c ( b ca )
P a a 5 P a a 5 a a.
P a a 4 P a a 5
1 1000 1 300 1
80
c HB a ?
B 2 → 2 NOB d
a a
a a a
c a d a 3 a a a
ab a P a a
P a a 1 P a a 6
P a a 6
1000 1
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T b ca a ca a P a a 1 P a a 6 a a d d b a a c
a P a a 5, c a a. E a a a a P a a 6 ca a 1000 , d
a ca a a 6 a a P a a 5 a a .
I a a b d a , a ac c a a a c ca
a a a d a d , a ac ca c d a a , c
, .
R a a a ac b NO a d CO:
NO2( ) + CO( ) → NO( ) + CO2( )
R ca a d ac :
E a S 1: NO2( ) + NO2( ) → NO3( ) + NO( )
E a S 2: NO3( ) + CO( ) → NO2( ) + CO2( )
I a b d a a a c d d NO2 a d d CO, a = [NO2]2. A c , a c a c c a
CO d a c a a ac . Ca d ac a d a
a a a c a a a , c a b d d b [NO2]2.
L acc a :
Ma ac cc a a
T ac c a a ac a a cc ac a d
S a a a
T a a a a ca b a d d b c
I d a ac c a b a b d a ba a c d c ca a .
U ,
.
T a , , ac d c d a d ac c a c b
1) D c a d a ac ? T a , d ac c ca c d a
I a d ac c a d ba a c d c ca a , a c
c a .
I a d ac c a d ba a c d c ca a , b c
d b d a a ac .
2) D ac c a d a d ac ?
I d a , a c a . I
a a ac d a d a T 1 c a d d
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P 4.13
A a a , a d c a b ac b NO2 a d CO d c CO2 a d NO:
NO2( ) + CO( ) → CO2( ) + NO( ) b d a a : = [NO2]2
P d c a :
NO2( ) + NO2( ) → NO3( ) + NO( ) T 1: I c a c
NO3( ) + CO( ) → NO2( ) + CO2( ) a ac ?
T 2: I a a c
a a a ?
A a c d a , a d c a b ac b NO a d C2 d c NOC :
2NO ( ) + C 2( ) → 2NOC ( ) b d a a : = [NO]2[C 2]
P d c a :
NO ( ) + C 2( ) NOC 2( ) T 1: I c a c
NOC 2( ) + NO( ) → 2NOC ( ) a ac ?
T 2: I a a c
a a a ?
[W ca b ac a a b ( a a c d a , a a a a
) ac a b a T 2.]
I :
1) D ac c a c b d ba a c d c ca a .
2) I c a c , c c d c a a
2a) N b : D
2b) E b : S ;
.R .
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P 4.14
W d a a b a b ?
U a b a .
2A + B → C + D = [A][B]
W c c a c b d a a ? I a c a c ,
. F a a a c , c .
(a) A + B
⇋
C + M a b
M + A → D
(b) B⇋ M aM + A → C + X
A + X→ D
(c) A + B⇋ MM + A → C + X
X → D
U a b a .
2 NO + B 2 → 2 NOB = [NO]2[B 2]
I c a c b d a a ? J .
B2 + NO → NOB
2
NOB 2 + NO → 2 NOB a
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U a b a .
H2 + 2 IB → 2 HB + I2 = [H2][IB ]
W c c a b d a a ? J a c .
(a) 2 IB + H 2 → 2 HB + I2
(b) H 2 + IB → HI + HB
HI + IB → HB + I2
(c) H 2 + IB → HB I + HH + IB → HB + I
HB I→ HB + I
I + I → I2
T ac 2 NO + C2 → 2 NOC a b d b a a = [NO]2[C 2]. T c a
a b d ac :
NO + C 2 NOC 2
NOC 2 + NO → 2 NOC
W c a a d c ? J .
T c a a b d ac b NO a d d d d a
NO( ) + NO( )
⇋
N2O2( )
N2O2( ) + H2( ) → N2O( ) + H2O( )
T d a a a = [NO]2[H2]. J a c a c a a .
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P 6: CATALYSTS
A ca a a d
a c a a ac
. T
ca a d c a a
ac a , a d
a c a a
ac . T a , ac a
a ac
d, a
. N c a d
c a ∆H , a a a d
a a
ca a d ca a d
ac .
A
. T c a d a , c a d c
a d a ac a ab . E a
a ca a .
F 26. N ,
. Y
. A ,
E .
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P 1: THE CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM
I a d c ac N2O4, a c
NO2, a b a . T ac a
N2O4( ) → 2 NO2( )
W a a a d ca
c c N2O4 NO2, ca
ac , a d ca a d
I ad, c N2O4 ac a d a c
b NO2, c a d ac ,
N2O4 → 2NO2, cc a a a a a ac , 2NO2 → N2O4. T a ca ,
c a d a d c cc a a a c c a ac a a d d c ac c
c c a . I c ca b a a c .
B b :
O c ac a a d d c ca b d add d ca ac b . O
ac b , a c a d .
R ac d b ac d, b ad cc b d c a a a . R ac a a ac d b d c a a a c c a ac a a d d c
a b c c a ac a a d d c .
T a c a ab ca b d d a d c ca b .
P 2: GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF EQUILIBRIUM
T a Pa 88 a a a d b :
.
Ra a c c c a ac a a d ac c a
ac c c c a b ac a a d d c ac , a d c c
a b c c a . I a a d da d a c
ac a cc a a a . N c a d a [N 2O4] = [NO2]. A b , d c NO2 a
d c N2O4, a d (a a c c a a
c a a a ).
F 27.T N 2O4 NO 2 .
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B ca ac d c ,
a ,⇋, d ca a ac ac a b cT d a ac a ac b a
c . O d a d b d d a
C d c d b a a a a
ac , ac cc : N2O4 → NO2 a d NO 2 → N2O4.
P 3: QUANTITATIVELY EXPRESSING EQUILIBRIUM
A b , a b c c a d c a d ac a . T a ca b d
, c a a a . W c c a a a d a a
a b . F , , d c c a d b . (T
a ac ab da b : a d a c a ac a d a c a ac . I a a
c , a ac , a d a d a c a ac a a a a .) L c
ac a ab : N2O4( )⇋ 2 NO2( ).
P 5.1
W a a ac , N2O4( ) ⇋ 2 NO2( ) ; a cc ..
A b , a a ca a b a a a d c a ?
B ca a a a b a a a ( . ., a a aa d = a a a ) ca
a a a a a :
F 28 . A , ,
.
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I a a a ca ac a c a
c a , a d a c a
a ab ca d b c a . W
b c a Pa 4.F ,
, K K .
W a a a c c a ac a a d
d a c a a b
b b ac d.I ,
. S , a
a b a a c d b a
c c a , a c c a .I
!
F a , b c b a d a ca , a b
d c . T c ab b a b d . Y
d a ab a .
P 4: THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
B ca c c a ac a a d d c a b ac d a c a
c c a a b , b a c a a a a
d c ca c . (R ca a a a a a d d a c c a
E . T accb ca b ac a a d d c d d c , a c c a
c a . 3
G a a c a a b ,
A + B ⇋ C + D b a d ac a
= [ ][ ][ ][ ]
3 I , .
F 29.T : , .
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A d, b ca b ca b ac d d c , c d a ac
= [ ][ ][ ][ ] T , b b c c a d a b c a . Y c
c . Y , K K ′
, ,
. E b , a a , a a d c c a , .
W a b a c c a c , b c aK , a d K a
a ac , b a a a a a . F a , a a
2A( ) + B( )⇋ C( ) + 3D( ), d K a
=
T a b K c a d K a :
= ∆ ∆ ( d c a ac a a ),R = 0.0821 L a / K, a d T a
P 5.2
W b ac b a d a d d c
b K a d K .
A) 2O3( ) ⇋ 3O2( )
B) 2NO ( ) + C 2( ) ⇋ 2NOC ( )
C) A +(a ) + 2NH 3(a ) ⇋ A (NH3)2+ (a )
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P 5: THE MAGNITUDE OF THE EQUILIB
Ma d a c d d
c d , b d
a d b c a ca a
T b c a ab c
a ac cc a
c a ca ac a ca
A , K > 1,
ac d c ca d c , a d
b , ac
A , K < 1,
ac d c ca d c ,
b , ac
R ,
a d K c 1.49 108. W a
P 5.3
D a d d c
ac d c a
N2( ) + O2( )
⇋ 2N
H2( ) + I2( ) ⇋ 2HI
W d K = K
IUM CONSTANT
a d b c a . I a c
a ac a ab
d a ac d c a d
a b : a d ,
d d c d c . T ,
c a b .
,
b c a a a a a
d c a d.
,
a d b c a a a a
ac a a d.
. I
b c a a d ac 1.49
ac d c d c b
d ac a a d d c d c d ?
O( ) K = 1 10 30 a 298 K
( ) K = 794 a 298 K
ac ab ?
91
d c a c
d c d c . T
ac a a d.
c , d
b
. T a a a . W ca a a
. T a a ac a . W ca a a
a a
10 8.
ac . T a , a
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P 6: MANIPULATING EQUATIONS ANDK VALUES
W c d a a a c a a d b c a ca b a a d:
• C ,
. T a b b
c . F a , a N2( ) + O2( ) ⇋ 2 NO( ) b d 2 N2( ) + 2 O2( ) ⇋ 4 NO( ), cca b c a b , a :
K (N2( ) + O2( ) ⇋ 2 NO( )) = 1 10 30 a 298 K, K (2 N 2( ) + 2 O2( ) ⇋ 4 NO( )) = 1 10 60 a 298 K
• C
. T a b a a c c a d
a a . F a , b d a b
NOB ( ) + C 2( )
⇋ 2 NO( ) + 2 B C ( ). A d a a , d a b c a
ac a d ac :
2 NOB ( ) ⇋ 2NO( ) + B 2( ) K = 0.42B 2( ) + C 2( ) ⇋ 2B C ( ) K = 7.2
M a K (0.42 7.2) = 3.0 a b c a ac .
• R K , a a Pa 4. T ca a b b ca
a ac d c a d ac a .
P 5.4
2 A 2 B + C (K ,1 = 4.0) a d C + D 2 E ( K ,2 = 6.0)
S a d b a ac c a a b c a .
S a ac ab d 2 A + D2 B + 2 E K ,3 = K ,1 K ,2
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P 7: HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA
S a a c d d b ab d b c a a . ., a a . H
d a c d b a a a b ab d ac a a d d c a b a a . F
b ab d ac b a c :
CaCO3( ) ⇋ CaO( ) + CO2( )
F a a c d4, b a b ac cc
. T , b ab ac
K = P CO2
T a c d b a d a a .
• P . H , .
P 5.5
D a b c a ac : 2HF(a ) + C2O42 (a )⇋ 2F (a ) + H2C2O4(a ) da a:
HF(a )
⇋ H
+(a ) + F (a ) K = 6.8 10
4
H2C2O4(a ) ⇋ 2H
+ + C2O42 (a ) K = 3.8 10 6
W a d a K a a ab d c b a
ac ?
U a b c a a ac d a a .
I ac cc a a d c ? J a .
4 T ; 1 .
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W b ac .
CO2( ) + H2( ) ⇋ CO( ) + H2O( )
S O2( ) + 2CO( ) ⇋ S ( ) + 2CO2( )
S ( ) + 2H+(a ) ⇋ S 2+(a ) + H2( )
C d a d c c b d a d K . D c b a d a ac a a c c .
P 8: CALCULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS
T a d ca c a a b c a , a d a d . T ca cK
b d a ab a c a a c a a .
• I
. D
. T , .
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P 5.6
Ca c a b c aK a d K d c a a a 745 K. T
b c a :
N2: 2.46 a H 2: 7.38 a NH 3: 0.166 a
Ca c a b c a a ac c ac d a 298 K. T a c c a
c a b a :
[CH3COOH]: 0.0165 M [H+]: 0.000544 M [CH3COO ]: 0.000544 M
W c b c c a a a a , b
a d c ac ca d a d d
a a a da a ca b b a d. S a ab a a ca
c a a d b a . O c c d, b a
d a b d dK c.
1. Tab a a a d b c c a c
b c a . D c d d, d
c .
2. Ca c a c a c c a c c b a a d
b c c a a .
3. U c ac c c d
c a a c a c d b .4. Ca c a b c c a . U a ca c aK c.
O a a c a a a a
d c d ab . I ac ca , a da a b a a ab ; d a d
b c ca d a d a b a .
P ,
!
F 30.G ,
K .
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P 5.7 D a K b ab d b a a a d a d c
a a d d d . T a c c a 5.0 L a 0.0124M a a. T [OH ] a b
0.000464 M a 298 K.
W : W a b c c a a d c , a d a a c c a a
W : W d b c c a a ac a a d d c d dK .W : W a ab a a a c d d b
c c a c .
S a ab ( d ca d a ICE c a ) a d a c . A a
b a d ba a c d . Tab c d a c c a , c a c c
b c c a .
NH3( ) H2O( ) ⇋ NH4+( ) OH ( )
I a
XC a
E b
(N c a d c d d a b b . P
d a d a c d d; , d a a a.)
D c a a c a a d b a a . H , ca ca c a∆[OH ].
NH3( ) H2O( )
⇋
NH4+( ) OH ( )
I a 0.0124
X
0.0 0.0
C a
E b 4.64 10 4
U c d c a a d b c c a c
NH3( ) H2O( ) ⇋ NH4+( ) OH( )
I a 0.0124
X
0.0 0.0
C a + 4.64 10 4
E b 4.64 10 4
U b a d c c a a b dK .
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D a K b ab d b d a d d c
d d a d a . A 1000 K, a c a a d d a a
b , a a d b 0.200 a .
S a ab a d a c . A a a d b a d ba
.
D c a a c a a d b a a .
U c d c a a d b c c a c
U b a d c c a a b dK .
T a PC5 a ac a d c a a a d a 4.50 a . A d c a d
ab b , a c a a a d a 7.00 a . U
d a K a d K d c PC5. T d c a PC3( ) a d C 2( ).
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P 9: REACTION QUOTIENTS
F a a c a a d , ac a b a d b ac a , a d
d c , a b a b . W a b d d c a b
• D Q,
U a a ac , ca d ac a a c a .T
. T ac a d c ac a a a c a ac aW ca c a a a d d aK , a a a . Y d a ad a
c c a a a K , ac a b . (K a a c a ca Q.)
P 5.8W a ac ,Q, a 2.00 H2( ) , 1.00 N 2( ) , a d 2.00 NH 3( ) ac d a
2.00 L c a ? (H : W ca a aK K .)
• U Q.
O c a d d ac
, ca c a a
b
c a . T c a Q K
a d d c b d a d
d c ac a
d c , a
a b .
F 31.T . I
, .
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