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2.
Treaty of Tordesillas penned in 1494, between Spain and Portugal; divided the two countries'
sphere of influence; gave Brazil and Africa to Portugal, and western South America/North
America to Spain
3. Jamestown the first permanent English settlement in the Americas; established in 16074. Joint-Stock Company a company whose ownership is divided by separate shareholders
5. Plymouth Colony established in 1620 in present-day Eastern Massachusetts, it was founded
by Separatists and Anglicans alongside Jamestown as one of the earliest successful European
colonies in North America
6. Mayflower Compact signed in 1620 by the Separatists who were fleeing England; the first
governing document of Plymouth Colony
7. Massachusetts Bay Colony the administration controlling English colonial settlements in
present-day Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Maine, and other states in New England
8. John Winthrop a Puritan lawyer - one of the leading political figures in the formation of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony followed 1630
9. Puritans English Protestants, particularly Calvinists
10. John Calvin a French theologian, breaking from Roman Catholic tradition and the rest of
Protestantism
11. Salem Witch Trials trials held in Massachusetts in 1692 and 1693 regarding the apparent
witchcraft practices of the accused 28 people
12. Pequot Massacre an attack made on a Pequot Indian village by men of Massachusetts Bay on
May 26, 1637; done in retaliation for previous Pequot attacks on English settlers
13. Metacom's Rebellion (King Philip's War) conflict in the 1670s between the Pequots,
English settlers, and Mohegans against an alliance of Native Americans rebelling against
English colonial rule; ended in the defeat of the rebels
14. Virginia House of Burgesses the first legislature in North America established by European
settlers that contained elected representatives, first held in Jamestown in 1619
15. Maryland Act of Toleration written in 1649 in Maryland, establishing essential religious
toleration and acceptance of Christians in the Province of Maryland
16. Bacon's Rebellion a rebellion led by Nathaniel Bacon in 1676 against Governor Berkeley's
policies towards the commonplace Indian attacks along the frontier; first rebellion in the
Americas involving settlers being discontent with government rule
17. Indentured Servitude a system employed by planters and leaders of colonial provinces to
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bring laborers to the English colonies to provide for the labor of planting and harvesting cash
crops; indentured for a fixed time to work for their master
18. Headright System a system in which the governors/leaders of colonial provinces would
provide acres of land to a master each time a laborer was brought over to the colonies due to
indentured servitude; an incentive to increase production of cash crops, and the overallproductivity of the colonies
19. Roger Williams an early supporter and proponent of religious toleration and the separation of
church and state in the English colonies; established the Province of Rhode Island and
Providence Plantations (Rhode Island) in 1636, which became a haven for Christian and other
religious minorities
20. Anne Hutchinson a key participant in the religious and political controversy and debate in
Massachusetts from 1636-38
21. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut essentially the first constitution in North America;
established 1639
22. Halfway Covenant a way to give partial church membership to the descendants of original
church members
23. Quakers broke from the Church of England in the mid-1600s, emphasizing non-violence and
a simple life free of extravagance
24. William Penn a Quaker who founded the Province of Pennsylvania and began development
and construction of the city of Philadelphia
25. Mercantilism an economic doctrine that states that government control of trade and
economic activities is the only sure way of economic prosperity; a common practice in 1600s
and 1700s English colonies
26. Navigation Acts series of laws passed by Parliament that started to prohibit trade between the
North American colonies and foreign powers (mostly France, Spain, and the Netherlands) in
order to maximize the economic productivity of the colonies
27. Great Awakening a religious phenomenon in the early 18th century that spanned most of
British North America, encouraging the spread of Christianity and a revitalization in religious
zeal
28. Johnathon Edwards a Calvinist theologian often cited as one of America's greatest
intellectuals and philosophers
29. George Whitefield an Anglican preacher and proponent of the Great Awakening
30. John Peter Zenger a German journalist and printer who was editor of the New York Weekly
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Journal; accused and acquitted of libel after revealing corruption of New York City government
officials
31. Albany Plan an idea proposed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754 (during the French and Indian
War) to create a unified central government of the colonies to coordinate the war effort
32. Salutary Neglect a British policy of avoiding strict adherence and upholding ofParliamentary laws to keep the Thirteen Colonies in line
33. Ben Franklin a political theorist, politician, author, printer, inventor, and later one of the
founding fathers of the United States
34. John Locke widely known as the father of classical liberalism, an early advocate for
capitalism, which conflicted with the wildly popular ideas of mercantilism in the day
35. French and Indian War the North American theater of the Seven Years' War; fought between
Great Britain and the Kingdom of France. While the Iroquois sided with the British, most
Native Americans joined the French. Ended with the British capture of Quebec
36. Pontiac's Rebellion war between British authorities and a confederation of Native American
tribes
37. Treaty of Paris (1763) the treaty that ended the French and Indian War, with the Kingdom of
Great Britain victorious over France and Spain; resulted in cession of the rest of North America
to Great Britain
38. Paxton Boys Scots-Irish vigilantes in central Pennsylvania that began to retaliate against local
Native American actions following the French and Indian War and Pontiac's Rebellion;
responsible for the Conestoga Massacre; stopped by Benjamin Franklin
39. Regulators North and South Carolineans that participated in an uprising against corrupt
British colonial officials from 1765 to 1771; often regarded as as a preliminary action to the
American Revolution
40. Iroquois Confederacy the Five Nations established by Dekanawida and Hiwatha; the
Seneca, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Cayuga tribes; later the Tuscarora came from the
Carolinas and were integrated as well
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Chapter IEarly Native Americans
majority of Native Americans (near 40 million) inhabited Central America when
Columbus arrived in 1492 and in Peru (the Incan Empire); another 7 million in Northern
United States and Canada
creation stories varied among Native American groups; Iroquois ancestors fell from sky
most original Native American ancestors came by land across the Bering Land Bridge
Tuscarora Indian tradition claims that a famine in the Old World (Eurasia) forced
ancestors to travel east, where the New World gave them abundant game and food
Olmecs began the flowering of civilization in Central America around 700 BC, living
along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico
by 200 BC more than 20,000 people were living in the Mayan city of Tikal; most
however were farmers
highest-ranking aristocrats claimed descent from the gods and effectively controlled
Mayan society
Mayan art depicted jaguars, warriors and combat, and complex and elaborate religious
rituals
astronomers created an accurate calendar that predicted eclipses of the sun and moon
another large civilization developed in Central Mexico, centered around the city of
Teotihuacan, which had the Pyramid of the Sun and 100 other temples, and over 100,000
residents by 800, however, long-term drought and invasions of nomadic peoples
brought about its fall
the Aztecs constructed Tenochtitlan on Lake Texcoco in Central Mexico in 1325
mastered the irrigation techniques of native peoples and established an elaborate culture
and society with a focus on order
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Aztecs were highly aggressive and eventually subjugated most of Central Mexico; often
demanded sacrifices from among subjugated peoples to ensure fertile fields and the
reign of the emperor
by 1500 Tenochtitlan had more than 200,000 inhabitants, far larger than most European
cities of the time
societies and Native American groups north of the Rio Grande were generally less
organized and complex
most parts of independent tribes, clans, or families
elders and chiefs ruled with limited power, governing through consent; therefore not
technically a ruling class
around 100 AD, the Hopewell people in Ohio had domesticated plants and organized a
system of large villages, with a trading network stretching from Louisiana to Wisconsin
imported copper from the Great Lakes, obsidian from the Yellowstone region, and
pottery from the Gulf of Mexico
built large burial mounds that still exist
around 400, for unknown reasons, the trading network collapsed
around 600 AD, the Hohokam people emerged in Arizona and New Mexico, utilizing
irrigation to grow large amounts of crops to support growth
by 1000 AD they were constructing large multi-room houses called pueblos
by 900 AD the Anasazi people became master architects, to the north
however, extended droughts and soil exhaustion from large-scale irrigation disrupted
maize production around 1150 AD, collapsing most of Pueblo society
the last large-scale culture to emerge north of the Rio Grande was that of the
Mississippian people around 800
planting new strains of maize and beans, the Mississippians produced an agricultural
surplus that allowed them to live in small, fortified temple cities
by 1350, however, the Mississippians were in rapid decline, suffering from
overburdening the environment and depleting nearby forests and herds of deer
the Eastern woodland Native American groups, chiefly the Iroquois peoples, were highly
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matrilineal in nature; women cultivated the fields
when Europeans eventually arrived, most Indians inhabiting the Eastern woodlands
lived in small kinship-based societies; the city-states that had been along the Mississippi
and in the Southwest had vanished
Europeans Encounter Africa and the Americas
by 1400, Europe had just come out of the Black Plague
Chinese merchant vessels and exploratory fleets had already reached the Eastern coast
of Africa
Muslim-dominated Middle East controlled all of Europe's trade with the Far East
in 1450, only Naples, Paris, and London had as many as 100,000 residents
the large majority of European people were peasants, whose families were leased homeson the land of a lord in return for working the fields
disease and malnourishment wracked the ranks of peasants, however
disease killed half of all peasant children before the age of twenty-one
before 1500, princes and kings benefited from the labor of the peasants, and conscripted
en-masse their subjects to participate in wars
the lower and upper nobles, however, had far more influence than the monarch
European society highly patriarchal; wife and children had to submit to father of the
household
originally most Europeans were pagan; the advent of Christianity taught to convert
pagans and to remove heretical teachings inconsistent with the teachings of the Church
Renaissance began due to flourishing and mixing of arts with the Middle East
the rich cities of Venice and Genoa, which maintained a monopoly on Eastern goods
flowing to Europe, were republics practiced civic humanism which emphasized loyalty to the state
Michelangelo, Andrea Palladio, and Filippo Brunelleschi designed great architectural
wonders
Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Jacopo Bellini produced magnificent works of ark and
paintings
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Niccolo Machiavelli wrote The Prince in 1513, a guide to ruling; viewed humans as
inherently evil
monarchs allowed merchants to trade through their realms
Portugal, under the direction of Prince Henry (1394-1460) led a surge of maritime
commercial expansion
instigated an attack on the Muslim port of Ceuta, which revealed the trade of gold and
slaves across the Sahara
oversaw the creation of the caravel
by 1435 Henry's explorers had reached Sierra Leone where they traded salt, wine, and
fish for African ivory and gold
West African Society most West Africans lived in extended families composing smaller villages and farmed
nearby plots
lived in diverse ethnic groups and spoke four basic languages
there were some, however, city-states that produced high-quality leather, metals, textiles,
and pottery
new plants and animals introduced to West Africa by European traders
after 1492, maize, manioc, and tomatoes were introduced to Africa from the trade with
the Americas
however, yellow fever, malaria, and dysentery often killed many European traders and
explorers venturing into Sub-Saharan Africa
in 1488, Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope
in 1498, Vasco da Gama landed in India, circumnavigating the Middle East trading
routes that fed to the cities of Venice and Genoa, which had previously maintained a
monopoly on East Asian goods and services
soon the Portuguese government set up fortified trading posts along the African coast
Portuguese began to involve in the African slave trade in the late 1400s
significant number of African slaves were trade slaves
by 1550, the maritime slave trade expanded enormously as Europeans set up sugar
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plantations in Portuguese Brazil and the Caribbean region
The Spanish conquest
Spanish reconquista sought to push Muslims from Iberia
in 1492, Granada was captured and the Muslims were pushed from now-Christian Iberia
Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon commissioned the Genoan
mariner Christopher Columbus to open up a second route to India to compete with the
Portuguese
Columbus believed the native tribes would easily convert to Christianity, and demanded
tribute from the Arawak, Taino, and Carib peoples
In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon explored the coast of Florida
the same year, Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and became thefirst European to see the Pacific Ocean
the Conquistador Hernan Cortes led an expedition to Tenochtitlan; captured and killed
the Aztec emperor Montezuma and destroyed Tenochtitlan, killing thousands with
disease and using the Aztec's enemies to destroy an entire civilization
a smallpox epidemic ravaged Tenochtitlan during the war with Cortes and the Spaniards,
which killed Montezuma's brother and thousands of others that were unprepared to deal
with European disease
in 1524, Francisco Pizarro, another conquistador, led an expedition against the Inca
Empire in Peru and the Western Andes mountains
conquered the Inca Empire with 168 men and 67 horses over half of the Inca
population died from European disease by 1532
disease brought Mesoamerican population from 30 million to 3 million from 1500 to
1650
conquistadors and descendants held encomiendas royal grants that gave them legal
control of the labor of the native population, allowing them to gather immense wealth
and influence
horses, animals, and food brought west
the Columbian Exchange resulted in population growth in Europe and provided a new
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source of income for European traders
Mesoamericans and other Native American peoples converted and assimilated en-masse
during initial Spanish colonization
over 350,000 Spaniards immigrated to the royal holdings and colonies in the Americas
between 1500 and 1650
3.2 million Spaniards, 5.5 million mixed Indian and Europeans, 1 million African slaves,
and 7.5 million Indians
The Protestant Reformation
the German monk Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses condemning Catholic practices of
the day, including the purchasing of indulgences for the forgiveness of sins
Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and the Pope sought to imprison him, but the
German princes (that opposed the Emperor due to political reasons and in quest for more
autonomy) harbored Luther and prevented his arrest
Luther rejected the idea of working for salvation and instead believed only faith would
give entrance to Heaven
downplayed the role of the Pope and the clergy as mediators between the people and
God
upheld the belief that the Bible, and not Church doctrine, was the ultimate authority in
matters of faith
John Calvin established the most rigorous Protestant regime
preached the doctrine of predestination lack of free will
King Henry VIII of England initially opposed Protestantism, but when the Pope refused
to grant his request for divorce with his wife (to marry Anne Boleyn), he established the
Anglican Church of England
Puritans including Calvinists and some Anglicans wanted to purify the Church of
England by simplifying its doctrine
Spain and England
gold and silver from Mexico and Peru made Spain the wealthiest nation in Europe, with
King Philip II is most powerful ruler
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presided over city-states in the Low Countries, Italy, America, Africa, and the East
Indies
Philip tried to root out Islam in North Africa and Protestantism in the Low Countries
Spanish-led Christian fleet devastated Ottoman fleet at Lepanto in 1571
Spanish Netherlands became extremely wealthy from trade with Portuguese
Dutch and Flemish revolted in 1566
Elizabeth I sent 6,000 troops to assist the rebels
Philip sought revenge and dispatched the Spanish Armada to defeat the English and
restore Catholicism to England
a fierce storm and the English fleet, led by Francis Drake, defeated the armada easily
oppressed by taxes (to fund his wars) and worried of constant warfare, 200,000
Castilians migrated to the Americas
Dutch merchants created the West India Company
English population increased from 3 to 5 million from 1500 to 1650
wool industry relied on outwork: merchants bought wool from the owners of great
estates and then hired landless peasants to spin and weave the wool to cloth
English economy supported by doctrine of mercantilism; government encouraging of
domestic manufacturing
inflation struck during the Price Revolution
as nobles lost wealth, their power within the House of Lords diminished rapidly
rising gentry members rose in the House of Commons
Price Revolution therefore encouraged representative government and institutions that
previously did not exist or maintain much power/influence
enclosure acts passed by Parliament, allowed owners to fence in open fields that
surrounded many peasant villages and put sheep to grave on them
Little Ace Age around 1600 brought about huge price increases in crops and social
discontent
Chapter II
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France, Spain, and the Netherlands in the Americas
in Mesoamerica, the Spanish seized Indian lands and quickly began converting them to
Catholicism
early Spanish explorers, after seizing Central America, made expeditions into what later
became the Southwestern United States
by 1560s Spanish became determined to defend their colonies from the English
Algonquins destroyed Jesuit religious missions along the East Coast, as far north as the
Chesapeake Bay
military setbacks prompted Spanish crown to adopt Christianization placed primary
responsibility for pacification of new lands under missionaries, rather than conquistadors
Indians that practiced polygamy were whipped and sold into slavery Franciscans converted, assimilated, and used force labor
Franciscans ignored laws protecting native peoples and allowed encomenderos
(landowners) to extract goods and forced labor from natives
in 1610, the Spanish established a system of forced labor in New Mexico, establishing
Santa Fe
Pueblo population over the next two generations lowered from 60,000 to 17,000
Pueblo shaman Pope called for Pueblos to expel the Spaniards
in 1680, a rebellion killed hundreds of Spaniards, but by 1690 they were put down
New France and Canada
in the far Northeast, the French attempted conversion of their own
Louis XIV subsidized immigration to the new colonies, making New France a royal
colony
indentured servants served for 3 years, who were paid yearly and would eventually
receive a lease-hold farm
of 27,000 that migrated to New France before 1760, almost two-thirds eventually
returned to France
New France became a great venture of acquiring profitable furs from the North and West
French introduction of diseases destroyed between 25% and 90% of many Indian groups
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Five Iroquois Nations participated in many fur trading-related wars
could acquire guns and goods from the Dutch and then attack other Indians and the
French by water
the devastation of neighboring Indian tribes by the Iroquois led to undisputed dominance
of upstate New York and full control of trade with the Dutch and the French
by 1701, tired of bloodshed, the Iroquois signed a series of peace treaties with both the
English and French
Jesuits originally founded to counter the Protestant Reformation were the key to
French conversion and assimilation of local Indian peoples
epidemics brought by French traders and missionaries killed thousands
The New Netherlands colony and New Amsterdam by 1600 the Netherlands was the trading hub of Northern Europe
in 1609, Dutch merchants dispatched Henry Hudson to locate a new source of supply in
North America discovered the Hudson River and established Fort Orange (later
Albany, effectively starting the New Netherlands colony)
West India Company established with a monopoly over the fur trade, and established
New Amsterdam; initially failed to prosper
by 1646, only one proprietor Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, succeeded
The English arrive in the Americas
English occupied New Amsterdam and renamed it New York City in 1664
after a Dutch revolt in 1673, it was ruled more like a conquered province than a colony
minor nobles organized first English colonies in 1580s
Sir Humphrey Gilbert's settlement in Newfoundland collapsed for lack of financing, and
Sir Ferdinando Gorges' colony along the coast of Maine foundered due to harsh weather
Sir Walter Raleigh's Roanoke Colony the Lost Colony - most famous in North
Carolina
traders a part of the Virginia Company established Jamestown in 1607, for gold; but
there was none
by 1611 the Company had sent more than 1,200 settlers, but fewer than half survived
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disease and weather destroyed colonies
Powhatan, leader of Algonquin-speaking peoples near Jamestown, treated English as
allies-through-trade
by 1622, land ownership, self-government, and a judicial system attracted some 4,500
new colonists
Indian named Opechancanough became leader of a confederacy of Indian tribes,
renaming himself Massatamohtnock in 1622; led an attack by twelve tribes that killed
347 white settlers, nearly a third of their number
English fought back by seizing Indian food and supplies
sold surviving Indians into slavery
in 1624, King James I and IV revoked the charter for the Virginia Company and made ita royal colony
second tobacco-growing colony in Maryland
King Charles I succeeded James as King, and was secretly sympathetic to the outcast
Catholics
in 1632, he granted the lands bordering the Chesapeake to Cecilius Calvert, a Catholic
aristocrat who carried the name Lord Baltimore
Maryland's population grew quickly as laws prevented persecution of fellow Protestants
tobacco quickly became chief export
prospect of owning land brought thousands to Maryland and Virginia
by 1700 over 100,000 lived there, most as indentured servants
most indentured servants did not escape from poverty
female indentured servants generally fared better than male counterparts
legal slavery did not exist; English common law did not exist chattel slavery (personowning slave as property)
tobacco boom ended in 1660s; limited demand outstripped by high production, causing
extremely low prices
Navigation Acts (1651, 1660, and 1663) restricted trade of colonies to only Great
Britain, with any foreign trade heavily supervised and delivered from British markets in
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Europe
amount of exports increased, despite this, due to increasing population and immigration
to the Americas
elite nobles came to own half of all land in Virginia
by 1720, Charles Carroll owned 47,000 acres of land and had it cultivated and farmed by
hundreds of slaves, indentured servants, and workers
William Berkeley made governor in 1660
number of Indians in Virginia by 1675 was down to just 3,500
fighting broke out in late 1675 when several militiamen murdered thirty Indians; defying
the governor's orders, over 1,000 other militia attacked an Indian village and killed five
chiefs
Indians retaliated by attacking outer settlements and killing 300 whites
Berkeley proposed idea of defensive strategy, with forts ringing the outer territories of
the colonies
Nathaniel Bacon, a young, charismatic, wealthy, and influential man a part of Berkeley's
gubernatorial council, demanded to lead troops against the Indians; denied, he did so
anyway
Bacon was arrested and then freed, and his supporters demanded new elections; new
political reforms curbed the power of the governor and re-established the poor man's
vote
Bacon's army burned Jamestown and plundered the plantations of Berkeley's allies
sudden death of dysentery in October 1676 destroyed the rebellion and order was soon
restored
in 1705 the House of Burgesses legalized chattel slavery formally
The Northeastern Colonies
between 1620 and 1640, thousands of Puritans fled to America many to New England
Pilgrims that settled in Plymouth were religious separatists Puritans who had left the
Church of England
only half of the original 102 Pilgrims survived through the winter to the next spring
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by 1640, there were 3,000 settlers in Plymouth
King Charles dissolved Parliament and claimed power to rule through divine right;
thousands flocked to America
began in 1630 with departure of 900 Puritans led by John Winthrop, who later became
the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony
Winthrop and allies established the Massachusetts Bay Colony, centered around town of
Boston
transformed joint-stock corporation into a representative political system originally the
General Court of shareholders
Puritans tried to recreate simplicity of first Christians, eliminating bishops and placed
power in the hands of the ordinary members of the congregation hence name of
Congregationalist
Puritan magistrates purge their society of religious dissidents to receive God's favor
Challenges to Puritan authority
Roger Williams, a minister of the Puritan church in Salem, north of Boston, taught that
magistrates over only the physical world, but not spiritual lives
followers established Providence and received a corporate charter in 1644 to establish
Rhode Island
Anne Hutchinson put on trial by magistrates in 1637 for teaching that inward grace freed
an individual from the rules of the church
found guilty for having heretical beliefs, and banished; she followed Roger Williams in
exile to Rhode Island
English Civil War
Archbishop Laud imposed a Church of England prayer book on Presbyterian Scotland in
1642, and a Scottish army invaded England, sparking the English Civil War
Parliamentarian forces, led by Oliver Cromwell, secured final victory in 1649, and
Parliament executed King Charles I, then proclaiming a republican commonwealth
when Cromwell took dictatorial control in 1653, popular support began to buckle
after his death in 1658, moderate Protestants and a vengeful aristocracy re-established
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the monarchy and put Charles II on the throne in 1660
viewed as a victory for the Antichrist by many Puritans
Puritanism in the Americas
Puritans believed world filled with supernatural forces
this belief stemmed from Catholic belief in miracles, Protestants with faith in grace,
and even parts from paganism and Native American animism and shamanism
thousands of Puritans followed the pagan astrological charts to determine best times to
marry and plant crops
zealous ministers attacked these practices fervently
between 1647 and 1662, New England civil authorities hanged 14 people for witchcraft,
mostly older women for being double-tongued or having an unruly spirit in Salem in 1692, the Massachusetts Bay authorities arrested and tried 175 for potential
witchcraft, hanging 18 of them and pressing another to death
many were disturbed by the mass-execution, which provided a basis for not prosecuting
people in the future on charges of witchcraft
beginning stages of the Enlightenment also discouraged such accusations (began around
1675 in Europe)
Puritans constantly rejected practices of feudal European society
General Courts of Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut bestowed title of each township
to a group of settlers proprietors who den distributed land among male heads of
families
most adult men participated in town meetings
in Massachusetts Bay Colony, ordinary farmers had more political power than in
Chesapeake Bay area
The Indians in the East
citing the Book of Genesis, the magistrates of Massachusetts Bay declared that Indians
were not native to their land; it belonged to English
like most people of the time, the English Puritans saw the Indians as savages
though not viewed as genetically inferior, they were viewed as whites with sun-darked
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skin who were culturally inferior
Puritans created praying towns
in the 1670s, there were three times as many whites as Indians
roughly 55,000 English
like Opechancanough in Virginia and Pope in New Mexico, Metacom concluded that
only war could save his people; in 1675, he forged an Indian alliance and attacked white
settlements throughout New England
war only ended when Indians ran out of powder, ammunition, and guns; and when
Metacom was killed following a betrayal by the Mohegan and Mohawk peoples
over the course of the 1770s, the Indians would gain revenge against the English
Puritans with help from the Catholic French
all Indian peoples were diminished in number by diseases, guns, and alcohol
trade a strength of the English and French; Indians did not realize the worth of the
animal furs they sold to the Europeans
Iroquois noted for women advising the chiefs; essentially matriarchal
Chapter III
The British in America
initially in the first half of British rule in the 1600s, the government ruled decentralized;
therefore, local oligarchs and governors ruled as they pleased
when King Charles II ascended to the throne, he gave to eight noblemen the area of
Carolina, and gave New Jersey and newly-conquered New Netherlands to James, Duke
of York (his brother), renamed New York
the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina (1669) prescribed to the manorial system,
though not fully carried out inspired by Bacon's rebellion, residents of Albemarle County in 1677 staged their own
uprising
future South Carolina rejected the Fundamental Constitutions
Carolina merchants traded with neighboring Indian peoples by trading manufactured
goods and deerskins
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by 1708, white Carolinians were working on coastal plantations with 1,400 and 2,900
African slaves; South Carolina a violent frontier settlement until the 1720s
settlers in Pennsylvania pursued a pacifist policy in regards to the Indians
in 1681, Charles II gave Pennsylvania to William Penn in due to a debt owed to Penn's
father
designed Pennsylvania as a refuge for his fellow Quakers the Society of Friends
like Puritans, the Quakers wanted to change Christianity back to its early simplicity and
spirituality
rejected Puritan pessimistic doctrine of Calvinism
followed teachings of two English visionaries: George Fox and Margaret Fell; argued
God had imbued all men and women with an inner light of grace and understanding Penn's Frame of Government applied the radical beliefs of the Quakers to political
structure of his colony
ensured religious freedom
prompted thousands of Quakers mostly yeomen to come to Pennsylvania
established city of Philadelphia with wide streets and city parks
Penn published pamphlets in Dutch and German to attract European Protestants
in 1683, Saxon immigrants founded Germantown, which soon became a hub of German
immigrant activity
mercantilism gained hold in English economic circles and helped to manage the
economic growth and trade of the American Colonies
Revenue Act of 1673 placed a plantation duty on American exports of sugar and
tobacco
English government backed the policies of mercantilism by force of arms in three commercial wars between 1652 and 1674, the English drove the Dutch from
New Netherlands, and attacked Dutch forts and ships along the Gold Coast
English merchants expanded their fleets from 150,000 tons to 340,000 tons (1640 to
1690)
many colonists refused to comply with English mercantile laws
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Massaschusetts Bay assembly declared that the laws of England did not apply to the
colonies in America
Lords of Trade began to punish those that opposed the royal/parliamentary edicts on
mercantile trade
denied Massachusetts Bay claims to the territory of New Hampshire and even created a
new colony to spite them, placing it in control of a royal governor in 1679
Change in England affects the Colonies
James II and his accession to the throne in 1685 prompted further imperial regulations
by the King
aggressive and absolutist, he had lived in France during Cromwell's regime, where he
admired the absolutist authority of Louis XIV
believed that monarchs maintained a divine right to rule their realms
James invited political opposition by ignoring the advice of Parliament, revoking many
townships in the Americas, and openly practicing Roman Catholicism
Protestant bishops and parliamentary leaders in the Whig Party led a quick and bloodless
coup known as the Glorious Revolution, deposing James II and forcing him into exile
Whigs did not want a democracy; rather, they craved political power
forced King William and Queen Mary to accept the Declaration of Rights in 1689,
thereby enhancing the power of the House of Commons
cited the works of John Locke (Two Treatises on Government, 1690) to justify their
actions in deposing the King
uprising in Maryland where Puritan leaders seized Governor Andros, supported by
militia, and sent him to England
had economic and religious causes
since 1660, falling tobacco prices hurt smallholders, tenant farmers, and former
indentured servants
in New York, Jacob leisler led rebellion against the Dominion of New England
a former German soldier
initially, all classes and ethnic groups rallied behind him
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denunciation of political rivals soon alienated many English-speaking New Yorkers
William and Mary promoted an empire based on commerce following the absolutist rule
of James II
Parliament created Board of Trade in 1696 to supervise American settlements; resulted
in another period of lax in administration
Creek Indians wanted to be the dominant tribe in their region
in 1704, the Creek destroyed Franciscan missions in northern Florida, attacked
Pensacola, and sold 1,000 Apalachees to South Carolinian slave traders
Iroquois followed policy of peace with English
despite stalemate in the Americas, the English won major territorial and comercial
concessions through its victories in Europe Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 allowed English occupation of Newfoundland, Acadia, and the
Hudson Bay region of Northern Canada from France
British interest in American affairs reflected growth of new agricultural system: centered
around sugar, tobacco, rice, and other subtropical products from the Caribbean and
South America
Africans formed majority of transatlantic migrants to the Western Hemisphere
merchants imported slaves from Africa to provide labor on plantations producing sugar
cultivation of sugar and coffee after 1750 drove the slave trade even further
more English residents in the West Indies than the Chesapeake and New England
colonies combined (44,000 vs 35,000 total)
Scottish economist Adam Smith noted in The Wealth of Nations that sugar was the most
profitable crop in Europe and America
The reliance on the slave trade
at the height of the slave trade (around 1790), Britian was exporting about 300,000 guns
to Africa, to exchange for captives and equip slave raiders, and a British ship carrying
300 to 350 slaves left an African port every other day
stimulated British shipbuilding and manufacturing
Atlantic slave trade uprooted over 11 million Africans
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Middle Passage from the Gold/Slave/Ivory Coast to the New World
nearly 100,000 slaves died on mid-voyage uprisings, and more than a million died of
sickness on the month-long journey (15% of transported slaves)
relentless exploitation of slaves on plantations of Northwestern Brazil and West Indies
sugar prices high and price of slaves low; plantation owners worked slaves to death and
simply bought more
after Bacon's rebellion, planters in Virginia and Maryland took advantage of the
increased British trade in African slaves
a new plantation regime built upon African slavery rather than earlier indentured
servitude
by 1720, blacks made up 20% of the Chesapeake population, and slavery became centralfeature of society
conditions of slaves in the mainland colonies were much less severe than in the West
Indies
slaves in South Carolina labored under oppressive conditions
by 1705, more blacks in SC than whites
slaves came from many states in Western Africa
initially, blacks only thought of themselves as part of a specific state, clan, or family
over time they made friendships and married across ethnic lines
a common language (English, French, or Gullah) was key to allowing the development
of an African American community to take place
African values, despite being suppressed by white slaveowners, persisted through
generations
drastic limits on slave creativity; education was denied and accumulated few materialgoods and private property if any
slaves who disobeyed or resisted would often be lashed or beaten
some newly-arrived Africans fled to the frontier, marrying into Indian tribes or
establishing traditional clans/families
those fluent in English tried to pass as freemen/women
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South Carolina witnessed the largest slave rebellion
Stono Rebelliong of 1739
Spanish governor of Florida promised refuge and freedom for escaped slaves
69 slaves escaped by Feb. 1739
when war broke out between England and Spain in September, 75 Africans revolted and
killed many whites near the Stono river
Slavery expands in the south; society in the Colonies
southern colonies became full-fledged slave societies
William Byrd II, a colonial, mocked in English schools for being such
Virginia estate of 43,000 acres and 200 African slaves failed to impress father of his
would-be wife
to avoid another Bacon's Rebellion, Chesapeake gentry tended to concerns of middle-
and lower-class whites
gradually lowered taxes; encouraged smallholders to improve their economic fortunes
by investing in slaves
Chesapeake and South Carolinian wealthy women emulated the English elite
by 1700, the economies of the West Indies and New England were strongly interwoven
South Atlantic trading system linked the entire British Empire
merchants in Boston, Newport, Providence, Philadelphia, and New York invested their
profits in new ships and factories that processed raw materials into manufactured goods
transatlantic commerce expanded greatly
500 annual voyages in the 1680s to 1,500 in the 1730s
by 1750, populations of Newport and Charleston at 10,000; Boston had 15,000, New
York almost 18,000
Philadelphia the largest at 30,000 in 1776
prosperous merchants dominated seaport cities
in 1750, 40 merchants controlled 50% of Philadelphia's trade; taxable assets averaging
10,000 pounds
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a tailor was lucky to accumulate 30 pounds worth of property, far less than the 2,000
owned by an ordinary merchant at death of the 300 listed in the probate inventory of a
blacksmith
laboring men and women formed lowest rungs of colonial urban society
stagnant commerce threatened the financial security of merchants and artisans
New Politics of the Empire
following the Glorious Revolution, representative assemblies in the Americas followed
the example of the English Whigs, limited the powers of crown officials
many assemblies in the early 1700s refused to give royal governors salaries despite
demands from the King
leading the increasingly powerful legislative assemblies were the wealthy colonial elite most property-owning white men had the right to vote
Parliament persuaded to pass the Molasses Act of 1733 when American rum distillers
began to buy cheap molasses from the French islands
Act allowed mainland colonies to export fish and farm products to the French islands,
but placed a high tariff on French molasses
ten colonial assemblies established land banks, lending paper money to farmers, who
used their land as collateral for the loans
used currency to buy tools or livestock or to pay their creditors, thereby stimulating
trade
Parliament passed Currency Act in 1751, barred New England colonies from
establishing new land banks and prohibited use of paper money to pay private debts
new regulations angered a new generation of political leaders in England
Charles Townshend charged that American assemblies had assumed many duties of the
crown illegally in 1749
in 1650s, England sought to create a government-controlled system of colonies in the
Americas; they had succeeded economically, but internal unrest (Glorious Revolution)
and neglect resulted in increased independence in the American colonies
Chapter IV
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Society in New England
in 1630s, Puritans left England, where handful of nobles owned 75% of the arable land
and relied on servants to farm it
Puritans' commitment to independence did not extend to women
women's subordinate role in society impressed upon them throughout their lives
women assumed role of dutiful helpmates to their husbands throughout all the colonies
bearing and rearing children were equally important tasks
size of farms shrank, many couples chose to have fewer children
despite this, women still remained tightly bound by web of legal and cultural restrictions
property ownership and family authority were closely related
marriage law in 1700s English common law was not contract between equals
father's duty to provide inheritances for children; failure meant loss of status in
community
New England's population doubled every generation
parents had less to give to children; therefore had less control over their lives
New England farmers survived on smaller plots by developing full potential of exchange
of labors and goods between families
the Middle Atlantic colonies (New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania) became home
to peoples of differing origins, languages, and religions
Scots-Irish Presbyterians, English and Welsh Quakers,German Lutherans and
Moravians, Dutch Reformed Protestants, and others
ample fertile land and a long growing season attracted migrants to the Middle Colonies,
compared to New England
despite land demand, many migrants refused to settle in New York's fertile Hudson
River valley
most tenant families hoped that hard work and luck would let them sell enough wheat to
buy their own farmsteads
in rural Pennsylvania and New Jersey, wealth was distributed more evenly
at the other end of social scale, one-half of White population in Middle Atlantic colonies
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owned no land and little personal property
merchants and artisans took advantage of amply supply of labor to organize an outwork
system
bought wool/flax from farmers and paid propertyless workers and land-poor farm
families to spin it into yarn/cloth
Ethnicities and nationalities in the Colonies
Middle Colonies not a melting pot: European migrants held tightly to their traditions,
creating a patchwork of ethnically and religiously diverse communities
migrants preserved cultural identity by marrying within ethnic and religious lines
in Pennsylvania and western New Jersey, Quakers were the dominant social group; firstbecause of their numbers, and later because of social status, wealth, and influence
in 1737, Governor Thomas Penn used dubious tactics to remove the Lenni-Lenape
Quaker vision of a peaceable kingdom attracted 100,000 German immigrants who
were fleeing their homelands because of war and military conscription
Germans soon dominated many districts of eastern Pennsylvania, and thousands more
moved down the Shenandoah Valley into the western parts of Maryland, Virginia, and
the Carolinas
migrants from Ireland accounted for the largest group of incoming Europeans; about
115,000 in number
lured by the place that God has opened a door for their deliverance... all that a man
works for is his own; there are no revenue hounds to take it from us here
in Western Europe, leaders of church and state condemned religious diversity
in colonies, religious sects enforced moral behavior through communal self-discipline
in 1740s, Quaker dominance of Pennsylvania came under attack
by 1750s, ethnic and religious passions flared in Middle Atlantic colonies
The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening
two great European cultural movements hit the Americas in the middle-1700s: the
Enlightenment and Pietism (emphasis of personal relationship with God)
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initially, many turned to folk wisdom to explain the natural happenings of the world
colonists held to beliefs despite scientific revolution of 16 th and 17th centuries, which
challenged both folk and traditional Christian world views
English philosopher John Locke Concerning Human Understanding, Two Treatises
on Government
revolutionary ideas and theories
those ideas came to America by way of books, travelers, and educated immigrants
Benjamin Franklin exemplar of American Enlightenment
like many urban artisans, wealthy Virginia planters, and affluent seaport merchants,
Franklin became a deist: God set wheels in motion for life, but did not directly intervene
in day-to-day affairs Franklin popularized the practical outlook of the Enlightenment inPoor Richard's
Almanack
many educated Americans turned to deism
in 1720s, German migrants carried Pietism to America, sparking a religious revival
American-born Pietist movement appeared in Puritan New England
in 1730s, Jonathan Edwards restored zeal in Congregational churches in the Connecticut
River Valley
Solomon Stoddard taught that God was compassionate and Sainthood was not limited to
a select few; Edwards rejected this
took inspiration from teachings of John Calvin in that men and women were helpless,
and were completely dependent on God
George Whitefield transformed local revivals inspired by Edwards and the Tennants into
a Great Awakening spanned all the British colonies in North America
skilled publicity and compelling presence assisted in transmitting message across the
colonies
Great Awakening very controversial; conservative ministers condemned fainting,
crying out, and convulsions that had become a part of revitalist meetings
undermined the allegiance to legally established churches and tax-supported ministers
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conservative ministers attacked the practice of giving women right to speak at church,
which was becoming popular
Awakening challenged authority of all ministers
in many rural villages, revivalism reinforced communal values of farm families by
questioning the moneygrubbing practices of merchants and land speculators
as religious enthusiasm spread, churches founded new colleges to educate their young
men and to train ministers
in southern colonies (royal crown colonies officially), religious enthusiasm triggered
sharp social conflict
Anglican ministers few in number, and landless whites attended church irregularly
in the southern colonies, the Great Awakening challenged the dominance of both theChurch of England and the planter elite
to halt spread of New Light ideas, Virginia's governor denounced them as false teachings
New Light Baptist ministers had no problem reaching out to ordinary folk and therefore
won large numbers of converts in Virginia in the 1760s
even slaves welcome at Baptist revivals; George Whitefield had urged Carolina slave
owners to bring blacks into Christian fold in 1740s
despite attacks, Baptist numbers continued to grow
by 1775, about 15% of Virginia's whites and hundreds of black slaves had joined Baptist
churches
Baptist revival in the Chesapeake may have changed the form of worship, but did not
change the social order to a significant extent
The French and Indian War
in 1754, both France and Britain had laid claim to much of the land west of the
Appalachians
for decades, native peoples used their control of the fur trade to bargain for guns and
subsidies from French and British officials
at the Albany Congress (meeting between Board of Trade and Iroquois) the British asked
for help against the French
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Benjamin Franklin proposed the Plan of Union; included continental assembly
plan rejected
a rising British statesman, William Pitt, and Lord Halifax, were strong advocates for
colonial expansion
in 1756, the conflict had spread to Europe (Seven Years' War)
William Pitt emerged as architect for British war effort; a master of strategy, both
commercial and military
committed a fleet of ships and 30,000 British regulars to the American conflict
French outnumbered in Americas 14 to 1
forced the French to abandon Fort Duquesne, and General James Wolfe took Quebec
after the Battle of the Plains of Abraham
Montreal captured in 1760, completing the conquest of Canada
Treaty of Paris in 1763 confirmed Britain's triumph
The aftermath and industrial growth
Pontiac's Rebellion: Indians besieged Detroit, killed/captured over 2,000 settlers; result
of French & Indian War
Proclamation of 1763 declared that white settlements west of the Appalachians were
prohibited
Britain's unprecedented economic resources facilitated easy victory over France
mechanical power was a key ingredient of Britain's industrial revolution
colonists increased their exports of tobacco, rice, indigo, and wheat to pay for
manufactured goods
Americans used their profits from trade to buy English manufactures in a consumer
revolution, raising the standard of living
Dutch tenant farmers, Wappinger Indians, and migrants from Massachusetts all laid
claim to land held by the Van Rensselaer and Linvingston families
other land disputes erupted in New Jersey and the Southern Colonies
revival of proprietary claims by manorial lords and English nobles reflected the rising
price of land in the Atlantic coastal plain
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colonial population continued to grow, intensifying demand for arable land
as landowners moved west, they sparked new disputes over Indian policy
violence broke out in backcountry of South Carolina
South Carolina Regulators rose in demand of greater representation in the South
Carolinian government for the western districts and counties
North Carolinian debtors defied the government's authority to save their farms from
grasping creditors and tax-hungry officials
in 1771 (like 1675), colonial conflicts became entwined with imperial politics