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CHAPTER 7
ASSESSMENT OF SEAWATER INTRUSION AND THE EFFECT ON
AGRICULTURE ACTIVITIES IN COASTAL ISLAND AREA
Mohamad Faizal Tajul Baharuddin1* and Mohd Idrus Mohd Masirin
2
1Department of Water and Environmental Engineering,
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
2Research Center for Soft Soils, Office of Research, Innovation, Commercialization and Consultancy,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
*Corresponding author email: [email protected]
Abstract
The suitability of groundwater for agriculture in coastal island area is based on the
closed proximity to ocean area which may easily be influenced by seawater intrusion.
.However, other factors that determines the tolerances of agriculture plants for
groundwater salinity are the difference in elevation height and land cover obtained
along coastal area. In addition, the effect on sea level increase in coastal regions
requires particular attention because it directly threatens the integrity of groundwater
quality and oil palm activities. Thus, the current effect of seawater intrusion on
groundwater systems and the deterioration of these systems as a result of salinity
should be examined with respect to socioeconomic planning.
Keywords—; groundwater, coastal; agriculture, salinity
1. Introduction
Seawater intrusion is a landward migration of seawater into freshwater coastal aquifers [1]. Seawater
intrusion can be caused by natural and human-induced factors such as excessive groundwater
extraction, groundwater recharge variations, sea-level rise and tide effects [2, 3, 4]. Seawater
intrusion can have an impact on coastal area activities such as agriculture, groundwater supply and
aquaculture [5]. Among the two critical socioeconomic activities of coastal area that may likely be
affected by seawater intrusion are groundwater supply and agriculture. Fresh groundwater either at
small islands and mainland of coastal area can be contaminated with saline groundwater through
seawater intrusion from the daily tidal activities. These require special attention in fresh groundwater
planning and management [6]. The occurrence of saline groundwater several places of coastal area in
Malaysia has been reported in the literature. The saline groundwater may come from seawater
intruded into the groundwater aquifer due to daily tidal activities accelerated by the effect of excessive
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pumping of the aquifer. Most of the studies in the literature focused on the assessment of seawater
intrusion to the groundwater condition in their area. The focus of previous studies was salinity
mapping of the groundwater aquifers [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. However, there is still a research gap
regarding the impact of seawater intrusion and current groundwater status towards the
socioeconomics activities such as agriculture of coastal area in Malaysia.
2. Agriculture Activities in Coastal area of Malaysia
Malaysia has over 4,800 km of coastline across the Straits of Malacca, South China Sea, and Sulu
Sea. The coastline of the Straits of Malacca and South China Sea is approximately 1972 km, whereas
that of Sabah and Sarawak crossing South China Sea until Sulu Sea is 2837 km. The breakdown of
the coastline of Peninsular Malaysia is 1386 km for the west coast and 586 km for the east coast.
Coastal areas contribute approximately 13% of the total land mass in Malaysia, with an area of 4.43
million ha [13].
With the long coastline and huge area, the coastal zone of Malaysia has a special socio-economic
and environmental significance, supporting 70% of Malaysia’s population. In addition, the Malaysian
coastal zone is also the center of economic activities encompassing urbanization, agriculture,
fisheries, aquaculture, oil and gas exploitation, transportation, communication, and recreation. Among
the coastal regions in Malaysia, the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia is the most developed socio-
economically, with 57% of its coastline utilized for agricultural activities and 21% utilized for housing,
transportation, and recreational facilities [13].
3. Salinity Effects on Plant at Coastal Area
Salinity is a major environmental factor that causes reduction to plant growth and productivity in
coastal area around the world [14]. It was estimated that more than 100 million has of food producing
areas in the world were affected by salinity. Approximately, 20% of world’s cultivated area and about
half of world’s irrigated coastal lands were reported to be seriously affected by salinity and water
logging [15, 16]. In general, high salinity causes reduction in water absorption potential which leads to
the reduction of freshwater availability to plant. As a result of this trend, there are difficulties for plant
to obtain water and nutrients for growth and survival. Consequently, rapid reduction in growth rate and
productivity is observed in plants [17, 18; 19]. Eleven millions of coastal area faced salinity problems
in South Asia region [20, 21]. The land became unsuitable for cultivation due to the increase in the
salinity levels of soil and subsequently causing great loss in the yield of crops [22]. The increasing
level of salinity was caused by seawater intrusion into agriculture irrigations. Crop production during
dry seasons was limited due to serious saline irrigation water [23].
In Malaysia for instance, the coastal plains in certain places were unsuitable for plant growth due to
salinity problems [24]. Several factors can be attributed to the salinity in the coastal area of Malaysia
where the most significant factors includes seawater intrusion to low elevation coastal landform. Other
factors that also influenced salinity problems were tidal inundation, groundwater seepage and over-
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drainage of adjacent area. Various studies showed plants such as oil palm, rice and turf grass had
been affected by salinity problem in coastal area in Malaysia [25, 26, 27]. The plant most affected by
salinity problem in coastal area of Malaysia is oil palm [24].
The study on salinity problem in relation to oil palm plantation in coastal area of Carey Island,
Selangor was conducted. The study area covered about 2000 ha that has been developed for oil palm
plantation [28]. Before the remedy action on salinity in this area was carried out, the conductivity
values of soil was observed in the range of 0.5 to 2.4 S/m. After irrigation improvement and sufficient
agronomic inputs were conducted, the conductivity values were reduced to about 0.1 or less than 0.1
S/m. As a result of remedy action taken, the yield of fresh oil palm fruit bunches in the fifth year of
harvest for different fields increased from 14 ton/ha/yr to 27 ton/ha/yr. However, some effect of salinity
was still observed in Carey Island through differences in yield between different locations. Areas that
were adjacent to the coastal bund remain relatively more saline through seepage of saline water
compared to other distant sites.
Previous studies focused on salinity problem in order to define suitability of agricultural activities in
spite of the challenge of salinity. However, there was limited study on the effect of seawater intrusion
into groundwater aquifer that relates to agricultural activities at coastal area. Groundwater for
agriculture used in coastal areas can be affected by sea level rise in the 21st century due to climate
change [29]. Climate change is expected to worsen the existing environmental problems along coastal
areas. Future sea-level rise near coastal aquifers may lead to a change in the present hydrogeological
boundary. Saline groundwater is thicker than before and inclined to shifts more to the landward
coastal area in the future [5, 30]. When the effect of sea-level rise combines with huge amount of
water requirements for agriculture, the problem becomes very serious. This phenomenon requires
practical measures to detect the present status of seawater intrusion to groundwater system,
especially in coastal area extensively involved in agricultural activities.
In Malaysia, one of the most important agriculture activities to generate income for the country is oil
palm. Palm oil industry is one of major contribution to Malaysia economy. It is timely to investigate the
saline groundwater status and its impact on oil palm plantation at coastal area.
4. Overview of Oil Palm Plantation of Coastal area in Malaysia
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is the major source of oils and fats traded worldwide. It contributes
to 55.7% of total exports, followed by soybean oil at 14.7% [31]. Southeast Asia is currently the
leading region for oil palm production, with Malaysia being the second largest producer and exporter
in the world after Indonesia [31, 32]. Palm oil industry is the primary sources of income and the major
source of socio-economic growth in Malaysia. The palm oil industry alone provides job opportunities
and livelihood for over half a million people. This number is estimated to increase to 702,000 people
by 2020 [33]. Palm oil industry contributed 7.5% (USD 15,853 million) of the nation’s Gross Domestic
Product in 2009 [34]. The total area planted with oil palm in Malaysia was approximately 4,853,766 ha
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in 2010. The income from oil palm industry provides a lucrative monthly income to small-scale farmers
from MYR 1,200 to MYR 1,800 ha-1. The lucrative income from palm oil production had encouraged
the small-scale farmers, estate plantation, and the government to increase the area for oil palm
plantation in Malaysia. The total area planted with oil palms in Malaysia increased by 3.5% to 4.85
million ha in 2010 compared to the 4.69 million ha in 2009. In Peninsular Malaysia, the total area
planted with oil palms is approximately 2.52 million ha. The concentration of oil palm plantation in
Peninsular is more focused in the West Peninsular Malaysia rather than in the Eastern part. The area
planted with oil palms in the West Peninsular Malaysia is about 1.54 million ha compared to that in
East Peninsular Malaysia with 0.99 million ha [31].
In Peninsular Malaysia, coastal plains with relatively fertile alluvial soils are found on the west coast.
Alluvial soils are also present in some parts of the east coast. Based on the topography factor, areas
with greater than 20° slopes are unsuitable for oil palm plantations. Hence, only 42% of the 33 million
ha of land in Malaysia is suitable for agricultural activity for oil palm [35], and most of these locations
are in coastal areas.
5. Oil Palm Physiography and Salinity Tolerance
In general, the oil palm requires warm tropical climate and high rainfall. Hence, the cultivation of this
plant is at present confined to low lying areas of the global humid equatorial regions. The apparent
best mean temperature range is 24 °C to 28 °C. The ideal rainfall pattern is 2,000 mm year-1 to 3500
mm year-1, evenly distributed throughout the year with a minimum of 100 mm month-1
[36]. The oil
palm has an adventitious root system with four orders; namely, primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary (Figure 1). The length of the primary roots system varies by approximately 3 to 6m,
whereas the second roots can penetrate below 1.5 m [37; 38]. This secondary root can possibly reach
the high groundwater table. The amount of available water held in soil (unsaturated zone) is very
important for the tertiary and quaternary root systems that cannot extend deeper in the soil. The total
length for all root systems is estimated to be approximately 9000 km ha-1
at usual planting densities
[39]. The root system plays an important role for extracting nutrients and water for the growth of oil
palm. All the facts regarding physiography discussed above can cause a significant impact on the
hydrology and hydrogeology of oil palm cultivation. Among the hydrological and hydrogeological
parameters that influence the oil palm plantations at the coastal area are recharge,
evapotranspiration, and salinity tolerance. Salinity tolerance is the most important factor in
determining the impact of soil salinity to plant suitability and sustainability to grow at coastal area.
Plant tolerance limit based on salinity was introduced for Peninsular Malaysia as listed in Table 1 [40].
The tolerance limit is considered as a limitation to crop growth, together with 13 other soil factors. The
tolerance limits of crops commonly grown in Malaysia were proposed based on electrical conductivity
(EC) of soil in the root zone. Another salinity tolerance limit was proposed as listed in Table 1 [24]. To
distinguish between degrees of salinity, the EC of the soil in a mixture with water at a ratio of 1:5 at 25
°C was used. The limit proposed for the different degrees of salinity on the basis of the EC of soil–
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water mixture in the ratio of 1:5. These limits are almost the same as those used in the to develop
plant tolerance limit [40]. As the system was based on crop tolerance under Malaysian conditions, the
limits proposed [40] should be acceptable for broader use [24]. The suitability of oil palm towards
salinity at 0.5 m of soil depth was proposed as listed in Table 1 [41]. Comparisons of the different
degree of salinity, plant tolerance and oil palm tolerance for various electrical conductivity range
conducted by previous studies [24, 40, 41] is indicated in Table 1.
Few studies have been conducted in Malaysia to classify plant tolerance towards soil salinity as
shown in Table 1.The limit for the classification in Table 1 is very similar to that in the study conducted
by previous studies [24, 40]. The soil salinity and oil palm tolerance suggested [41] can be widely
used under Malaysian condition whether for saturated or unsaturated condition. When the EC limit
exceeds 0.4 S m-1
, the oil palm will not be able to tolerate the salinity, eventually leading to the death
of the plant [41].
Carey Island is one of the islands in Malaysia with major oil palm plantation that generate income of
about RM 120 million per year [42]. A big part of the island is facing Straits of Malacca and has high
potential to the exposure of seawater intrusion. Carey Island was chosen as the study area to
determine the status of seawater intrusion into groundwater system. The assessment of current
seawater intrusion to Carey Island would predict the limitation on the groundwater salinity towards oil
palm plantation activity.
Figure 1: Diagram of the oil palm root system [37]
Table 1: Different degree of salinity, plant tolerance and oil palm tolerance for various electrical
conductivity ranges
EC value
(S/m)
Degree of
salinity
[40]
Plant tolerance
[24]
Oil palm plant
tolerance
[41]
> 0.4
Severely
saline
very serious
limitation
Not suitable
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0.2 – 0.4
Moderately
saline
serious
limitation
Moderately suitable
< 0.2
Non-saline moderate
limitation
Suitable
6. Effect of Salinity on Agriculture Activities
The effects of groundwater salinity due to seawater intrusion for the two types of land cover at Carey
Island revealed that saline water can be found at a depth of 10 m at the east of unconfined aquifer
(the coastal area experiencing severe erosion). Compared to the west area, the saline groundwater
affected by seawater intrusion was found at 21 m from the ground surface [43, 44, 45, 46]. This
situation has resulted in different limitations of the suitability of groundwater based on salinity
tolerances for oil palm.
The west area has thicker (31 m) suitable water for oil palm compared with the east (14 m). The
prediction on the sea-level rise in the twenty-first century around the world [5] stated that the sea level
rise will cause an increase in the seawater intrusion to the groundwater system at coastal areas. The
study of the prediction of the local scenario sea-level rise showed that the mean sea-level rise rates
at Port Klang (24 km away from Carey Island) using Special Report on Emissions Scenarios B1, A1B
and A2 scenarios is 0.387 m. The prediction is based on the predicted slope from 2001 to 2100 [47].
The unconfined aquifer facing the severe erosion area showed that the groundwater level measured
from the mean sea level is with the value of 0 to 0.3 m with TDS value of 12,000 mg/L (salinity
condition that can kill the oil palm) at the depth of 14 m from ground surface. Based on the Ghyben–
Herzberg assumption, a 0.5 m increase in the sea level will cause a 20 m reduction in the thickness of
the freshwater storage. The assumption predicted that this area will become unsuitable for oil palm
plantation much earlier than the area on the north-west which still has mangrove forest. Furthermore,
the root zone system of the oil palm can reach down to 1 to 6 m where this zone is in the water
saturated condition with the high groundwater table between 0.738 m and 1.560 m from ground level
data. The current phenomenon in the unconfined groundwater aquifer system at the severely eroded
area summarized in Figure 2.
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Figure 2: Diagram shows the interaction between severe erosion, mangrove and oil palm in costal
island
7. Limitations and Advantages of Suitability of Oil Palm towards Salinity
This chapter presented the current limitations and suitability of oil palm towards salinity. This issue is
critical especially at the unconfined aquifer that faces the severely eroded coastal area. The factors
that determines the tolerance of oil palm for groundwater salinity are different surface characteristics
between the west and east area as well as the finding of the salinity distribution of groundwater.
8. Conclusions
Groundwater contamination is a serious issue because it depletes fresh groundwater resources.
Groundwater resources in coastal areas are exposed to seawater intrusion because coastal areas are
nearby to the sea. Seawater intrusion can induce groundwater salinity, which could affect
groundwater resources and socioeconomic activities such as agriculture along the coastal areas. This
situation becomes more severe in island coastal areas as the primary water resources are mainly
from freshwater lenses. Other factors that determines the tolerance of water supply and oil palm for
groundwater salinity are different elevation height and land cover between the west and east area as
well as the finding of the salinity distribution of groundwater. The east area has a low surface
elevation and no mangroves covered by the the coastal area. Compared with the west area, surface
characteristics in the east area naturally provides a more conducive environment for seawater
intrusion into the groundwater system.
Mangrove Salinity Tolerance, TDS < 19,000 mg/L to 43,000 mg/
Oil Palm Salinity Tolerance, TDS < 12,000 mg/L
Severe erosion
Seawater Salinity, TDS = 39,000 mg/L
Vertical roots length ~3-6m
Freshwater and Brackish water
Below 15m depth, TDS more than 12,000 mg/L (Saline Water)
Water table ~0.5-1.0 above mean sea level
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The middle area between east and west has a high topography which prevents the migration of
salinity from the east to the west. The middle area also showed the dominance of brackish water as a
result of the seepage of saline water from the main canal that is located in this area. The variations in
the hydrogeology conditions, such as terrain effects, vegetation pattern and sea level rise, are among
the factors that can contribute to groundwater salinity. In this study, the terrain effect and land cover
were considered significant to seawater intrusion due to high variations (1.3-2.3m) in the elevation
and land cover of the study area. These might have a major influence on the wider saline-brackish
water distribution in the south-east where the semi-confined aquifer was located and showed low
elevation and no mangrove covered compared to the west area. According to the Ghyben-Herzberg
assumption, a 0.5 m increase in the sea level will reduce the thickness of freshwater storage by 20 m.
The predicted sea level rise in the 21st century will increase seawater intrusion in the area. Based on
the predicted slope from 2001 to 2010 by a prediction study of sea level rise, which used the B1, A1B,
and A2 scenarios from the special report on emissions scenarios, the rate of the mean sea level rise
at Port Klang is 0.387 m. Based on the Ghyben-Herzberg assumption and local scenario sea-level
rise prediction, the east area will become unsuitable for water supply and oil palm plantation much
sooner than the west area, which still has a mangrove forest.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the editor and reviewers for their effort in organizing and
formatting the material for this book. The project has been made possible by a research grant
provided by the Institute of Ocean and Earth Science (IOES) University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
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