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A
MODEL
FOR
CONDUCTING
A
FUNCTIONAL
ANALYSI
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S
OF
ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE
PROBLEMS Abstract: The
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purpose of this article is to describe a simple conceptual
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framework for academic intervention that extends functional
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analysis procedures to basic academic skills. We organized
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the empirical research on academic intervention into five
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hypotheses that can guide the selection of interventions. T
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reatment protocols for six academic interventions and proced
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ures for quickly testing their effectiveness are presented.
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The description of procedures for simple tests includes di
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scussion of design issues, measuring outcomes, and guideline
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s for selecting treatments.
There is an expectation in our
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society that children will attend school and that school,
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at the very least, will impart important academic skills. C
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hildren are expected to be able to perform basic skills suc
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h as reading, mathematics, and writing. Some fail to accomp
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lish what is expected of them. When what a child can actua
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lly do is at variance with what is expected of that child,
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there is often an interest in understanding or explaining
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the deficits in academic performance. The goal of this arti
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cle is (a) to suggest some explanations for the failure of
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some children to perform, (b) to offer a series of direct
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"tests" for each of the common reasons children fail, and
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(c) to provide some simple interventions which are linked
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directly to the outcome of the tests.
The reasons why chil
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dren fail are complex. Reading, for example, involves trans
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lating symbols from a page into meaningful language, and in
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numerable parts or combinations of this visual and neurolog
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ical process can malfunction. When school psychologists are
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asked by a parent or teacher why a child does not learn,
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often the correct answer is, "I don't know." This response,
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however, is not very satisfying to either the speaker or
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the listener. Therefore, we often attempt to explain studen
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t failure using diagnostic terms such as dyslexia or learni
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ng disability or mental retardation. Relating academic perfo
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rmance to other observed or inferred student characteristics
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represents a structural approach to understanding failure
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(Nelson & Hayes, 1986). Structural explanations rely upon p
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revious correlational research to help school psychologists
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organize what is often a complex picture of student strengt
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hs and weaknesses, and structural labels typically occasion
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major changes in a child's life such as special education
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placement. From an intervention perspective, however, struc
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tural explanations for student failure are limited in two r
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espects. First, student performance as well as the traits i
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nferred from such performance cannot be manipulated directly
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(Nelson & Hayes, 1986). Rather, student behavior can only
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be altered indirectly by manipulating one or more factors e
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xternal to the child (e.g., what is taught or the amount o
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f teacher assistance provided). Second, because structural e
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xplanations emphasize student traits as causal agents, they
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do not identify those factors external to the child that
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may be contributing to academic failure.
Relating academic
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performance to aspects of classroom instruction that prece
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de and follow student performance represents a functional a
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pproach to understanding failure. Functional explanations ap
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peal to factors external to the child that have been shown
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experimentally to affect academic performance such as time
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for learning, feedback from the teacher, and reinforcement
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for correct responding. Because these factors are external
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to the child and subject to direct manipulation, functiona
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l explanations have the added advantage of identifying simp
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le, practical targets for instructional programming.
Functi
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onal explanations of poor academic performance will perforce
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be related to what teachers do to teach students: arrangin
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g the instructional environment, sequencing how instruction
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is delivered as students progress through the curriculum, p
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roviding sufficient opportunities to respond, and/or structu
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ring contingencies. Each of these teaching actions occurs a
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s a result of instructional decision making. When students
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are not learning, the task is to analyze how these factors
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affect student performance to make explicit decisions abou
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t how best to teach the child. In this article, five commo
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n reasons why students fail will be described. These reason
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s are related to what teachers should be doing in the clas
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sroom to teach students effectively. Next, some simple meth
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ods for testing these hypotheses quickly and efficiently wi
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ll be presented. This section will include protocols for ef
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fective academic interventions, how to structure these simpl
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e tests (i.e., design issues), and important outcome measur
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es that can be obtained reliably. The goal of this article
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is to demonstrate that it is possible to apply the logic
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and procedures of functional analysis to academic skills, p
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rovide a framework for doing so, and offer protocols for ef
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fective academic interventions.
Five Common Reasons Why Stu
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dents Fail and What You Can Do About Them The field of beh
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avior analysis has been particularly successful at linking
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assessment to effective interventions by identifying the fun
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ctions of behavior. When the contingencies maintaining behav
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ior are known, it is possible to rearrange the contingencie
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s so that appropriate and adaptive choices are more likely
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and inappropriate responses are less likely (Martens, Witt,
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Daly, & Vollmer, in press). For example, when it is known
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that adult attention maintains tantrum behavior in a child
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(i.e., tantrum behavior functions to gain attention), the
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intervention might consist of not providing attention while
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a child is having a tantrum, but providing attention when
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it is sought in an appropriate manner. This line of resea
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rch has been applied largely to aberrant social behaviors a
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nd has not yet been applied to academic skills in a way th
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at systematically compares variables functionally related to
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student learning. A functional analysis of academic behavi
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ors would provide information about the relative effects of
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different teaching strategies (e.g., modeling, error correc
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tion, or practice) on student performance. When the effects
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of different instructional strategies are known (e.g., mod
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eling versus practice), it is possible to alter instruction
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to maximize the likelihood that the intervention will be s
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uccessful.
Five common factors known to affect student aca
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demic performance can be used as a starting point for gener
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ating hypotheses that lead to interventions. Five of the mo
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st common reasons students perform academic work poorly are
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that (a) they do not want to do it, (b) they have not sp
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ent enough time doing it, (c) they have not had enough hel
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p to do it, (d) they have not had to do it that way befor
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e, or (e) it is too hard (see Figure 1).
In Figure 1, eac
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h is referred to as a "Reasonable Hypothesis" because they
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are factors over which educators have control and are funct
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ional reasons for why students fail to succeed in school. M
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ore detail is provided about no. 3 because of the different
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forms of assistance that students may need. These hypothes
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es are not intended to be independent of each other. Academ
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ic skills require a sequence of instructional activities th
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at build upon one another to increase response rates in the
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presence of curricular materials. Therefore, the strategies
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that teachers use are often interrelated (e.g., modeling a
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nd error correction are always confounded with opportunities
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to respond). Therefore, the hypotheses are intended to ref
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lect increasing levels of intrusiveness of academic interven
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tion rather than independent hypotheses.
Time is a preciou
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s commodity. Educators need to be efficient when problem so
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lving. Under many circumstances, the most efficient thing t
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o do is to test the easiest hypothesis first, implement an
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intervention, and monitor and evaluate outcomes. If that a
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pproach fails to improve student performance, then something
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progressively more time intensive can be attempted until t
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he probable cause of failure is identified. Also, easier so
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lutions are more likely to be implemented consistently whil
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e solutions which are more time consuming or technically di
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fficult for teachers and support personnel are less likely
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to be implemented correctly (Gresham, 1989). Therefore, the
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"reasonable hypotheses" presented in Figure 1 are ordered
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from those requiring the least intervention to those requir
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ing the most intensive instructional intervention based on
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logical considerations of classroom environments in general
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.
This sequence is intended to be heuristic and not an in
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variant sequence to be implemented by practitioners. When c
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onducting assessment and intervention for academic problems,
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practitioners might want to consider factors like teacher
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skill, classroom routines, time required for implementing an
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intervention, and student skill level in the hypothesis ge
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neration phase. Therefore, practitioners might consider alte
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rnate sequences of the proposed hypotheses depending upon t
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he unique characteristics of the settings in which they wor
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k (e.g., changing instructional materials might be very acc
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eptable in some settings and not in others). In some cases,
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practitioners might already have assessment data that indi
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cate that one hypothesis is more likely than another (e.g.,
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variable student performance might suggest a performance d
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eficit; alternately, many errors might suggest an accuracy
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problem). A direct test might then be conducted to confirm
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or disconfirm the hypothesis.
We will examine the empirica
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l support for the role of each hypothesis in student academ
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ic performance and related interventions before we describe
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strategies to test for each hypothesis. Figure 2 contains
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examples for interventions that have been effective at impr
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oving student performance, and each is associated with pres
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umed functions of the target behavior. Appendix A contains
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references that can be useful in developing interventions f
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or each of these areas.
They Do Not Want To Do It Is the
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student not able to perform the skill (a skill deficit) o
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r is the student able to perform the skill, but "just does
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n't want to?" The distinction between skill and performance
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deficits was clarified by Lentz (1988, p. 354) who stated,
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"Skill problems will require interventions that produce ne
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w behavior; performance problems may require interventions i
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nvolving manipulation of 'motivation' through contingency ma
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nagement." It is relatively easy to test the hypothesis of
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a performance deficit. Incentives for reading (Ayllon & Rob
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erts, 1974; Staats & Butterfield, 1964; Staats, Minke, Finl
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ey, Wolf, & Brooks, 1964) and math (Broughton & Lahey, 1978
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) have been effective in improving students' motivation and
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performance (i.e., increasing active participation and decr
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easing disruptive behaviors). If a student fails to respond
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to incentives for increased academic performance, then eit
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her the wrong incentives were used or the student does not
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have the skills to perform the task.
The literature conta
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ins numerous examples of interventions that can be used to
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test this hypothesis. For example, Lovitt, Eaton, Kirkwood,
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and Pelander (1971) improved students' oral reading fluenc
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y by offering incentives for reading faster. Another strate
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gy for improving students' motivation that is relatively ea
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sy to implement for most teachers is offering students a ch
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oice of work to be performed (e.g., a story about baseball
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versus a fairy tale) or the order in which work is perfor
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med (e.g., allowing the child the choice of a vocabulary dr
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ill or a silent reading first). Students' on-task behavior
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has been improved by giving students a choice of instructio
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nal activities (Dunlap et al., 1994; Seybert, Dunlap, & Fer
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ro, 1996), a strategy that can be easily adapted to most i
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nstructional formats. It is noteworthy that in some of this
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research students displayed high rates of on-task behavior
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on those very assignments that they refused to do previous
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ly. The only difference between assignments completed and a
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ssignments refused was that students were allowed to choose
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among several instructional assignments during seatwork. Wh
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en students were allowed to choose the assignment, their co
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mpliance and on-task behavior improved.
They Have Not Spen
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t Enough Time Doing It A student may not be progressing ac
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ademically because he or she simply has not spent enough ti
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me actively practicing the skill. There are large differenc
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es in the amount of time students spend actively engaged in
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academic responding (Rosenshine, 1980). Large differences a
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lso have been observed across socioeconomic levels (Greenwoo
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d, 1991). For instance, longitudinal studies conducted by r
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esearchers at the Juniper Gardens Children's Project have i
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dentified large cumulative differences across socioeconomic
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levels in the amount of time students are actively respondi
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ng. These differences amount to greater than 1.5 years more
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schooling by the end of middle school for students of hig
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her socioeconomic levels than for students of lower socioec
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onomic levels (Greenwood, Hart, Walker, & Risley, 1994).
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In a review of the literature on academic engaged time, Yss
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eldyke and Christenson (1993) concluded that variability acr
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oss classrooms and schools leads to large differences in th
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e amount of time that students are academically engaged. Th
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ese differences increase the salience of engaged time as an
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important variable in the investigation of a student's aca
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demic problems and underscore the importance of examining t
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his factor on an individual basis. The implications for int
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ervention are obvious. As a first step, a student's current
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rate of active responding in the problematic subject area
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or time of day should be estimated. This task can be accom
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plished through recent advances in observation techniques su
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ch as the Ecobehavioral Assessment Systems Software (Greenwo
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od, Carta, Kamps, & Delquadri, 1995) and the Behavior Obser
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vation of Students in Schools (Shapiro, 1996), two observat
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ion tools that provide estimates of student active engageme
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nt. The second step involves increasing the student's activ
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e responding. Various strategies such as providing highly s
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tructured tasks, allocating sufficient time for instruction,
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providing continuous and active instruction, maintaining hi
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gh success rates, and providing immediate feedback have bee
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n shown to improve student engagement rates (Denham & Liebe
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rman, 1980; Stallings, 1975; Ysseldyke & Christenson, 1993).
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Even simpler solutions may be equally as effective; for in
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stance, allocating more time for student responding and dec
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reasing intrusions (e.g., transition time) into instructiona
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l time (Gettinger, 1995; Rosenshine, 1980).
They Have Not
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Had Enough Help To Do It Feedback. Ysseldyke and Christenso
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n (1993) warn that engaged time is only moderately (though
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significantly) related to student achievement. Increasing ti
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me for engagement may not be sufficient ira student needs m
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ore help to perform instructional tasks successfully. Feedba
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ck for student responses may be necessary to assist a stude
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nt to respond accurately and quickly (Heward, 1994). Feedba
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ck is an integral part of the learning trial and consists
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of an instructional antecedent (e.g., "Who was the first pr
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esident of the United States?"), an active student response
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(e.g., "George Washington."), and a consequence (e.g., "Co
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rrect!"). When teachers actively provide feedback to student
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s for responding, they increase the likelihood of student a
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chievement (Rosenshine & Berliner, 1978).
Belfiore, Skinner
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, and Ferkis (1995) showed that complete learning trials we
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re more effective in helping students to master sight words
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than merely having students repeatedly say the correct res
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ponse. A learning trial consists of an antecedent (e.g., a
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flashcard with "3 x 3") prior to a response and a conseque
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nce (e.g., "Correct!" or "No, the correct answer is 9.") fo
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llowing a response. Another strategy for increasing feedback
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via complete learning trials is choral responding. Choral
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responding involves having all students respond verbally dur
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ing group lessons. Choral responding has been shown to impr
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ove learning rates for diverse groups of students, includin
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g preschool children with developmental disabilities, childr
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en identified as Severe Behavior Handicap, first grade Chap
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ter 1 students, general education students, and students id
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entified as Developmentally Handicapped in special education
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classrooms (Heward, 1994). Choral responding has been show
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n to be more effective at improving learning rates when com
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pared to on-task instruction in which the teacher praised s
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tudents for paying attention while asking the same number a
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nd type of questions (Sterling, Barbetta, Heron, & Heward,
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1997).
Another strategy for increasing feedback to students
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for nonverbal responses is response cards. To use response
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cards, teachers can instruct students to write the correct
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response on laminated cards during group instruction for m
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ath, spelling, or content lessons. When the teacher asks a
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question, the students are expected to write their answers
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on the cards and to hold up the correct response. The teac
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her scans students' responses and provides feedback to stud
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ents. Heward (1994) provided guidelines for implementing the
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use of response cards. Response cards have been shown to
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improve (a) rates of responding and quiz scores relative to
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hand-raising during fourth-grade recitation social studies
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lessons (Narayan, Heward, Gardner, Courson, & Omness, 1990),
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(b) ontask behavior of students with disruptive and off-ta
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sk behavior during social studies lessons (Gardner, Heward,
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& Grossi, 1994), and (c) quiz scores in earth science cla
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sses for high school students (Cavanaugh, Heward, & Donelso
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n, 1996). The common strand of these strategies is that the
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y increase the amount of feedback given to students immedia
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tely following responding. It is an opportunity to provide
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positive feedback for correct responses and to correct erro
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rs immediately rather than allowing a student to practice t
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he wrong answer.
The Instructional Hierarchy. In the event
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that increasing feedback during time allocated for instruc
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tion is not sufficient for improving student performance, i
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t may be necessary to look more carefully at a student's s
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kill level as a basis for developing instructional interven
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tions. How much assistance a student requires is dependent
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upon his or her level of skill mastery. Mastery, in turn,
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develops in a sequence of stages which lead to proficiency
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and use of the skill across time and contexts (Daly, Lentz,
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& Boyer, 1996; Haring, Lovitt, Eaton, & Hansen, 1978; Howe
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ll, Fox, & Morehead, 1993). Initially, effective instruction
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promotes accurate performance of the skill. At this stage,
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modeling the skill and observing the learner are critical
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components of good instruction. Also, explicit feedback abou
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t performance is necessary. After the learner becomes accur
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ate, the next step is to become fluent in the use of the s
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kill. For a skill (e.g., "4 x 2 = 8") to be useful in the
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future (e.g., with long division), the learner must be abl
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e to respond rapidly when presented with the problem. Pract
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ice improves skill fluency. Accurate and fluent skill use i
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ncreases the chances that the learner will generalize the s
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kill across time, settings, and other skills (Daly, Martens
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, Kilmer, & Massie, 1996; LaBerge & Samuels, 1974; Wolery,
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Bailey, & Sugai, 1988).
Daly, Lentz, and Boyer (1996) used
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the heuristic notion of an "instructional hierarchy" devel
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oped by Haring et al. (1978) to show that in many studies
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of academic interventions the effectiveness of instructional
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strategies for improving student accuracy and fluency coul
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d be predicted based on the strategies used (e.g., modeling
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versus practice). Although other instructional hierarchies
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have been developed during the past century, Haring et al.'
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s (1978) model is particularly useful because it explains p
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atterns of results and allows us to predict which intervent
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ions are most likely to be effective based on the component
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s of instruction and where students are in the learning seq
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uence. The instructional hierarchy suggests that strategies
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that incorporate modeling, prompting, and error correction c
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an be expected to improve accuracy and that strategies that
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incorporate practice and reinforcement for rapid responding
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can be expected to improve fluency. In a demonstration of
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the predictive power of this particular instructional hier
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archy, Daly and Martens (1994) accurately predicted the pat
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tern of results of three reading interventions based on the
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instructional strategies incorporated by each.
They Have
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Not Had To Do It That Way Before Thus far, we have conside
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red contingencies for performance, the amount of time stude
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nts are actively engaged in schoolwork, how much feedback t
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eachers give, and some important teaching strategies. If in
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terventions based on these factors do not lead to improveme
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nts in academic performance, then the next factor to examin
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e is the role of the instructional materials of improving s
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tudent outcomes. When analyzing the instructional tasks and
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assignments as possible factors related to poor student pe
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rformance, there are at least two reasons why they may be
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hindering student learning: either they are not helping the
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student to practice actual skill use (Vargas, 1984) (Reaso
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n # 4) or they are too difficult (Reason #5) (Gickling & A
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rmstrong, 1978; Gickling & Rosenfield, 1995).
The goal of
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instruction is to bring student responding under the contro
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l of the instructional materials (i.e., they do not need he
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lp to get the correct answer) so that students can apply t
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heir skills to real life demands (Heward, Barbetta, Cavanau
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gh, & Grossi, 1996). For instance, when teaching a student
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to read the word "Name," the goal is for the printed word
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"Name" to elicit the student response (i.e., reads "Name").
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In this way, the student will be able to respond to many
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demands for use of the skill such as completing a job appl
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ication. Practicing the skill means that instructional mater
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ials provide enough examples and nonexamples of the target
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skill so students know when to use the skill (Englemann &
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Carnine, 1991). For instance, if you are teaching colors to
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students, you want to be sure to present enough examples
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of the colors being taught using several different shapes s
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o that they do not confuse the color red with the shape of
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the objects you are using. Therefore, the instructional ma
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terials are critical for providing students enough opportuni
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ties to practice important academic skills while helping th
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em recognize when to use the skill and when not to use the
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skill.
Practicing the skill also means that students need
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to know how to obtain the correct answer. Unfortunately, m
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any instructional materials allow students to achieve the c
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orrect answer for the wrong reason (Vargas, 1984). Take Bil
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l, for instance, who knows how to complete his vocabulary w
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orksheets by looking at the number of blanks where he is s
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upposed to write the response and counting the number of le
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tters in each of the vocabulary words. He is not learning
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his vocabulary words. Instead, he has devised a strategy fo
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r obtaining the right answer for the wrong reasons. Finally
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, the instructional materials might not have the student re
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spond in the way that he or she would be expected to respo
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nd according to the curriculum. Therefore, teaching spelling
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by having students circle spelling words in word puzzles o
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r having them circle the correct answer among four options
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is inadequate preparation for spelling words for which dict
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ation is required.
Interventions aimed at improving the in
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structional materials should be directed toward using materi
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als that elicit the kinds of student responses that would b
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e expected of students who have mastered the curriculum. As
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a first step, the student's objectives should be defined (
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e.g., will spell words with common consonant combinations a
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ccurately). The, there must be assurance that the instructi
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onal materials provide enough practice in actual use of the
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skill (e.g., have students practice spelling words with co
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mmon consonant combinations rather than having them circle
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correct spellings). Worksheets that only require the student
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to respond to a few items (e.g., each vocabulary word app
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ears once) in a limited format (e.g., circling correct word
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s versus spelling words) are not likely to improve student
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performance. Therefore, whereas Hypothesis #2 suggested that
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a student might not be spending enough time practicing the
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skill to perform it better, Hypothesis #4 suggests that th
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e student might not be spending time on the right kinds of
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instructional activities to perform the skill better, indi
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cating a need for a different type of intervention.
It Is
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Too Hard Finally, the student might not be successful beca
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use the instructional materials are too difficult. Gickling
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and Armstrong (1978) improved students' accuracy of assign
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ed work and on-task behavior by changing instructional mate
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rials to assure that they were not too difficult or too ea
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sy. Students are more likely to generalize what they have j
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ust learned to other similar instructional materials when t
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hey are instructed at their instructional level. Daly, Mart
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ens, Kilmer, and Massie (1996) found that providing reading
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instruction at a level that was more appropriately matched
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to students' skill levels resulted in greater generalizati
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on than when instruction was provided in more difficult mat
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erials. The importance of the effects of task difficulty on
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student learning is obvious and cannot be overstated. Unfo
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rtunately, often teachers have in their classrooms learners
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with multiple skill levels, and changing instructional mat
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erials to match each student's instructional level is a dif
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ficult task. Therefore, it is one of the last things that
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they may be willing to change. For this reason, we present
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it last. If, however, instructional changes based on the o
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ther factors are not effective, teachers will be hard press
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ed to insist that they do not want to change the difficult
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y level of the materials to meet the student's needs.
Simp
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le Methods for Testing Hypotheses Within recent years, proc
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edures for conducting a functional analysis of behavior hav
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e virtually revolutionized the treatment of behavior problem
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s in children and individuals with developmental disabilitie
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s (Homer, 1994; Iwata, Pace et al., 1994; Mace, 1994). The
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key steps in conducting a functional analysis of behavior
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involve (a) generating hypotheses about the possible ways i
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n which problem behavior is being reinforced, and (b) expos
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ing the individual to brief test conditions designed to mim
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ic the hypothesized contingencies (Martens et al., in press
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). For example, based on teacher interview and classroom ob
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servation, one might suspect that a child is engaging in di
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sruptive behavior to obtain attention from the teacher or t
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o avoid schoolwork. To determine which of these hypotheses
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is correct, we might instruct the teacher to attend to the
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child for every misbehavior during some class periods and
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to send the child to the office for every misbehavior durin
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g other class periods. If we observe increases in disruptiv
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e behavior only under the condition during which attention
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is provided, then we can conclude with confidence that the
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child's behavior is being positively reinforced by attention
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from the teacher.
The use of brief test conditions to id
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entify the functions of problem behavior was pioneered by I
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wata and his colleagues in their work with self-injurious b
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ehavior (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1994). T
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he impact of their work on the treatment of self-injurious
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behavior can be attributed, in part, to the logic underlyin
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g functional analysis procedures. First, although the possib
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le functions of problem behavior are relatively few in prin
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ciple (e.g., positive or negative reinforcement), it is ass
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umed that these principles operate in ways that are idiosyn
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cratic to the life of each individual. Second, because test
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conditions are designed to mimic and intensify the conting
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encies supporting problem behavior, individual responses to
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these conditions are based in large part on previous learni
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ng. Capitalizing on previous learning allows test conditions
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to be brief in duration (e.g., 10 min) yet still produce
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relatively large changes in behavior. Third, functional anal
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ysis can be characterized as an experimentally based assess
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ment procedure in that it allows one to identify the functi
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ons of problem behavior by manipulating contingencies. Once
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identified, these functions can be selectively eliminated,
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reversed, or weakened by implementing the appropriate trea
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tment procedure (Martens et al., in press). As an assessmen
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t technique then, functional analysis has the potential to
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make all existing interventions more effective by allowing
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them to be matched with confidence to the causes of behavio
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r problems. Interventions based on a functional analysis of
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behavior have been dramatically effective in decreasing se
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lf-injurious behavior, and test conditions also have been u
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sed to identify the causes of classroom behavior problems w
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ith excellent results (e.g., Broussard & Northup, 1995; Ker
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n, Childs, Dunlap, Clarke, & Falk, 1994).
Unlike many beha
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vior problems which are supported by operant contingencies
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(i.e., performance deficits), students' academic problems of
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ten result from an absence of skills or inadequate skill de
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velopment (i.e., skill deficits). How then is it possible t
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o conduct a functional analysis of something like poor read
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ing? If the goal of a typical functional analysis is to id
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entify the operant contingencies affecting problem behavior,
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then the goal of a functional analysis of reading is to i
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dentify the instructional contingencies affecting academic b
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ehavior. Because skills cannot be unlearned once they are a
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cquired, test conditions for academic problems involve brief
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presentations of two or more instructional strategies beli
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eved to improve performance applied to different sets of ma
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terials (Cooper et al., 1992; McComas et al., 1996). The fo
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llowing is a sequence of test conditions for identifying th
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e instructional contingencies affecting academic performance
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problems. These conditions were designed based upon a revi
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ew of research suggesting the availability of(a) instruction
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al strategies that are brief, easy to implement, and produc
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e immediate and substantial improvements in performance (e.g
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., repeated readings or listening passage preview); (b) mea
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sures that are sensitive to short-term gains in academic pe
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rformance (e.g., curriculum-based measurement probes); and (
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c) a theoretical model for sequencing the presentation of t
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est conditions (e.g., the instructional hierarchy).
Design
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Considerations The most common approach to determining the
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sequence of test conditions in a functional analysis is ref
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erred to as a multielement design (e.g., Iwata, Pace et al.
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, 1994). A multielement design typically begins with a base
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line period to establish levels of the behavior in question
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. Then, one or two sessions are conducted under the first
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test condition followed by sessions conducted under the sec
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ond, third, etc., condition until all conditions being comp
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ared have been alternated repeatedly in a semi-random seque
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nce (e.g., Iwata, Dorsey et al., 1994). The data points for
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each condition (usually four or more) are then connected p
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roducing separate data series which are examined for degree
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of overlap.
An alternative version of the multielement de
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sign requires that only one session be conducted per test c
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ondition. In these studies, test conditions were presented
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in a predetermined sequence that proceeded from easiest to
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implement (requiring the least amount of adult assistance)
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to most difficult to implement (requiring the most amount o
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f adult assistance) (Harding, Wacker, Cooper, Millard, & Je
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nsen-Kovalan, 1994; McComas et al., 1996). For example, Har
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ding et al. (1994) presented test conditions in sequence un
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til a significant increase in on-task behavior was observed
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. Once this occurred, the condition producing the increase
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was repeated with the condition just prior to it that did
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not produce an increase, thereby resulting in a mini-revers
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al design. By demonstrating improved performance on two occ
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asions using the mini-reversal design, the researchers were
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able to conclude with greater confidence that a given cond
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ition would be an effective intervention in the natural set
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ting. The brief multielement design has been used extensive
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ly for conducting functional analyses of social behaviors i
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n clinic settings in which time limitations make it difficu
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lt to conduct extended analyses (Derby et al., 1992). Vollm
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er, Marcus, Ringdahl, and Roane (1995) recommend its use if
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differentiated response patterns can be obtained briefly b
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efore trying more extended experimental analyses. By virtue
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of its simplicity (relative to other kinds of evaluation d
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esigns), the brief multielement design is uniquely suited t
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o the kinds of time limitations under which school psycholo
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gists often operate.
Because the test conditions reported
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in this article target separate aspects of skill developmen
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t and can be ordered according to ease of teacher implement
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ation, we suggest that they be presented using a combinatio
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n of strategies reported by Harding et al. (1994) and McCom
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as et al. (1996). By way of example, Figure 3 presents dat
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a for Jill, a sixth-grade student being instructed at a fif
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th-grade reading level. At baseline, Jill correctly read 87
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words per minute from the fifth-grade book of a basal rea
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ding series. In this condition no special assistance was pr
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ovided (i.e., she read the passage independently while the
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examiner recorded her performance). This session was then f
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ollowed by one session each of a series of test conditions
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in sequence until her reading fluency reached a predetermi
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ned criterion of 100 correctly read words per minute (Shapi
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ro, 1996). Conditions were presented in the following order
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: Contingent Reinforcement and Repeated Readings. In the Co
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ntingent Reinforcement condition, Jill was offered incentive
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s for reading at a rate of 100 correctly read words per mi
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nute with three or fewer errors. Jill read 72 words correct
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ly in one minute in this condition, indicating that her low
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fluency rate is not a result of a performance deficit. In
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the Repeated Readings condition, Jill read the passage fou
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r times. After each reading she received feedback on how qu
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ickly she read the passage. On the fourth reading Jill read
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at a rate of 129 words correct per minute, a rate that ex
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ceeds the criterion. Next, a baseline condition was repeate
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d (in which Jill read 94 words correctly per minute) follow
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ed by Repeated Readings (in which she read 117 words correc
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t per minute) to produce a minireversal. It appears that Ji
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ll benefits from increased opportunities to respond and rep
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eated practice. Notice that the number of test conditions w
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hich are implemented prior to the reversal will likely diff
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er across children and the criterion levels of improvement
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differ across grade levels.
Once the mini-reversal is comp
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leted, one may conclude that an instructional program conta
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ining an effective strategy in the test condition is more l
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ikely to improve student performance than an ineffective st
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rategy. Appendix B contains intervention protocols (includin
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g protocols for oral reading and classroom assignments perf
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ormance deficits) for testing hypotheses.
Outcome Measures
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The objective of the test conditions is to identify the ins
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tructional intervention that produces the largest outcomes i
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n the most efficient manner as a basis for recommending an
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intervention. At the very least, it may be possible to el
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iminate interventions that are not likely to be effective b
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ecause they do not even produce immediate effects. Special
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considerations need to be made for the multielement design
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such as that previously described. Assessment materials shou
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ld be of equal difficulty level across conditions to assure
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that differences in outcomes are not due to differences in
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difficulty level. The assessment materials should, however,
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be sufficiently different from each other so that treatmen
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ts do not interfere with outcomes across different conditio
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ns. Finally, it is important to maximize obtained treatment
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effects by ensuring that the assessment materials have con
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siderable overlap with the instructional materials for a gi
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ven condition (Daly, Martens et al., 1996). In other words,
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the assessment materials used for each condition should re
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flect what was taught in that condition and minimize the ef
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fects of what was taught in the other conditions while stil
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l being of equal difficulty level.
In general, responses w
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ill be of two types: oral responses or written responses. F
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or academic interventions in basic skills, we recommend usi
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ng curriculum-based measures of oral reading, mathematics co
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mputation, written expression, and spelling. The materials c
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an be designed to maximize overlap with respective test con
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ditions and the measures have good technical adequacy for i
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nstructional decision making (Shinn, 1989). For example, whe
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n reading interventions are being investigated, outcomes can
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be measured in the reading passages in which instruction w
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as provided (Daly & Martens, 1994). When interventions are
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being investigated to improve mathematics computational skil
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ls, the examiner may assign different problem types to diff
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erent conditions (e.g., 6s to one condition, 7s to another
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condition, and 8s to another condition). The assessment pro
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bes for each condition would contain problem types for the
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associated condition.
Under some circumstances, it may be
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desirable to target work completion in classroom tasks. In
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this case, the examiner may choose workbook materials that
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meet the requirements described above (i.e., of equal diffi
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culty level but independently reflect the associated test c
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ondition). Test condition results are more likely to sugges
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t meaningful differences if (a) difficulty level of the mat
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erials is held constant across conditions, (b) differences
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between assessment materials are maximized across conditions
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, (c) high overlap between instructional conditions and ass
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essment conditions is sought, and (d) global but sensitive
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indicators of important skills are used.
ConclusionsAfter r
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eviewing more than 8,000 studies of academic performance, W
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alberg (1992) concluded that two factors produced the large
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st overall effects: providing formative and summative feedba
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ck, and giving incentives for slow or inaccurate performanc
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e. The procedures described herein, which derive directly f
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rom the empirical literature on student achievement, provide
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simple, efficient tests for these and other common causes
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of academic problems. Each "test" represents a brief interv
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ention. The notion that intervention can be a form of asses
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sment might appear to be contradictory, unless an intervent
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ion is defined as virtually any change in environmental con
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ditions. When a positive result is obtained from a test for
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which the child is provided additional practice or an ince
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ntive, then we know that variable is functionally related t
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o the student's academic performance. The process is differ
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ent from an approach in which structural variables such as
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intelligence, learning style, or handicapping condition are
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inferred, presumed, or hypothesized to cause problem behavio
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r based on correlational data. The interventions described
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have been shown empirically to improve student academic per
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formance. We have not attempted, however, to provide an exh
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austive list of academic interventions (see, for example, S
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hapiro & Bradley, 1995, for a discussion of cognitive-based
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interventions).
The most important advantage of this func
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tional assessment method is that not only has the source of
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the problem been identified but the chances of choosing an
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effective intervention have been increased. The assessment
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process provides a test of the intervention with the child
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, using the same classroom materials that would be used, in
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the environment in which the child would normally perform
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school work. Individuals responsible for making decisions ab
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out the child are in the position of being able to say, "W
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e tried this and it worked." The decision then is not what
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to do but to determine what resources are needed to imple
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ment the intervention in a way that is sustainable. If a c
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hild requires additional practice or error correction, then
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who will provide the services, when will they be provided,
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and what additional resources are needed to insure impleme
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ntation? The model presented, however, is not intended to r
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eplace or eschew the need for formatively evaluating interv
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ention outcomes (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986); it is merely intende
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d to increase the likelihood of choosing the least intrusiv
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e intervention that has the greatest chances of positively
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affecting student academic performance.
Although the princi
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pal goal of this work was to summarize the literature relev
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ant to simple methods for assessment and intervention of ac
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ademic problems, a related aim was to stimulate research. R
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ecent advances in the area of functional analysis have show
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n promising results for adapting this methodology to classr
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oom settings (Broussard & Northup, 1995; Kern et al., 1994;
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Northup et al., 1995). Although all of the procedures pres
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ented are individually well-supported by research, their use
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in combination or as part of a deliberate problem analysis
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process has not been investigated. Hence, our hope is that
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this article may serve to stimulate research in the develo
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pment of procedures that are adaptable to educational setti
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ngs (i.e., labor and time efficient) and that can be shown
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to improve student responding through improved instructiona
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l decision making.
There are two limitations of the functi
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onal assessment model presented. First, until more applied
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research that provides functional assessment protocols is co
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nducted, practitioners will need to rely upon their own ski
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lls to apply the model. Given that the process is time con
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suming and that little training is available, it is not lik
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ely that practitioners will readily apply the model. Future
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research should be directed toward validating various trea
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tment protocols and describing the conditions under which t
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hey are most likely to be indicated. Second, the long-term
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validation of experimentally derived academic interventions
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(using the brief multielement design) has not been conducte
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d. Future research also should be directed toward examining
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applications and limitations of the brief multielement des
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ign reported. When incorporated as a part of a broader mode
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l of functional analysis, the brief multielement design may
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be efficient for evaluating treatments when differentiated
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response patterns can be produced across conditions (Vollm
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er, Marcus, Ringdahl, & Roane, 1995).
Figure 1. Reason
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able hypotheses for academic deficits. REASON #1:
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They do not want to do it.
The student is not motivated
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to respond to the instructional demands
REASON #2: They ha
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ve not spent enough time doing it.
Insufficient active stu
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dent responding in curricular materials
REASON #3: They ha
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ve not had enough help to do it.
Insufficient prompting an
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d feedback for active responding
Student displays poor acc
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uracy in target skill(s)
Student displays poor fluency in
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target skill(s)
Student does not generalize use of the ski
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ll to the natural setting and/or to other materials/setting
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s
REASON #4: They have not had to do it that way before.
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The instructional demands do not promote mastery of the cur
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ricular objective
REASON #5: It is too hard.
Students ski
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ll level is poorly matched to the difficulty of the instruc
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tional materials
Figure 2. Academic interventions identifie
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d by the presumed function of the behavior.
Legend for Ch
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art:
A - Reasonable HypothesesB - Possible Interventions
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A B
The student is not motivated to respond to the instru
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ctional demands
Increase interest in curricular activiti
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es: 1. Provide incentives for using the skill 2. Teach th
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e skill in the context of using the skill 3. Provide choi
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ces of activities
Insufficient active student responding
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in curricular materials
Increase active student respond
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ing: 1. Estimate current rate of active responding & incr
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ease rate during allocated time
Insufficient prompting an
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d feedback for active responding
Increase rate of comple
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te learning trials: 1. Response cards 2. Choral respondi
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ng 3. Flash card intervention with praise/error correcti
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on 4. Peer tutoring
Student displays poor accuracy in tar
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get skill(s)
Increase modeling & error correction: 1. Re
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ading passages to student 2. Use cover-copy-compare 3. Ha
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ve student repeatedly practice correct response in contex
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t for errors
Student displays poor fluency in target skil
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l(s)
Increase practice/drill &/or incentives: 1. Have th
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e student repeatedly read passages 2. Offer incentives fo
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r beating the last score
Student does not generalize use
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of the skill to the natural setting and/or to other mater
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ials/ settings
Instruct the student to generalize use of
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the skill: 1. Teach multiple examples of use of the ski
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ll 2. Teach use of the skill in the natural setting 3. "C
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apture" natural incentives 4. Teach self-monitoring
The i
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nstructional demands do not promote mastery of the curric
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ular objective
Change instructional materials to match t
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he curricular objective: 1. Specify the curricular object
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ive and identify activities that promote use of the skill
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in the context in which it is generally used
Student's s
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kill level is poorly matched to the difficulty of the ins
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tructional materials
Increase student responding using b
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etter matched instructional levels: 1. Identify student's
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accuracy & fluency across instructional materials and us
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e instructionalmaterials that promote a high rate of resp
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ondingGRAPH: Figure 3. Number of correctly read words per m
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inute in test conditions for Jill.
ReferencesAyllon, T, &
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Roberts, M.D. (1974). Eliminating discipline problems by str
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engthening academic performance. Journal of Applied Behavior
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erkis, M. (1995). Effects of response and trial repetition
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on sightword training for students with learning disabilitie
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ghton, S. F., & Lahey, B. B. (1978). Direct and collateral
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effects of positive reinforcement, response cost, and mixe
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d contingencies for academic performance. Journal of School
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Psychology, 16, 126-136.
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N. (1995). An approach to functional assessment and analysi
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s of disruptive behavior in regular education classrooms. S
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chool Psychology Quarterly, 10, 151-164.
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Heward, W. L., & Donelson, F. (1996). Effects of response
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cards during lesson closure on the academic performance of
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secondary students in an earth science course. Journal of
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ker, D. P., Thursby, D., Plagmann, L. A., Harding, J., Mill
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ard, T., & Derby, M. (1992). Analysis of the effects of ta
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sk preferences, task demands, and adult attention on child
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behavior in outpatient and classroom settings. Journal of A
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pplied Behavior Analysis, 25, 823-840.
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entz, E E., & Boyer, J. (1996). The instructional hierarchy
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: A conceptual model for understanding the effective compon
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ents of reading interventions. School Psychology Quarterly,
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11, 369-386.
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comparison of three interventions for increasing oral read
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ing performance: Application of the instructional hierarchy.
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E. J., III, Martens, B. K., Kilmer, A., & Massie, D. (1996
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). The effects of instructional match and content overlap o
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n generalized reading performance. Journal of Applied Behavi
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or Analysis, 29, 507-518.
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.). (1980). Time to learn. Washington, DC: National Institu
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te of Education.
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Steege, M., Northup, J., Cigrand, K., & Asmus, J. (1992). B
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rief functional assessment techniques to evaluate aberrant b
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ehavior in an outpatient setting: A summary of 79 cases. Jo
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urnal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 713-721.
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, R., & Gomez, A. (1994). Choice making to promote adaptive
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behavior for students with emotional and behavioral challe
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nges. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 505-518.
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Englemann, S., & Carnine, D. W. (1991). Theory of instructi
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on: Principles and applications (2nd ed.). New York: Irving
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ic formative evaluation: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Childr
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ssi, T. A. (1994). Effects of response cards on student par
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ticipation and academic achievement: A systematic replicatio
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n with inner-city students during whole-class science instru
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ction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 63-72.
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ttinger, M. (1995). Increasing academic learning time. In A
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. L. (1978). Levels of instructional difficulty as related
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d achievement in at-risk versus non-risk students. Exception
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ent systems software: Technical manual and software. Kansas
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City, KS: University of Kansas, Juniper Gardens Children's
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mance revisited: A behavioral theory of developmental retard
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ation and its prevention. In R. Gardner III, D. M. Sainato,
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s on measurably superior instruction (pp. 213-224). Pacific
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of treatment integrity in school consultation and prereferra
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l intervention. School Psychology Review, 18, 3750.
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ovalan, E (1994). Brief hierarchical assessment of potential
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treatment components with children in an outpatient clinic
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g, N. G., Lovitt, T C., Eaton, M.D., & Hansen, C. L. (1978
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). The fourth R: Research in the classroom. Columbus, OH: M
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for increasing the frequency of active student response dur
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ing group instruction. In R. Gardner III, D. M. Sainato, J.
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n measurably superior instruction (pp. 283-320). Pacific Gro
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ve, CA: Brooks/Cole.
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h, R. A., & Grossi, T. A. (1996). A dozen common teaching
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mistakes and what to do instead. Workshop presented at the
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22nj annual convention of the Association for Behavior Anal
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ysis, San Francisco. Horner, R. H. (1994). Functional asses
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sment: Contributions and future directions. Journal of Appli
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ed Behavior Analysis, 28, 401-404.
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L., & Morehead, M. K. (1993). Curriculum-based evaluation:
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Teaching and decision making (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks
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n, K. E., & Richman, G. S. (1994). Toward a functional ana
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lysis of self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
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27, 215-240. (Reprinted from Analysis and Intervention in
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Developmental Disabilities, 2, 1-20, 1982).
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Pace, G. M., Dorsey, M. F., Zarcone, J. R., Vollmer, T. R.
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, Smith, R. G., Rodgers, T. A., Lerman, D.C., Shore, B. A.
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, Mazaleski, J. L., Goh, H., Cowdery, G. E., Kalsher, M. J
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., McCosh, K. C., & Willis, K. D. (1994). The functions of
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self-injurious behavior: An experimental-epidemiological an
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alysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 215-240.
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Kern, L., Childs, K. E., Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., & Falk, G
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. D. (1994). Using assessment-based curricular intervention
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to improve the classroom behavior of a student with emotion
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al and behavioral challenges. Journal of Applied Behavior A
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oward a theory of automatic information processing in readi
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ng. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293-323.
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fective reading interventions in the regular classroom. In
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educational delivery systems: Enhancing instructional option
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s for all students (pp. 351-370). Washing-ton, DC: National
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p & B. Hopkins (Eds.), A new direction for education: Behav
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ior analysis (pp. 54-71). Lawrence, KS: University of Kansa
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tional analysis methodologies. Journal of Applied Behavior A
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nalysis, 27, 385-392.
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eory and practice in educational settings. In C. R. Reynold
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oper, S. J., Asmus, J. M., Richman, D., & Stoner, B. (1996
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rate responding on academic tasks in an outpatient clinic.
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Omness, C. K. (1990). Using response cards to increase stu
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dent participation in an elementary classroom. Journal of A
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yes, S.C. (1986). The nature of behavioral assessment. In R
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behavioral assessment (pp. 3-41). New York: Guilford.
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., & Herring, M. (1995). The differential effects of teache
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r and peer attention on the disruptive classroom behavior o
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f three children with a diagnosis of attention deficit hype
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ractivity disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28
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elementary classrooms. In C. Denham, & A. Lieberman (Eds.)
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, Time to learn (pp. 107-126). Washington, DC: U.S. Departm
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Academic engaged time. British Journal of Teacher Educatio
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n, 4, 3-16.
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The effects of choice making on the problem behaviors of hi
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gh school students with intellectual disabilities. Journal o
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f Behavioral Education, 6, 49-65.
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cademic skills problems: Direct assessment and intervention
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K. L. (1995). Treatment of academic problems. In M. A. Rein
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ecke, E M. Dattilio, & A. Freeman (Eds.), Cognitive therapy
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with children and adolescents (pp. 344-366). New York: Gui
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., & Butterfield, W. A. (1964). Treatment of nonreading in
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a culturally deprived juvenile delinquent: An application of
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Brooks, L. O. A. (1964). A reinforcer system and experimen
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tal procedure for the laboratory study of reading acquisiti
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Implementation and child effects of teaching practice in fo
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llow through classrooms. [Monographs of the Society for Res
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ng, R., Barbetta, P. M., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (19
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97). A comparison of active student response and on-task in
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struction on the acquisition and maintenance of health fact
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s by students with learning disabilities. Journal of Behavi
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mer, T. R., Marcus, B. A., Ringdahl, J. E., & Roane, J. S.
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(1995). Progressing from brief assessments to extended exp
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erimental analyses in the evaluation of aberrant behavior.
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Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 561-576.
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H. J. (1992). The knowledge base for educational productiv
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ity. International Journal of Educational Reform, 1, 1-10.
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Wolery, M., Bailey, D. B., Jr., & Sugai, G. M. (1988). Eff
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ective teaching: Principles and procedures of applied behavi
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or analysis with exceptional children. Boston: Allyn & Baco
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n.
Ysseldyke, J., & Christenson, S. (1993). The instructio
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nal environment system-II. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
Appen
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dix A: Academic Interventions Identified by Presumed Functio
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n of the Behavior References
Increasing Interest in
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Curricular Activities Broughton, S. E, & Lahey, B. B.
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(1978). Direct and collateral effects of positive reinforc
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ement, response cost, and mixed contingencies for academic
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performance. Journal of School Psychology, 16, 126-136.
Dun
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lap, G., DePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Wright, S.,
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White, R., & Gomez, A. (1994). Choice making to promote a
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daptive behavior for students with emotional and behavioral
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challenges. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 505-
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518.
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tion for children within the instructional curriculum. In J
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. Reichle & D. P. Wacker (Eds.), Communicative approaches t
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o the management of challenging behaviors (pp. 177-203). Ba
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ltimore: Paul Brookes.
Kern, L., Childs, K. E., Dunlap, G.
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, Clarke, S., & Falk, G. D. (1994). Using assessment-based
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curricular intervention to improve the classroom behavior of
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a student with emotional and behavioral challenges. Journa
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l of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 7-19.
Increasing A
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ctive Student Responding Greenwood, C. R., Delquadri,
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J., & Hall, R. V. (1984). Opportunity to respond and stud
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ent academic performance. In W. L. Heward, T. E. Heron, J.
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Trapp-Porter, & D. S. Hill (Eds.), Focus on behavior analy
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sis in education (pp. 58-88). Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Green
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wood, C. R., Hart, B., Walker, D., & Risley, T. (1994). Th
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e opportunity to respond and academic performance revisited:
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A behavioral theory of developmental retardation and its p
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revention. In R. Gardner III, D. Sainato, J. Cooper, T. Her
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on, W. Heward, J. Eshleman, & T. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior an
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alysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instructio
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n (pp. 213-224). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Heward, W
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. L. (1994). Three "Low-Tech" strategies for increasing the
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frequency of active student response during group instruct
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ion. In R. Gardner III, D. Sainato, J. Cooper, T. Heron, W
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. Heward, J. Eshleman, & T. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysi
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s in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (p
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p. 283-320). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
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Rate of Complete Learning Trials Albers, A. E., &
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Greer, R. D. (1991). Is the three-term contingency trial a
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predictor of effective instruction? Journal of Behavioral
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Education, 1, 337-354.
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Ferkis, M. (1995). Effects of response and trial repetition
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on sightword training for students with learning disabilit
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ies. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 347-348.
Fa
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ntuzzo, J. E, King, J. A., & Heller, L. R. (1992). Effects
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of reciprocal peer tutoring on mathematics and school adju
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stment: A component analysis. Journal of Educational Psychol
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N. (1990). An evaluation of reciprocal peer tutoring across
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elementary school settings. Journal of School Psychology,
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28, 309-323.
Greenwood, C. R. (1991). A longitudinal analy
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sis of time, engagement, and achievement in at-risk versus
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non-risk students. Exceptional Children, 57, 521-535.
Hewar
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d, W. L., Courson, F. H., & Narayan, J. S. (1989). Using c
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horal responding to increase active student response during
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group instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children, 21, 72-75
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.
Narayan, J. S., Heward, W. L., Gardner, R., III, Courson
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, E H., & Omness, C. (1990). Using response cards to incre
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ase student participation in an elementary classroom. Journa
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l of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 483-490.
Skinner, C. J
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., Bamberg, J. W., Smith, E. S., & Powell, S.S. (1993). Co
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gnitive cover, copy, and compare: Subvocal responding to in
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crease rates of accurate division responding. RASE: Remedial
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and Special Education, 14, 49-56.
Sterling, R., Barbetta,
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P.M., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (1997). A comparison
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of active student response and on-task instruction on the a
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cquisition and maintenance of health facts by students with
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learning disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7,
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151-166.
Van Houton, R., & Rolider, A. (1989). An analysi
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s of several variables influencing flashcard instruction. Jo
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urnal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 22, 111-118.
Increas
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ing Modeling and Error Correction Barbetta, P.M.,
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Heron, T. E., & Heward, W L. (1993). Effects of active stu
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dent response during error correction on the acquisition, m
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aintenance, and generalization of sight words by students w
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ith developmental handicaps. Journal of Applied Behavior Ana
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lysis, 26, 111-119.
Barbetta, P. M., & Heward, W. L. (1993
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). Effects of active student response during error correcti
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on on the acquisition and maintenance of geography facts by
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elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of
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Behavioral Education, 3, 217-233.
Daly, E. J., III, & Mar
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tens, B. K. (1994). A comparison of three interventions for
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increasing oral reading performance: Application of the in
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structional hierarchy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
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27, 459-469.
Drevno, G. E., Kimball, J. W., Possi, M. K.
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, Heward, W. L., Gardner, R., III, & Barbetta, P.M. (1994).
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Effects of active student response during error correction
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on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of sci
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ence vocabulary by elementary students: A systematic replica
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tion. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 179-180.
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Hendrickson, J. M., & Gable, R. A. (1981). The use of mode
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ling tactics to promote academic skill development of excep
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tional learners. Journal of Special Education Technology, 4,
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20-29.
Hendrickson, J. M., Robert, M., & Shores, R. E. (
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1978). Antecedent and contingent modeling to teach basic si
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ght vocabulary to learning disabled children. Journal of Le
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arning Disabilities, 11, 6973.
O'Shea, L. J., Munson, S. M
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., & O'Shea, D. J. (1984). Error correction in oral reading
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: Evaluating the effectiveness of three procedures. Educatio
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n and Treatment of Children, 7, 203-214.
Increasing Pr
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actice/Drill and/or Incentives Herman, P. (1985). T
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he effect of repeated reading on rate, speech pause, and wo
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rd recognition accuracy. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 553
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-565.
Rashotte, C. A., & Torgesen, J. K. (1985). Repeated
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reading and reading fluency in learning disabled children.
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Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 180188.
Rasinski, T V. (19
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90). Effects of repeated reading and listening while readin
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g on reading fluency. Journal of Educational Research, 83,
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147-150.
Skinner, C. H., & Shapiro, E. S. (1989). A compar
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ison of taped-words and drill interventions on reading flue
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ncy in adolescents with behavior disorders. Education and T
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reatment of Children, 12, 123-133.
Lovitt, T., Eaton, M.,
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Kirkwood, M., & Pelander, J. (1971). Effects of various rei
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nforcement contingencies on oral reading rate. In E. Ramp &
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G. Hopkins (Eds.), A new direction for education: Behavior
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analysis (pp. 54-71). Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas.
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Instructing the Student to Generalize Use of t
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he Skill Fantuzzo, J. W., & Rohrbeck, C. A. (1992). Self
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-managed groups: Fitting self-management approaches into cla
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ssroom systems. School Psychology Review, 21, 255-263.
Lenz
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, B. K. (1992). Self-managed learning strategy systems for
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children and youth. School Psychology Review, 21, 211-228.
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Howell, K. W., Fox, S. L., & Morehead, M. K. (1993). Curri
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culum-based evaluation: Teaching and decision making. Pacifi
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c Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Hughes, C. (1994). Teaching gene
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ralized skills to persons with disabilities. In R. Gardner
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III, D. Sainato, J. Cooper, T. Heron, W. Heward, J. Eshlema
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n, & T. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focu
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s on measurably superior instruction (pp. 335-348). Pacific
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Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Skinner, C. H., & Smith, E. S. (
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1992). Issues surrounding the use of self-management interve
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ntions for increasing academic performance. School Psycholog
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y Review, 21, 202-210.
Stokes, T., & Baer, D. (1977). An
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implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Be
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havior Analysis, 10, 349-367.
Stokes, T. F., & Osnes, P. G
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. (1988). The developing applied technology of generalizatio
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n and maintenance. In R. H. Homer, G. Dunlap, & R. L. Koeg
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el (Eds.), Generalization and maintenance (pp. 519). Baltimo
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re: Paul Brookes.
Changing Instructional Material
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s to Match the Curricular Objective Vargas, J. S.
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(1984). What are your exercises teaching? An analysis of s
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timulus control in instructional materials. In W. Heward, T
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. Heron, D. Hill, & J. Trap-Porter (Eds.), Focus on behavio
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r analysis in education (pp. 126-141). Columbus, OH: Merril
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l.
Increasing Student Responding Using Better
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Matched Instructional Levels Daly, E. J., III, Mart
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ens, B. K., Kilmer, A., & Massie, D. (1996). The effects o
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f instructional match and content overlap on generalized re
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ading performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29,
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507-518.
Gickling, E. E., & Armstrong, D. L. (1978). Leve
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ls of instructional difficulty as related to on-task behavi
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or, task completion, and comprehension. Journal of Learning
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Disabilities, 11, 32-39.
Appendix B Test Condition Protoc
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olsREASONABLE HYPOTHESIS:
The student is not motivated to
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respond to the instructional demands.
Performance Defi
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cit Protocol for Classroom Assignments 1. Obtain
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three previously completed assignments from the teacher. E
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ach assignment should be one which the child has failed or
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has performed markedly below expectations.
2. Present the
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first assignment (with previous answers removed) to the ch
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ild and say, "If you are able to get X number of items (80
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%) correct, then we can (get a coke, play a game, go outsi
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de for 10 minutes, etc.). If the child increases his or he
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r score by 25% or obtains a score of 80% or above, then mo
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ve to the next step.
3. Present the child with a list of t
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eacher approved reinforcers and have the child indicate whi
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ch one he or she would like to work for in the future.
4.
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Test reinforcer efficacy. Present the previously failed as
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signment to the child and say, "If you are able to get X n
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umber (80%) correct, then you can select one of these (show
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list of rewards). If you get X or fewer correct, then you
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will not get to select anything."
5. Evaluate outcomes. If
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the child markedly increases performance when offered ince
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ntives, suspect a performance deficit. If performance remain
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s constant under reinforced and non-reinforced trials, then
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suspect a skill deficit.
Performance Deficit Protoc
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ol for Oral Reading Fluency 1. Obtain those reinforc
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ers that the student identifies as being his or her first,
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second, and third choice of things to work for.
2. Ident
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ify the reading passage to be instructed for the day.
3. C
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ompute the passage's criterion rate [i.e., the rate, in sec
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onds, at which the student must read the passage in order
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to receive his or her top choice of reinforcers using instr
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uctional placement guidelines for mastery from Shapiro (1996
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). The rate is simply the number of words in the passage (
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which is equivalent to a rate of 60 correctly read words p
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er minute) for first and second grade readers and the numbe
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r of words in the passage divided by 1.67 (which is equiva
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lent to a rate of 100 correctly read words per minute) for
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third through sixth grade readers].
4. Explain to the stud
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ent that he or she will (a) receive his or her first choic
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e if he or she reads faster than the criterion and misses
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less than 3 words, (b) receive his or her second choice if
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he or she reads at the criterion and misses less than 3 w
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ords, and (c) receive his or her third choice if he or she
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reads almost at the criterion and misses less than 3 word
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s.
5. Have the student read the passage aloud, timing how
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long it takes him or her to read the passage and marking e
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rrors on your copy.
6. Offer the student that reinforcer co
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rresponding to the conditions described in step 4.
REASONAB
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LE HYPOTHESIS:
The student displays poor fluency in target
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skill(s).
Repeated Readings 1. Identify the reading
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passage to be instructed for the day.
2. Tell the student
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that you will time him or her while reading.
3. Have the
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student begin reading the passage and start the stopwatch.
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4. If the student misses a word or hesitates for 3 seconds
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, say the word and have the student repeat the word.
5. At
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the end of the passage tell the student the time that it
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took to read the passage.
6. Repeat steps 3 through 5 thre
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e more times.
REASONABLE HYPOTHESIS:
The student displays
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poor accuracy in target skills.
Listening Passage Pr
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eview and Phrase Drill Error Correction 1. Ident
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ify the reading passage to be instructed for the day.
2.
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Read the passage aloud while having the student follow alon
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g on his or her copy.
3. Have the student read the passage
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aloud while underlining errors on the examiner copy and su
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pplying the words for mispronunciations, omissions, and hesi
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tations of more than 3 s.
4. Show the student each underli
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ned error word in the passage.
5. Say the word and have th
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e student read each phrase containing the error word three
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times.
REASONABLE HYPOTHESIS:
The student does not general
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ize use of the skill to the natural setting and/or to othe
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r materials/settings.
Generalization Training for P
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honics Objectives 1. Obtain passages containing high p
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ercentages of target phonics skills.
2. Create word lists
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using the phonetically regular words.
3. Explain the phonic
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rule to the student and read the words on the word list t
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o the student.
4. Have the student read the word list and
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correct errors.
5. Read the passage to the student.
6. Have
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the student read the passage and correct errors.
REASONABL
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E HYPOTHESIS:
The student's skill level is poorly matched
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to the difficulty of the instructional materials.
Instru
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ctional Match 1. Identify the curriculum for reading in
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struction.
2. Obtain passages from books below, at, and ab
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ove the student's current reading level based on teacher es
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timates.
3. Obtain local norms (e.g., building level CBM no
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rms) (Shinn, 1989) or refer to conventional placement stand
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ards (e.g., Shapiro, 1996).
4. Have the student read each p
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assage for 1 minute while recording the number of correctly
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read words per minute and errors.
5. Determine the student
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's instructional level by either comparing to average fluen
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cy rates for students at different grade levels when using
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local norms or by comparing to instructional placement stan
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dards.
~~~~~~~~By Edward J. Daly III, University of Cincinn
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ati; Joseph C. Witt, Louisiana State University; Brian K. M
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artens, Syracuse University and Eric J. Dool, University of
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Cincinnati
Address all correspondence concerning this arti
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cle to Edward J. Daly III, School Psychology Program, Colle
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ge of Education, P.O. Box 210002, University of Cincinnati,
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Cincinnati, OH 45221-0002
Edward J. Daly III, PhD, is Ass
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istant Professor of School Psychology at the University of
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Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH. His research interests include i
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ntervention design for academic performance problems
Joseph
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C. Witt, PhD, has research interests in the area of helpi
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ng teachers and other professionals to be more effective in
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assessing and intervening with learning and behavior probl
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ems. He is currently editor of School Psychology Quarterly
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Brian K. Martens, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Psychol
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ogy at Syracuse University. His research interests include
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applied behavior analysis, instructional intervention, and s
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chool consultation
Eric J. Dool, MEd, is a doctoral studen
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t in the School Psychology program at the University of Cin
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cinnati, Cincinnati, OH. He is currently completing his int
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ernship in the Cincinnati Public Schools.
Copyright of Sc
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hool Psychology Review is the property of National Associat
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ion of School Psychologists and its content may not be copi
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ed or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv wi
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thout the copyright holder's express written permission. How
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ever, users may print, download, or email articles for indi
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vidual use.
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