While the American Revolution and the French Revolution were being fought in the late 1700s, another kind of revolution took hold in Britain. Though not political, this revolution—known as the Industrial Revolution—brought about just as many changes to society.

• The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain during the late 1700s.

• Changes in the way land was used and new farming methods increased productivity.

• Skilled inventors developed new technology, and entrepreneurs with money invested in new or expanded ventures.

New Inventions and Ideas

• Capitalism was a major factor in spurring industrial growth. It was an economic system in which individuals and private firms, not the government, own the means of production, including land, machinery, and the workplace. In a capitalist system, individuals decide how they can make a profit and determine business practices accordingly

• Industrialists practiced industrial capitalism which involved continually expanding factories or investing in new businesses. After investing in a factory, capitalists used profits to hire more workers and buy more raw materials and new machines.

• Mass Production: the production of huge quantities of identical goods

• Manufacturers invested in machines to replace more costly human labor. Machines were fast working and precise and enabled industrialists to mass-produce

Capitalism

Adam Smith• Adam Smith was a Scottish economist who

set down the workings of a laissez-faire economy.

• In The Wealth of Nations of 1776, Smith stated that businesses compete to produce goods as inexpensively as possible, and consumers buy the best goods at the lowest prices. Efficient producers make more profit, hire more workers, invent new stuff, and continue to expand, to everyone’s benefit.

• By the 1850s, Great Britain, the world’s leading industrial power, had adopted free trade and other laissez-faire policies.

-As the Industrial Revolution sped up, Smith’s ideas influenced economic thought and practice. Those ideas are still true today.

Capitalist Ideas• During the Industrial Revolution, European thinkers rejected

mercantilism with its government controls. • These thinkers supported laissez-faire, a policy allowing

business to operate without government interference.• Laissez-faire comes from a French term meaning “let them

alone.”• European thinkers held that fewer taxes and regulations would

enable farmers to grow more produce. • In the early 1800s, laissez-faire soon gained the support of

middle-class owners of railroads, factories, and mines.

English: Work by Ford Madox Brown, 1852-63 Oil on canvas. Original in the Manchester City Art Galleries

Great Britain Leads the Way

• This agriculture revolution helped Great Britain to lead the Industrial Revolution

• Successful farming business allowed landowners to invest money in growing industries

• Many displaced farmers became industrial workers;

moved to urban areas.

Money and Industry• Capital-money to invest in

labor, machines, and raw materials that is essential for the growth of industry

• By investing in growing industries, the aristocracy and middle class had a good chance of making a profit

• Parliament encouraged investment by passing laws that helped the growing businesses

The four factors of economics are: land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship

Great Britain Leads the Way cont.Natural Resources

• Britain’s wealth included its rich supply of natural resources

• Water provided power for developing industries and transported raw materials and finished goods

• Britain also had huge supplies of coal, the principle raw material of the Industrial Revolution– Produced iron and steel for

machinery and helped to fuel industry

Large Labor Supply• In one century, England’s

population nearly doubled– Improvements in farming lead

to increased availability of food

– better, more nutritious food led to people living longer and healthier lives

• Changes in farming lead to increased supply of industrial workers

• Entrepreneurs-businesspeople who set up industries by bringing together capital, labor, and new industrial inventions

Why Britain Industrialized First

Enclosure Movement

• Open field system- system where British farmers had planted crops and kept livestock on unfenced private and public lands for hundreds of years

• Landowners felt that larger farms with enclosed fields would increase farming efficiency and productivity

• Enclosure Movement-practice of fencing or enclosing common lands into individual holdings

• Parliament supported this and passed laws that allowed landowners to take over and fence off private and common lands

• Many small farmers dependent on village lands were forced to move to towns and cities to find work

• Landowners practiced new, more efficient farming methods

– To raise crop yields, they mixed different kinds of soil and used new crop rotation systems– Crop Rotation-the practice of alternating crops of different kinds to preserve soil fertility– Charles Townshend- urged the growing of turnips to

enrich exhausted soil– Another reformer, Robert Bakewell, bred stronger

horses for farm work and fatter sheep and cattle for meat– Jethro Tull- invented the seed drill that enabled farmers to plant seeds in orderly rows

Growing Textile Industry

Advances in Machinery• John Kay- improved the loom with

the flying shuttle• James Hargeaves- invented a more

efficient spinning machine called the spinning jenny

• Richard Arkwright-developed the water frame-a huge spinning machine that ran continually on waterpower

• Samuel Crompton- produce the spinning mule by combining features of the spinning jenny and the water frame

Producing More Cloth• Edmund Cartwright-

developed the power loom to solve the shortage of weavers

• The new inventions created a growing need for raw cotton

• (American) Eli Whitney- developed the cotton gin that cleaned cotton 50 times faster than one person could

Flying shuttle

Spinning Jenny Water Frame

Spinning Mule Power Loom Cotton Gin

The Factory System• Factory System- organized method of production that

brought workers and machines together under control of managers

• Waterways powered machines and provided transportation for raw materials and finished cloth

• As the factory system spread, manufacturers required morepower than horses and water could provide• James Watt- designed an efficient steam engine*

– Steam engines allowed factories that had to close down when water froze or flowed too low to run continuously

• The steam engine enabled factories to be built far from waterways

The first passenger carriage in Europe, 1830, George Stephenson´s steam locomotive, Liverpool and Manchester Railway

Eli Whitney

Eli Whitney designed and invented the cotton gin by April 1793. The cotton gin was a machine that automated the separation of cottonseed from the short-staple cotton fiber. He contributed to the concept of interchangeable parts and increased factory production. These interchangeable parts were machine-made parts that were exactly alike and easily assembled or exchanged.

Industrial Developments• The use of factory machinery

increased demand for iron and steel

• Henry Bessemer and William Kelly-developed methods to inexpensively produce steel from iron

• At the same time, people worked to advanced transportation systems throughout Europe and the US

• Improvements began when private companies began building and paving roads

• John McAdam and Thomas Telford- further advanced road making:– better drainage systems and– the use of layers of crushed rock

• Water transportation also improved: in 1761, British workers dug one of the first modern canals– Soon, a canal building craze began in

both Europe and the US

• A combination of steam power and steel would soon revolutionize both land and water transportation– In 1801, Richard Trevithick first

brought steam-powered travel to land with a steam-powered carriage that ran on wheels and three years later, a steam locomotive that ran on rails

– In 1807, Robert Fulton designed the first practical steamboat

• Railroads and steamboats laid the foundations for a global economy and opened new forms of investment

Religious organizations provided social services to the poor.

The social gospel was a movement that urged Christians to social service.

Many poor people lived in slums. They packed into tiny rooms in tenements, multistory buildings divided into crowded apartments. In the slums, there was no sewage or sanitation system, and waste and garbage rotted in the streets. Cholera and other diseases spread rapidly.

Modernizing JapanJapan didn't trade until 1853, when four

American warships commanded by Commodore Matthew C. Perry sailed into the bay at Edo(present-day Tokyo).He wanted to trade with Japan and so they signed a treaty with Perry in 1854.

Meiji RestorationFirst five years after Perry, shogun signed

treaties with Britain, France, Holland, Russia, and the United States. Unhappiness of the treaties led to the overthrow of the shogun in 1868. A group of Samurai gave its allegiance to the new emperor, Mutsuhito, but kept the real power to themselves.

Mutsuhito was known as the Meiji, or Enlightened emperor, Japan's new rulers were called Meiji leaders. They Strengthened the Military, and worked to transform the nation into industrial society.

They established a system of universal education designed to produce loyal, skilled citizens who worked for Japan's modernization.

The Industrial Revolution: Cause and Effect2

Causes•Increased agricultural productivity•Growing population•New sources of energy, such as steam and coal•Growing demand for textiles and other mass-produced goods•Improved technology•Available natural resources, labor, and money•Strong, stable governments promoted economic growth

Immediate Effects•Rise of factories•Changes in transportation and communication•Urbanization•New methods of production •Rise of urban working class•Growth of reform movements

Long-Term Effects•Growth of labor unions•Inexpensive new products•Spread of industrialization •Rise of big business•Expansion of public education•Expansion of middle class•Competition for world trade among

industrialized nations •Progress in medical care

Effects of the Industrial Revolution

Samuel Slater

• Tall, ruddy young British worker on a ship bound for New York.

• A farmer was his listed occupation but he was actually a smuggler, stealing a valuable British commodity-industrial knowledge-to make money in America.

• Knew how to build an industrial spinning wheel and introduced it to the US.

Communications

Samuel Morse James Clerk Maxwell

assembled a working model of the telegraph

promoted the development of the radio

Used a system of dots and dashes

Promoted the idea that electromagnetic waves

travel through space at the speed of light

American inventor British physicist

Telegraph lines linked most European and North

American cities

Wedgewood Chinoiserie introduced 1830s

Wedgewood Plate – 250th Anniversary Josiah Wedgewood

1730 - 1980 - Vintage

There is so much more to

.

a

France Germany United States

government encouraged industrialization

Used British capital to build their first major

railway

British capital and machinery and American

mechanical skills promoted new industry.

developed a large pool of outstanding scientists

Strong iron, coal, and textile industries

emerged.

Shoe and textile factories flourished in New

England.

industrialization was slow-paced

industrialization was successful

industrialization was successful especially in

the Northeast

Napoleonic Wars strained the economy

and depleted the workforce

Government funding helped the industry to

grow

Coal mines and ironworks expanded in

PA

Growth of mining and railway construction became big in Paris

Brought machinery from Britain and set up

factories

By 1870, the US ranked with Great Britain and Germany as one of the

world’s 3 most industrialized countries.

Economy depended on farming and small

businesses, not new industries.

Industrialization: Success or Failure?

Technology and Industry

Alessandro Volta developed the first battery.Michael Faraday created the first electric motor and the first dynamo, a machine that generates electricity.

Thomas Edison made the first electric light bulb.

Chemists created hundreds of new products.New chemical fertilizers led to increased food production.Alfred Nobel invented dynamite.

Henry Bessemer developed a process to produce stronger steel.

Steel quickly became the major material used in tools, bridges, and railroads.

ELECTRICITYCHEMICALSSTEEL

The marriage of science, technology, and industry spurred economic growth. To improve efficiency, manufacturers designed products with interchangeable parts. They also introduced the assembly line. (Mass production)

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Guglielmo MarconiAlexander Graham

Bell

devised the wireless telegraph which later became the radio invented the telephone

Scottish-born American teacher of the deaf

Tiny electrical wires carrying sound allowed people to speak

to each other over long distances

Scientists devised ways to harness electrical power and electricity replaced coal as the major source of industrial fuel.

Michael Faraday Thomas Edison

discovered that moving a magnet through a coil in a

copper wire would produce an electrical current

Invented the phonograph which reproduced sound

Electric motor was based on this principle

Made electric lighting cheap and accessible by inventing

incandescent light bulbs.

British chemist American inventor

Electricity

Michael Faraday Thomas Edison

Energy & Engines•The Industrial Revolution surged forward with advances in engines. These inventions ushered in the age of the motor car:

Gottlieb Daimler

Redesigned the internal combustion engineGerman engineer

Now runs on gasolineProduced enough power to propel vehicles and boats

Rudolf Diesel

German engineer

Could run industrial plants, ocean liners, and locomotives Developed an oil-burning internal-combustion engine

Ferdinand von ZeppelinStreamlined the dirigible with a gasoline engine

A dirigible was a 40-year-old balloon-like invention that could carry passengers

Advances in Transportation and Communication

TRANSPORTATION•Steamships replaced sailing ships.•Rail lines connected inland cities and seaports, mining regions and industrial centers.•Nikolaus Otto invented a gasoline-powered internal combustion engine.•Karl Benz patented the first automobile.•Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine •Henry Ford began mass producing cars.•Orville and Wilbur Wright designed and flew the first airplane.

COMMUNICATION•Samuel Morse developed the telegraph.•Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone.•Guglielmo Marconi invented the radio.

During the second Industrial Revolution, transportation and communication were transformed by technology.

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Henry FordHenry Ford used the assembly

line methods to produce his Model T automobiles. As he

produced greater quantities of his cars, the cost of producing each car fell, allowing him to drop the price. This enabled

millions of people to buy cars.

Taking FlightWilbur and Orville Wright achieved success in 1903 at Kitty Hawk with the first flight of a motorized airplane. It covered a distance of 120 feet. Only five years later they flew their wooden airplane 100 miles. New airplanes and other vehicles

needed a steady supply of fuel for power and rubber for tires and other parts. Petroleum and rubber industries skyrocketed and innovations in transportation, communications, and electricity changed the American lifestyle forever.

The Rise of Big BusinessNew technologies required the investment of large amounts of money. To obtain capital, entrepreneurs sold stock, or shares in their companies, to investors.Large-scale companies formed corporations, businesses that are owned by many investors who buy shares of stock.

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Powerful business leaders created monopolies and trusts, huge corporate structures that controlled entire industries or areas of the economy. Sometimes a group of businesses joined forces and formed a cartel, an association to fix prices, set production quotas, or control markets.

The Rise of the Middle Class

• More jobs/biz came along with successful owners

• Education became a key idea along with people becoming involved in politics

In a democracy or a republic, it is essential that your electorate/plebiscite is literate and informed enough to make political decisions while voting.

Middle-Class Lifestyles

• The stereotype of men go out to work and the women stayed home to clean and raise the children developed during this period

• Boys sent to school to learn business or trade and typically took father’s position or worked in family business

• Girls stayed at home learning to cook, sew and all the workings of a household

The World of Cities

• How had cities changed by 1900?

• How did working-class struggles lead to improved conditions for workers?

2

City Life

• Settlement patterns shifted: the rich lived in pleasant neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city, while the poor crowded into slums near the city center.

• Paved streets, gas lamps, organized police forces, and expanded fire protection made cities safer and more liveable.

• Architects began building soaring skyscrapers made of steel. • Sewage systems improved public

health.

As industrialization progressed, cities came to dominate the West. At the same time, city life underwent dramatic changes.

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Lives of the Working Class

• Class size increased• Luxuries became available • No longer made or grew what the family needed—no longer self-sufficient• Went from “rugged Individualism” to consumerism

Population ExplosionBetween 1800 and 1900, the population of Europe more than doubled. This rapid growth was not due to larger families. Instead, population soared because the death rate fell. The drop in the death rate can be attributed to the following:

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Year Male Female1850 40.3 years 42.8 years1870 42.3 years 44.7 years1890 45.8 years 48.5 years1910 52.7 years 56.0 years

•People ate better.•Medical knowledge increased.•Public sanitation improved.•Hygiene improved.

For many Irish families fleeing hunger, Russian Jews escaping pogroms, or poor Italian farmers seeking economic opportunity, the answer was the same—America! A poem inscribed on the base of the Statue of Liberty expressed the welcome and promise of freedom that millions of immigrants dreamed of:

“Give me your tired, your poor,Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.Send these, the homeless, tempest-tossed to me.I lift my lamp beside the golden door.”—Emma Lazarus, “The New Colossus”

• Between 1790 and 1820, the population of the United States more than doubled to nearly 10 million people.

• Remarkably, this growth was almost entirely the result of reproduction, as the immigration rate during that period had slowed to a trickle.

• Fewer than 250,000 immigrants entered the United States due to doubts about the viability of the new republic and travel restrictions in Europe during the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.

Immigration

• Soon after Napoleon’s final defeat in 1815, immigration to the United States began to increase.

• Competing shippers who needed westbound payloads kept transatlantic fares low enough to make immigration affordable, and migrants were interested in the prospect of abundant land, high wages, and what they saw as endless economic opportunities.

• Many also migrated to America because Europe seemed to be running out of room, and numerous people were displaced from their homelands.

• For the next several decades, the number of immigrants continued to rise. In the 1820s, nearly 150,000 European immigrants arrived; in the 1830s, nearly 600,000; by the 1840s, nearly 1.7 million; and during the 1850s, the greatest influx of immigrants in American history—approximately 2.6 million—came to the United States.

• During the 1800s, most European immigrants entered the United States through New York. Ships would discharge their passengers, and the immigrants would immediately have to fend for themselves in a foreign land.

• It did not take long for thieves and con-men to take advantage of the newcomers.

• Some of the immigrants brought infectious diseases with them to the States. In 1855, the New York legislature, hoping to curb some of these problems, turned the southern tip of Manhattan into an immigration receiving center.

• The immigration center recorded their names, nationalities, and destinations; gave them cursory physical examinations; and sometimes assisted them with finding jobs.

• By 1860, the number of states had more than doubled to 33 from the original 13.

• Russia, France, and Austria were the only other countries in the western world that were more populous than the United States.

• Forty-three cities in the United States boasted populations of more than 20,000 people.

• Most of the immigrants coming to the United States came from Ireland and Germany, but some also came from China, Britain, and the Scandinavian countries.

• In the 1840s, Ireland experienced a potato blight when a rot attacked the potato crop, and nearly two million people died of disease and hunger. Tens of thousands of Irish fled the country during the “Black Forties,” many of them coming to America. By the end of the century, more Irish lived in American than in Ireland, with nearly 2 million arriving between 1830 and 1860. As they arrived in the United States, they were too poor to move west and buy land, so they congregated in large cities along the eastern coast.

• By 1850, the Irish made up over half the populations of Boston and New York City.

Immigrants Landing at Castle Garden, New York

• The Irish accepted whatever wages employers offered them, working in steel mills, warehouses, and shipyards or with construction gangs building canals and railways. As they competed for jobs, they were often confronted with “No Irish Need Apply” signs. Race riots were common between the Irish and the free African Americans who competed for the same low-status jobs.

• As a rule, Irish immigrants lived in crowded, dirty tenement buildings that were plagued by high crime rates, infectious disease, prostitution, and alcoholism. They were stereotyped as being ignorant, lazy, and dirty. They also faced severe anti-Catholic prejudices. Partially due to the hostility they faced, the Irish cultivated a strong cultural identity in America, developing neighborhood newspapers, strong Catholic churches, political groups, and societies.

• Although most Irish had a rough start in America, many eventually improved their position by acquiring small amounts of property. The Irish eventually controlled the police department in New York City, driving around in police vans called “paddy wagons.”

• During the eighteenth century, many Germans moved to America in response to William Penn’s offer of free religious expression and cheap land in Pennsylvania. Consequently, when a new wave of Germans immigrated to America starting in the 1830s, there were already enclaves of Germans in the United States. Between 1830 and 1860, more than 1.5 million Germans migrated to American soil. Many of them were farmers, but many were also cultured, educated, professional people who were displaced by the failed democratic revolution in Germany in 1848.

• In contrast to the Irish, the Germans possessed modest amounts of material things and, as a result, were able to afford to settle in rural areas in the Midwest, such as Ohio and Wisconsin. They often migrated in families or groups, enabling them to sustain the German language and culture in their new environments. The German communities preserved traditions of abundant food, beer, and music consumption. Their culture contributed to the American way of life with such things as the Christmas tree and Kindergarten (children’s garden), but their cultural differences often garnered suspicion from their “native” American neighbors.

• America had always been a land of immigrants, but for many American “natives,” the large influx of immigrants in the 1840s and 1850s posed a threat of unknown languages and customs.

• Some Americans feared that foreigners would outnumber them and eventually overrun the country. The natives saw the mass settlements of Irish and German Catholics as a threat to their hard-won religious and political liberties. This hostility rekindled the spirit of European religious wars, resulting in several armed clashes between Protestants and Catholics.

• In 1849, Nativists formed a group in New York called the “Order of the Star Spangled Banner,” which developed into a political party called the “American Party.” When asked about the organization, members refused to identify themselves saying, “I know nothing,” which eventually led the group to be labeled the “Know-Nothing” Party. The anti-Catholic group won many elections up until the 1850s, when the anti-Catholic movement subsided and slavery became the focal issue of the time.

• Throughout this critical growth period in America, immigrants were helping to form the United States into one of the most ethnically and racially diverse societies in the history of the world.

• Starting in the late 1870s and continuing through the 1880s, the source of the immigrants pouring onto America’s shores began to change. People from southern and eastern Europe, including Italians, Slovenes, Croats, Slovaks, Czechs, Poles, Hungarians, Romanians, Russians, and Greeks, began immigrating to America. After the 1880s, they made up the majority of immigrants entering the country, and from 1900 to 1910, they comprised nearly 70 percent of all immigrants.

• Approximately two to three million immigrants entered the United States during each decade from 1850 to 1880. In the 1880s, the number of immigrants swelled to over five million. Prior to 1880, the majority of immigrants were from the British Isles and western Europe. Many were literate and came from countries with representative governments. Most of them were Protestant, except for the Catholics from Ireland, France, and Germany. Although not all spoke English, many of the cultural customs of these immigrants allowed them to assimilate to life in America relatively easily.

• In contrast to earlier immigrants, many of these new immigrants were illiterate and poor, had little experience with democratic governments, and included followers of Judaism and Orthodox Christianity. This new wave of immigrants also included large numbers of Catholics. Although many of the immigrants in the late 1800s originated from rural areas of Europe, they preferred to seek industrial work in the cities of America.

• Upon arrival, most new immigrants settled in New York, Chicago, and other cities in neighborhoods with their own ethnic groups, which became known as “Little Italy,” “Little Hungary,” and so on. The number of immigrants in these areas soon outnumbered the population of some of the largest cities in their home countries. By 1910, one-third of Americans were foreign born or had one parent who was foreign born. Although these ethnic neighborhoods offered new immigrants a connection with others from their homeland, they also served to segregate the immigrants from mainstream American society.

• Others, namely Jews from the Polish areas of Russia, fled to America in the 1880s to escape violent religious persecution (pogroms) in their homelands. Unlike many of the other European immigrants at the time, the Jews were accustomed to city life. Many of them made their new home in New York and were able to transfer their skills as tailors and shopkeepers to the New World. However, once they were in America, they faced resentment from the German Jews who had arrived years earlier. Some German Jews took advantage of the destitute circumstances of the new arrivals and hired them as cheap labor in their businesses.

• In addition to the hardships faced in Europe, a number of other factors added to the appeal of America that lured many Europeans to make the voyage across the Atlantic. In Europe, people saw America as the land of opportunity, a viewpoint partially created by the letters from friends and family already in America that told of the opportunities that awaited immigrants. Another factor attracting immigrants was that America was free of the compulsory military service required in many European countries. Expanding American industries needing new sources of low-wage labor recruited workers in Europe and at American ports, and railroads advertised in multiple languages to find buyers for their land grants and create traffic on their lines.

• The federal government also encouraged immigration under the Contract Labor Law of 1864. Although the law was repealed in 1868, during the time it was in effect the federal government would pay for immigrants’ travel to the U.S. and then recoup the money by garnishing their wages once they arrived. American businesses made similar contract agreements with workers until the Foran Act eliminated the practice in 1885.

• Of the millions of new immigrants who made the passage either to escape the hardships of Europe or to seize the promise of the New World, most entered America through New York. Other ports that saw many immigrants were Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, Galveston, Mobile, and New Orleans. Those that came through New York before 1890, entered through the state-run Castle Garden reception center at the southern tip of Manhattan. Then later, through the Ellis Island facilities.

• The discovery of gold in California in 1848 prompted people from all over the world to seek their fortunes on the Pacific Coast of the United States. The discovery came during a period of political turmoil and economic hardship in China. The Chinese Empire was losing control of the nation and imperial powers from Europe were forcing their way into the country.

• As a result, many Chinese left their homeland to make a living in America. They sailed to San Francisco, which the Chinese immigrants had named Gam Saan or the "golden mountain." The number of Chinese entering the country grew to a steady rate of four to five thousand a year in the mid-1850s. Most of these immigrants settled on the west coast and began work in the gold mines.

• An unrestricted influx of Chinese immigrants provided cheap labor for the expanding railroads. The number of Chinese immigrants entering the United States more than doubled following the Treaty. By 1880, the 75,000 Asian immigrants living in California constituted nine percent of the state's population.

The Service Industry

• When the railroads were completed and little gold was left to be mined, as many as half of the Chinese who had arrived before the 1880s went back to China. Those who stayed had to compete for jobs with white workers and faced incredible hardships. Most Chinese men found themselves working as domestic servants to wealthy western women. In these positions, they had to learn how to cook, sew, clean, and do laundry; tasks not required of them in China.

• Chinese men soon took advantage of the desire of most white women for someone else to take care of their laundry. As a result, many Chinese men left their roles as servants and opened laundry cleaning storefronts all across the American west. They often formed their own settlements, or "Chinatowns," wherever economic opportunities existed. Within these areas, they could socialize with other Chinese, speak their native language, and find some escape from the prejudice they faced. Since many did not intend to stay in the United States, they felt no need to assimilate into American society. Chinatowns provided these men some sense of community in a foreign environment.

• Restaurants, grocery stores, and laundries provided a stable income and incentive for the start of a family.

At the Mercy of Machinery• As competition increased between factories,

work conditions decreased• Workers spent between 10-14 hours in the

factories a day• Women made less than half of men and

children made even less

Working-Class StrugglesWorkers protested to improve the harsh conditions of industrial life. At first, business owners tried to silence protesters, strikes and unions were illegal, and demonstrations were crushed. By mid-century, workers slowly began to make progress:• Workers formed mutual-aid societies, self-help groups to aid sick or

injured workers. • Workers won the right to organize unions.•Governments passed laws to regulate working conditions. Social unionism—vote in guys who will pass pro-union laws.• Governments established old-age pensions and disability insurance. • The standard of living improved.

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Workers’ Lives• Working children didn’t go to school, worked long

hours and suffered from diseases and injuries from the intense work.

• Working offered new independence for women• Owners of mill often controlled of the worker’s lives

Workers Unite

• Developed labor unions that demanded fair wages and tolerable working conditions

• Labor unions are made up of workers of a trade

Union Tactics• Organized protests, slowdowns,

boycotts, sit-downs, strikes• Unions banned in England, and known members of

unions lost their jobs and were not hired for jobs in U.S.--blacklisted

• Collective bargaining developed and unions gained acceptance

Picketing—an orderly assemblage of strikers to protestunfair working conditions. Signs were attached to woodenslats made from picket fenceposts.Recently banned because they made great weapons in a scuffle!

What Values Shaped the New Social Order?

• A strict code of etiquette governed social behavior.

• Children were supposed to be “seen but not heard.”

• Middle-class parents had a large say in choosing whom their children married. At the same time, the notion of “falling in love” was more accepted than ever before.

• Men worked while women stayed at home. Books, magazines, and popular songs supported a cult of domesticity that idealized women and the home.

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• Across Europe and the United States, politically active women campaigned for fairness in marriage, divorce, and property laws.

• Women’s groups supported the Temperance movement, a campaign to limit or ban the use of alcoholic beverages.

• Before 1850, some women had become leaders in the union movement.

• Some women campaigned to abolish slavery.• Many women broke the barriers that kept them out of

universities and professions. • In the mid- to late 1800s, groups dedicated to

women’s suffrage emerged. Women in the US will not get the vote until 1920—the 19th Amendment.

3Rights for Women

Growth in Public Education

• By the late 1800s, reformers persuaded many governments to set up public schools and require basic education for all children.

• Governments began to expand secondary schools, or high schools. • Colleges and universities expanded during this period. Universities

added courses in the sciences to their curricula.• Some women sought greater educational opportunities. By the 1840s,

a few small colleges for women opened.

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Countries by 2012 economic freedom index

Karl Marx’s Theories and Friedrich Engels

Karl MarxFriedrich Engels

• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels met in Paris in 1844. • Marx later settled in London, and he and Engels

became lifelong friends and collaborators.• Marx believed that capitalism was only a temporary

phase. As the makers of goods, the proletariat, or the working class, was the true productive class. Proletariats could seize control from the bourgeoisie, or middle class, during an economic crisis and then build a society in which the people owned everything. He wrote The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital.

Without private property, classes would vanish, and the government would wither away. This would be known as communism, a society without class distinctions or private property.

This did not happen—sigh!

Marx and Engels

• -Karl Marx, a German philosopher, dismissed early socialism as impractical and tried to find a scientific basis for it.

• - Son of a German lawyer and had a doctorate of history and philosophy - Horrified by English factory

conditions, Engels wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England.

Marx’s Theories• Following the German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel, Marx believed

changing ideas were the major force in history and history advanced through conflict.

• Marx viewed economics as the major force for change.

Marx Theory

Economic Base

Law Social Systems

Customs Religion Art

Marx’s Theories cont. The class that controlled production became the controlling class.

They gave up control through revolutions.

Therefore, clashes between the classes were inevitable.

Marx’s Theories (cont.)

• Proletariat working class• Bourgeoisie middle class• -According to Marx, the proletariat would build a

society in which people owned everything.• Without private property, classes and government

would wither away. • Communism governing principle would be “from

each according to his ability, and each according to his need”.

• These views were published in The Communist Manifesto of 1848.

• Marx developed them further in Das Kapital in 1867.

The Socialist Legacy

• History did not proceed by Marx’s plan.• Workers could buy more with their wages. Rather than

overthrow their governments, workers gained the right to vote to correct the worst social ills. Workers also remained loyal to their individual nations.

• Democratic Socialists began to appear and urged public control of some means of production, but they respected individual values and democratic means to implement Socialist policies.

• In the early 1900s, revolution swept Russia. Rising to power in the revolution, the Russian communists imposed their beliefs on the country and shunned democratic values.

• Communism is a radical form of socialism first developedby a group of Marxist revolutionaries. Communism is a society without class distinction or private property.

The Socialist Legacy• -History did not proceed by Marx’s plan, however.• -Rather than overthrow their government, workers gained the

right to vote and used it to correct social issues in many democratic countries.

• Democratic socialism developed in Europe, which urged public control of production, but respected individual values and favored democratic means. Many countries like Denmark, West Germany, Sweden, Finland, Japan, etc. adopt socialism especially after WWII.