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Chapter 04
Ecosystems and Communities
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4-1 The Role of Climate
At the conclusion of this section, you
should be able to answer the following
questions:
How does the greenhouse effect maintain the
biosphere's temperature range?
What are Earth's three main climate zones?
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4-1 The Role of Climate Key Terms
Weather
condition of Earth's atmosphere at a particular time and place
Climate
average, year-after-year conditions of temperature andprecipitation in a particular region
Greenhouse Effect
natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's
atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and
other gases
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4-1 The Role of Climate Key Terms
Polar Zone cold climate zone where the sun's rays strike Earth at
a very low angle.
Temperate zone moderate climate zone between the polar zones and
the tropics
Tropical zonewarm climate zone that receives direct or nearly
direct sunlight year round
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Climate
In the atmosphere, temperature, precipitation,
and other environmental factors combine to
produce weather and climate.
Weather is the day-to-day condition of Earth's
atmosphere at a particular time and place.
Climate on the other hand, refers to the average,
year-after-year conditions of temperature and
precipitation in a particular region.
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Climate
Climate is caused by the interplay of many
factors, including the trapping of heat by the
atmosphere, the latitude, the transport of heat
by winds and ocean currents, and the amount ofprecipitation that results.
The shape and elevation of landmasses also
contribute to global climate patterns.
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Solar Energy & Climate
The energy of incoming sunlight drives Earth's
weather and helps determine climate.
Solar energy has an important effect on the
temperature of the atmosphere.
At the same time, the presence of certain gases
(greenhouse gasses like CO2) in the atmosphere
also has an effect on its temperature.
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The Greenhouse Effect
Carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4),
water vapor (H2O), and
a few otheratmospheric gases trap
heat energy and
maintain Earth's
temperature range.
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The Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse gases allow solar energy to
penetrate the atmosphere in the form of
sunlight. Much of the sunlight that hits the
surface of our planet is converted into heatenergy and then radiated back into the
atmosphere.
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The Effect of Latitude on Climate
Earth is a sphere that is
tilted on its axis.
We are tilted about 23.5
degrees off 90.
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Climate Zones
Earth has three main climate zones.These climate zones are caused by the unequal
heating of Earth's surface.
Near the equator, energy from the sun strikes Earthalmost directly.
Near the poles, the sun's rays strike Earth's surfaceat a lower angle.
The same amount of solar energy is spread out overa larger area, heating the surface less than at theequator.
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Earths 3 Main Climate Zones
As a result of differences in latitude and thus the
angle of heating, Earth has three main climate
zones: polar, temperate, and tropical.
Polar Zones
cold areas where the sun's rays strike Earth at a very
low angle. These zones are located in the areas
around the North and South poles, between 66.5and 90 North and South latitudes.
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Earths 3 Main Climate Zones
Temperate Zones
sit between the polar zones and the tropics. Because
temperate zones are more affected by the changing angle of
the sun over the course of a year, the climate in these zonesranges from hot to cold, depending on the season.
Tropical Zones
near the equator, between 23.5 North and 23.5 South
latitudes. The tropics thus receive direct or nearly directsunlight year-round, making the climate almost always warm.
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H AT TRANSPORT IN TH BIOSPH R
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HEAT TRANSPORT IN THE BIOSPHERE
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Heat Transport in the Biosphere
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4-2 What Shapes an Ecosystem?
At the conclusion of this section, you
should be able to answer the following
questions:
How do biotic and abiotic factors influence an
ecosystem?
What interactions occur within communities?
What is ecological succession?
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4-2 What Shapes an Ecosystem? Key
Terms
Biotic factor biological influence on organisms within an
ecosystem
Abiotic Factor physical, or nonliving, factor that shapes an
ecosystem
Habitat the area where an organism lives, including the biotic
and abiotic factors that affect it
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4-2 What Shapes an Ecosystem? Key
Terms
Niche
full range of physical and biological conditions in which an
organism lives and the way in which the organism uses those
conditions
Resource
any necessity of life, such as water, nutrients, light, food, or
space
Competitive Exclusion Principle ecological rule that states that no two species can occupy the
same exact niche in the same habitat at the same time
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4-2 What Shapes an Ecosystem? Key
Terms
Predation interaction in which one organism captures and
feeds on another organism
Symbiosis relationship in which two species live closely
together
Mutualism symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit
from the relationship
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4-2 What Shapes an Ecosystem? Key
Terms
Commensalism
symbiotic relationship in which one member of the
association benefits and the other is neither helped
nor harmed
Parasitism
symbiotic relationship in which one organism lives in
or on another organism (the host) and consequentlyharms it
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4-2 What Shapes an Ecosystem? Key
Terms
Ecological Succession gradual change in living communities that follows a
disturbance
Primary Succession succession that occurs on surfaces where no soil exists
Pioneer Species first species to populate an area during primary succession
Secondary Succession succession following a disturbance that destroys a community
without destroying the soil
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Lets think about Ecology
Think about your house.
You do not exist in your
house alone
There are numerous
things living and non
living, both inside and
outside your house that
affect you
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Lets look at some living
examples Your Parents may
control
What you eat
Curfews & Bed times Allowance
Privileges
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Some more living examples
Brothers and Sisters
may affect
Your allowance
Your duties aroundthe house
How much trouble you
get in
Your free time
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Outside your house
Neighbors may affect
How loud you play
your music
Your pets, if they barkall night
The appearance of
your house.
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There are non living factors
too. What kind of
neighborhood do youlive in?
Do you have to travela long way to getfood or water?
Is your neighborhood
sanitary?
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More non living factors
Do you havenumerous publicservices available? Police, Fire,
Ambulance etc?
Are there numerousoptions available toyou for almost
anything you canthink of?
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Finally
Do you live in an area
where there is
constant war or
fighting? An area subject to
frequent floods,
tornadoes,
hurricanes,earthquakes, or
volcanoes?
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Apply this to ecology
Ecology applies to this example.
You interact with parents, siblings, andneighbors. They all influence you, and
you influence them too. Non living factors also play a role in your
growth and development. Safety,
Security, and Sanitation are threeimportant factors.
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Abiotic Factors in this
ecosystem Temperature
Rainfall
Sunlight Soil Type & pH
Rocks
Elevation Humidity
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Biotic Factors in this
ecosystem Birds
Fish
Plants, trees, shrubs, grasses and aquaticplants
Molds and Fungi
Bacteria Insects
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Biotic & Abiotic Factors in the
Ecosystem
Together, biotic and abiotic factors
determine the survival and growth of an
organism and the productivity of the
ecosystem in which the organism lives
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The Niche
If an organism's habitat is its address, its niche is
its occupation.
A niche (NITCH) is the full range of physical
and biological conditions in which an organism
lives and the way in which the organism uses
those conditions.
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The Niche
A niche includes the type of food the organism
eats, how it obtains this food, and which other
species use the organism as food.
The physical conditions that the organism
requires to survive are part of its niche.
The organism's niche also includes when and
how it reproduces.
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The Niche
No two species can share the same niche in the
same habitat. However, different species can
occupy niches that are very similar. For instance,
the three species of North American warblersshown in the figure at right live in the same
spruce trees but feed at different elevations and
in different parts of those trees. The species aresimilar, yet each warbler has a different niche
within the forest.
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Community Interactions
Key Concept:
Community interactions, such as competition,
predation, and various forms of symbiosis, can
powerfully affect an ecosystem.
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Competition
Competition occurs when organisms of thesame or different species attempt to use anecological resource in the same place at the same
time.The term resource refers to any necessity of life,
such as water, nutrients, light, food, or space
Direct competition in nature often results in awinner and a loserwith the losing organismfailing to survive.
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The Competitive Exclusion Principle
also called Gause's principle, or Grinnell'saxiom (after G.F. Gause, a Soviet biologist, andJ. Grinnell, an American naturalist, who first
clearly established it), statement that incompetition between species that seek the sameecological niche, one species survives while theother expires under a given set of environmental
conditions. The result is that each speciesoccupies a distinct niche.
competitive exclusion, principle of." Encyclopdia Britannica. 2007. EncyclopdiaBritannica Online. 11 Oct. 2007 .
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9000695http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9000695http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9000695http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9000695 -
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Predation
An interaction in which one organism captures
and feeds on another organism.
The organism that does the killing and eating is
called the predator (PRED-uh-tur), and the food
organism is the prey.
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Symbiosis
means living together.
Any of several living arrangements between membersof two different species, including mutualism,commensalism, and parasitism. Both positive(beneficial) and negative (unfavorable to harmful)associations are therefore included, and the membersare called symbionts.
Any association between two species populations thatlive together is symbiotic, whether the species benefit,harm, or have no effect on one another.
"symbiosis." Encyclopdia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
11 Oct. 2007 .
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070714http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070714http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070714http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9070714 -
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Mutualism
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Mutualism
In mutualism (MYOO-choo-ul-iz-um), both
species benefit from the relationship.
The ant cares for the aphids and protects them
from predators. The aphids produce a sweetliquid that the ant drinks.
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Commensalism
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Commensalism
In commensalism (kuh-MEN-sul-iz-um), one
member of the association benefits and the
other is neither helped nor harmed.
The orchid benefits from its perch in the tree asit absorbs water and minerals from rainwater
and runoff, but the tree is not affected.
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Parasitism
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Parasitism
A tick feeds on the blood of its host and mayalso carry disease-causing microorganisms.
Inparasitism (PAR-uh-sit-iz-um), one
organism lives on or inside another organismand harms it. The parasite obtains all or part ofits nutritional needs from the other organism,called the host. Generally, parasites weaken but
do not kill their host, which is usually larger thanthe parasite.
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Ecological Succession
The development of communities over
time.
Continuous changes in structure and
composition until a dynamic equilibriumis reached.
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Ecological Succession
A process by which an existing community
of organisms is replaced by a different
community over periods of time ranging
from a few decades to thousands ofyears.
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Primary Succession
Primary succession This is when succession is started by the formation
of totally new land. This may happen naturally or becaused by humans (Anthropogenic). New land is
referring to a newly formed land mass such as avolcanic island. When first formed these consist ofpure rocks. Plants (flora) can not live here and so noanimal life (fauna) can live here. These islands arevery inhospitable are identified mostly by a almost
total lack of soil.
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/education/a-level/science/environmental_science/ecology/succession/succession.htm
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/anthropogenic.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/flora.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/fauna.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/fauna.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/flora.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/anthropogenic.htm -
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Primary Succession
Over a period of time a thin layer of soil mayform by the processes of weathering. Somebacteria and Lichens (Lichens) may alreadyhave already colonized the rocks by absorbing
nutrients from the rocks. But it is not until thisfirst weathering has formed the thin soil thatsuccession really starts. At this point mossesand ferns are able to grow. These mosses and
ferns dominate the area and the Lichens die.
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/education/a-level/science/environmental_science/ecology/succession/succession.htm
osses an c ens
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osses an c ensdemonstrate ecological
succession
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Lichens breaking down rock
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Mosses on Rock
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Primary Succession
Many of these early plants are Legumes(legumes) and this helps to fertilize the soil.When the soil becomes more fertile andthicker, due to humus (Humus) and more
weathering of the Bedrock/regolith, other floracan colonize the area. As the plant life changesso does the fauna/animals that live in the area.The life present will change many times and we
called these stages a seral stage (seral stage).The whole process for a particular ecosystem isknown as its sere (sere).
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/education/a-level/science/environmental_science/ecology/succession/succession.htm
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/legumes.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/humus.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/seral-stage.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/sere.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/sere.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/seral-stage.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/humus.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/legumes.htm -
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Succession ends when a climax community isreached. A climax community is normally aforest ecosystem as trees are the most efficientat using sunlight. However in areas that have to
low or to high amounts of insulation (insulation)may have different climax communities. Theycould be described as ecosystems that havereached the carrying capacity (carrying
capacity) of their environment.
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/education/a-level/science/environmental_science/ecology/succession/succession.htm
Primary Succession
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/insulation.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/carrying-capacity.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/carrying-capacity.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/carrying-capacity.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/carrying-capacity.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/insulation.htm -
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Primary Succession
Primary succession
showing the
movement from no
life, to pioneerspecies, to small
plants and shrubs, to
conifers, eventually
to a climaxcommunity.
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Secondary Succession
This is much the same as Primary
succession except it occurs when the
current seral stage (seral stage) is
removed abruptly. This may be due to anatural disaster such as an earthquake or
volcanic eruption, or by anthropogenic
(Anthropogenic) effects such asdeforestation and strip mining.
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/education/a-level/science/environmental_science/ecology/succession/succession.htm
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/seral-stage.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/anthropogenic.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/anthropogenic.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/seral-stage.htm -
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This time there is already soil and probablyseeds present. This means the succession willhappen more rapidly than primary succession.Wind blown plants that are tolerant to high
levels of sun and grow fast called pioneer orfugitive species will colonize the area. Thesewill then be replaced by herbaceous(herbaceous) plants, which will then be
followed by bush like plants and trees if theecosystem can support such flora.
Secondary Succession
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/education/a-level/science/environmental_science/ecology/succession/succession.htm
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These types of succession are known as
autogenic (autogenic).
In some cases allogenic succession (allogenic
succession) may occur. For example a lake maysilt up (silt up) over time to eventually produce
a terrestrial (terrestrial) environment.
Autogenic succession may then occur on this
new land.
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/education/a-level/science/environmental_science/ecology/succession/succession.htm
Secondary Succession
http://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/autogenic.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/allogenic-succession.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/allogenic-succession.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/silt-up.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/terrestrial.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/terrestrial.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/silt-up.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/allogenic-succession.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/allogenic-succession.htmhttp://www.restoringearth.co.uk/deff/autogenic.htm -
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The illustration showsa major disturbance(fire) removing thecurrent seral stage
abruptly. Succession occurs
again rapidly due toalready established
soil.
Secondary Succession
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http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/Chap5398/sld002.htm
Mt St Helens & Secondary
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Mt. St. Helens & Secondary
Succession At 8:32 Sunday morning, May 18, 1980, Mount St.
Helens erupted.
Shaken by an earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter
scale, the north face of this tall symmetrical mountain
collapsed in a massive rock debris avalanche. Nearly230 square miles of forest was blown over or left dead
and standing.
Mt. St. Helens
& Secondary
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At the same time a mushroom-shaped column of ashrose thousands of feet skyward and drifted downwind,
turning day into night as dark, gray ash fell over
eastern Washington and beyond.
The eruption lasted 9 hours, but Mount St. Helens andthe surrounding landscape were dramatically changed
within moments.
Mt. St. Helens & Secondary
Succession
Mt. St. Helens
& Secondary
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Blown down forest protected by snow
near Meta Lake. Snow protected Pacific
silver fir and mountain hemlock trees
near Meta Lake three years after theeruption. Re-sprouting shrubs are also
visible.
Mt. St. ele s & Seco da y
Succession
Mt. St. Helens & Secondary
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. . y
Succession
Mt. St. Helens
& Secondary
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Same view of blown down forest near
Meta Lake nine years after the eruption.
Note that the snow-protected trees have
grown and numerous snow-protectedshrubs have also re-sprouted.
y
Succession
Mt. St. Helens & Secondary
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y
Succession
Mt St Helens & Secondary
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Mt. St. Helens & Secondary
Succession Same view of blown down forest near
Meta Lake 14 years after the eruption.
Note the comparative large size and
continued growth of the snow-protectedtrees and shrubs.
Mt. St. Helens & Secondary
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y
Succession
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Climax Community
The final stage of biotic successionattainable by a plant community in anarea under the environmental conditions
present at a particular time. The speciescomposition of the community remainsthe same because all the species presentsuccessfully reproduce themselves and
invading species fail to gain a foothold.
l
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Climax Community
A climax community is a more or lesspermanent and final stage of a particular
succession, often characteristic of a
restricted area.
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Climax communities are characterized byslow rates of change, compared with
more dynamic, earlier stages.
They are dominated by species tolerantof competition for resources.
Climax Community
http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios101/communitie/sld028.htm
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Succession can take a long time.
For example, old field succession may require
100 300 years to reach climax community. But
in this time frame, the probability that aphysical disturbance (fire, hurricane, flood) will
occur becomes so high, the process of
succession may never reach completion.
http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios101/communitie/sld028.htm
Climax Community
Questions for your
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Questions for your
consideration Define ecology, biosphere, and ecosystem.
How are they related to one another?
What are biotic factors? Abiotic factors?
Describe the process of ecological succession.
What is a climax community?
How would the breakdown of large amounts oforganic matter upset the natural balance of a
lake ecosystem?