CHAPTER #1-INTERDEPENDENCE OFLIVING THINGS
What is Ecology?Study of the environment and its
surroundingsEnvironment-Everything around you
LIVING NON-LIVINGCells: organized to form tissuesTissues: organized to form organsOrgans: organized to form organ systems
systems individual
Systems:Breathing CirculatoryDigestive Skeletal
LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONPopulation: group of individuals of same species
living together in the same areaCommunity: All living things in an areaBiome: Large geographical area with a
characteristic climateBiosphere: Region on earth in which life exists
Individual (Level 1)Population (Level 2)Community (Level 3)Biome (Level 4)Biosphere (Level 5)Ecosystem: Interacting system that consists of a
group of organismsBiotic: LivingAbiotic: Non-livingRespiration: “Burning” of fuels within cells
Glucose: Main fuel of reaction-Simple Sugar
Catalysts: Permits “burning” at temperatures that will not damage the organism(s)
Enzymes: Organic CatalystsPRODUCERS
COMSUMERSDECOMPOSERS
Trophic Levels: Feeding levelsProducers- Create their own food
Auto-trophs: Self FeedersConsumers: Organisms that feed on other
organismsHeterotrophs: Feed on other organisms1st Order Consumer: feed directly on producersHerbivore: Plant EatersCarnivores: Meat EatersOmnivores: Consume both plant & meat1st order carnivores: feed on herbivores2nd order consumer
2nd Order Carnivores: feed on 1st order carnivores3rd Order ConsumerTop Carnivores: HumansPredators: Carnivores which feed on live animalsPrey: Animals which are eatenScavengers: Feed on/in dead organismsSaprophytes: Fungi and bacteria which feed of
dead organismsDecomposers: Mainly bacteria
-Break down and feed on non-living organic matter
Food Web: Organisms in an ecosystem linked together
Photosynthesis: Food Production for Plants
CHAPTER #2-STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYTEMBiotic: LivingAbiotic: Non-LivingHabitat: Is the place in which it livesNiche: Organism is its total role in the communityCompetition: Same habitat and similar niches
Food Web: Interdependence and interrelated system of plants and animals
Ecological Pyramids:Pyramid of Numbers:
-many producers –few carnivores –many parasites
TAXONOMY OF LIVING THINGSKingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-Family-Genus-
Species-VarietyPouch Animals: Viviparous-give birth to live youngOviparous: Produce eggs
Pyramid of Biomass: Heavy carnivores/Light producersBiomass-total of mass of all living organismsPyramids of Energy:The efficiency with which energy is passed along
the food chain is more important than either the numbers of organisms or their biomass
Special Feeding RelationshipsSymbiosis: Living together
-Close association between 2 organisms of different species in which at least 1 of the 2 benefits
3 Kinds of Symbiosis:-Parasitism-Mutalism-Commensalism
Parasitism: Relationship between 2 organisms in which 1 benefits and the
other suffers harmBenefits: ParasiteHarmed: HostMutalism: 2 organisms in which both benefit
Terrestrial Ecosystem: Land CreaturesRange of Tolerance: Depends on Factor and
OrganismsOptimum: Point at which animal lives the bestAquatic Ecosystems: Water creaturesWhat affects land organisms?What affects water organisms?
CHAPTER #3-FLOW OF MATTER & ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS
Flow of Energy in Ecosystems:-Activity is the essence of life-Where do organisms get their energy-What happens to energy in ecosystems
Energy Flow is One-Way:Clover –Rabbit-Fox-Energy is gradually lost along a food chain-For an ecosystem to keep operating, energy must
always enter it from the sun-Is energy lost in a food web
Pyramid of Energy:NutrientsMost ecosystems need over 20 elements:
-Nitrogen-Oxygen
Mineral Nutrients: originally entered the ecosystem from bedrock
Non-Mineral Nutrients: Entered the ecosystem in the form of H2O & CO2
3 Non-Mineral Nutrients:
CARBON HYDROGEN OXYGENBUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE
Macro-Nutrients: large amounts
Nitrogen-Phosphorus-PotassiumMicro-Nutrients:
small amountsZinc-Iron-Sodium
Nutrient Cycle:Recycled through an ecosystem
Water Cycle:Transportation PrecipitationSurface Runoff Percolation
Ground WaterCapillary Water:
Carbon CycleNitrogen Cycle: 78% of atmosphere is (N2)-must
be in form of nitrate (NO3) to be used
Changing of nitrogen to nitrates is called: NITROGEN FIXATION
Phosphorus: Water & Soil in inorganic compoundsNutrients pass through cycles“Balance” usually exists in nutrients
Chapter #4-Ecological SuccessionReplacement of plants and animals in an area over a
period of timeSand Dune Environment:
Wind blows sand inland Strong WindsLack of Nutrients Shifting WindsFew Nutrients High day TempsIntense Light Low night Temps
Pioneer Stage: Pioneer Plant-first plant to emerge
Shrub Stage: Added nutrients & waterExample: Sand Cherry
Cottonwood Stage: Dominant PlantsProvides ShadeExample: Cottonwood & Poplars
Index Plants: Common to area
Index Plants:Common to Area
Pine Stage:Enrich soilExample: Pine Trees
Oak Stage:Dominate SpeciesShade tolerant SpeciesExamples: Basswood/Hickory
Climax Stage:Climax Community-young plants replace
old plantsVariety/Diversity of plants
Succession: Plant succession of grasses to climax forest
Animal Succession:Living things can change their environment;
gradual replacement of living things by another over time
Animal Succession:-Species Diversity-Population Numbers-Niche availability increases-Total biomass & organic matter increases-Complexity increases
Sand Dune Protection:-Solutions?
Types of Succession:-Primary
Succession begins in an area that has not supported life within recent times
Secondary:Begins in area that once supported life
Autotrophic & Heterotrophic Succession:-Primary and secondary succession examples of autotrophic succession-Heterotrophic succession:
-Energy source-deaden material-Example: Fallen Log
Each stage has its special community of living things
Lichens: Single type of organism-Pioneers of succession
Mutualism: Both benefit-Crustose Lichens- first to colonize-Hyphae Lichens- obtain nutrients from placing
acid into rocks-Foliose Lichens- Leaf like-use the freeze-thaw
method-Froticose Lichens- Moss like-developed in soil
Succession in Lake Regions:
Pioneers: pigweed-ragweed-dandelionsMeadow Stage: Grassy areaOld Field Community:
-Dominated by biennials & perennials-Examples: goldenrod & milkweed
Quadrat Method:-Plots-Reliable measure of the properties of the total area
Arrangement:
Systematic arrangement: easier to plan & use-Spaced widely and easily as possible-Base Line-Transect Lines-Size of Quadrant
-Number of Quadrant-Shape of Quadrant
Importance Values:-Number which gives the relative importance of that species in an area
Frequency:-How widely distributed are the plants
Density:-How close together are the plants
Cover:-How large the plants are in the area
Frequency Equation:Density Equation:Cover Equation:Basal Area-relative cover of soil
DBH-Diameter Breast HeightRelative Frequency Equation:Relative Density Equation:Relative Cover Equation:Importance Value:Sustained Yield: cut trees are replaced by trees of
the same species
Sustainable Forestry Initiative: program is a comprehensive system of principles, objectives and performance measures developed by foresters, conservationists and scientists. It combines the growing and harvesting of trees with the long-term protection of wildlife, plants, soil and water quality.
Chapter #5Adaptations of organisms to
temperature, moisture and wind
Adaptation to Organisms:Structural AdaptationsBehavioral Adaptations
5 Factors affecting Organisms:RANGE OF TOLERANCE
-Temperature-Moisture-Wind-Light-Soil Conditions
Optimum PointOptimum Temperature
Organisms live bestRange of Tolerance: Range between these extremesPoikilotherms: various temperaturesHomeotherms: alike temperatures2 Forms of Moisture:Organisms must adapt to:
-Precipitation-Relative Humidity-Optimum moisture conditions
Climate: dictates the type of vegetative growthDeciduous vs. EvergreenFactors Affecting Precipitation:
-Direction of Prevailing winds-Topography (shape) of the land-Temperature
Relative Humidity: Ratio of the mass of water in a certain volume of air to the mass of water needed to saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature
Transpiration: water vapor released from plantsStomata: poresEpidermis: skin
Water Content of SoilHydrophytes: plants in extreme moisture conditionsXerophytes: very dry conditionsMesophytes: moisture conditions between the
other 2 classesAdaptations to Moisture:
Exoskeleton (thick body covering)
Wind:-Advantages-Disadvantages
Chapter #6Adaptations of Organisms
To Light and Soil3 Aspects of Light affect Organisms:
-Intensity-Brightness-Duration-Quality
What is Light?-Sun gives off electromagnetic waves which have a wide range lengths
Short: Gamma raysLong: Radio wavesLight: Form of energy the eye can detectUltraviolent Radiation: Shorter than 390
nanometersInfrared Radiation: Wave Lengths longer than 770
nanometersIntensity: Factors affecting intensity
-Latitude -Time of year-Altitude -Time of Day-Topography -Cloud CoverCompensation Intensity: Intensity at which the
light is just bright enough to make it possible for photosynthesis
Primary Production: Rate at which energy is stored by producers through
photosynthesis
Saturation Intensity: maximum productionShade Tolerant: Like shadeShade Intolerant: Dislike shadeOrientation: Direction of GrowthGeotropism: Response to GravityPhototropism: Response to LightGeotaxis: Gravity to stay verticalPhotoaxis: Angle of PolarizationDuration: Length of exposurePhotoperiodism: Response to the length of day
Long-day Short-day Day-neutralPerennials: Plants come up year afterAnnual: Finish life cycle in one yearQuality: Referring to the color or wavelength of lightPositively Phototactic: move toward bright lightNegatively Phototactic: move away from bright lightMicroenvironment: Small EnvironmentMicroclimate: Small climate zone within a larger
zone
Unit #1-Water Collection BodiesEarth contains billions of gallons of water, however
small portion is readily available and easily used by plants and animals
About .8% of the earth’s water is present in the earth’s crust in a form that could be reclaimed
Water stored in porous rock layers is called:Aquifers or Groundwater
Large lakes, inland seas & rivers contain most of the earth’s usable surface water. More than half of this water is stored in freshwater lakes. Small portion is stored in salt lakes.
Extremely small portions are found in rivers and streams
2 Categories in Pennsylvania:-Running Water-Standing Water
Running water handles the surplus amounts of water that exists. They are involved with the process of evapotranspiration
Running WaterGravity primary mover of surface water
Pennsylvania contains a large number of LIMESTONE STREAMS that serve as natural BUFFERS to acidic fallout & support many forms of aquatic life not found in FREESTONE STREAMS
Limestone Streams: usually spring from deep cavities which contain calcium salts
Freestone Streams: Start with high mountain springs where soil is thin & they continually increase in size with the addition of feeder
2 Classifications of Streams in Pennsylvania:-Cold Water
-support trout & aquatic plants-Warm Water
-Over 70 degrees-Bass, Carp and Catfish
Channels: Runoff water follows these paths-These channels converge into a
major final stream, drain a particularly well-drained
land area
Watershed: Main drainage basinRiver Basin: Large-well established watersheds
supporting major riversBrooks-Runs-Creeks-Rivers:
-Classified by Size-1st order-2nd order-3rd order-4th order
Coldwater: Usually colder than 70 degrees FWarmwater: Usually warmer than 70 degrees F
45, 000 square miles of land surface in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania drained by 3 large & 3 smaller river basins-6 total
Smallest Basin:Genesee River- Northcentral Part of PA
-Flows northwardErie Basin:
-Drains Erie County & part of Lake Erie
Potomac River Basin:-Drains the lower ridge & valleys of the south
central part of the state3 Large Rivers
Delaware: Eastern border between New York & New JerseyLargest free flowing river in the
eastern United States-No dams, locks, etc.
Susquehanna River: Largest basin in Pennsylvania-Formed by 2 large branches:
-Northern Branch-New York is where it begins
West Branch-drains the North central part of the state
Ohio River: 2nd largest river basin in Pennsylvania-Formed by Allegheny & Mongahela rivers in Pittsburgh-Flows 1,000 miles southwest to Mississippi river in
Illinois-Drains western PA, parts of NY, western MD and northern WV-Contains small navigational locks & dams that permit large river barges to carry goods & raw materials from PA to other states
45,000 miles of stream channels drain PennsylvaniaPennsylvania: large exporter of water to other
states & other types of collection bodies
Unit #2-Freshwater Ecosystems70%-Earth’s surface97%-Earth’s water is salt3%-Earth’s freshwater
-of that 3%-98% is frozen-2% usable to humans
Amazon River: South America-1,100 tributaries-Contains 65% of the world’s
river waterFunctions of Freshwater:
-Drinking water -Irrigating food cropsHumans-80% is water500,000 liters of water is used to produce 1 carWHAT HAS CAUSED INCREASED USE OF WATER?2 Categories:
Standing Water: pondFlowing Water: stream2 Types:
-Standing water-Wholly aquatic
-ponds & lakesPartly Terrestrial:
-marshes -swamps -carrs -bogs -fensWetlands: Sloughs-ponds and small lakes with high
nutrient values
PotholesLimnologists: people who study standing waterStream Order: Classification of flowing waters
-1st order=no tributaries-2nd order=2-1st order streams form 1 stream-3rd order=2-2nd order streams join
3 Reasons:-Originate in hilly country
-slope high-stream speed is high-turbulence causes evaporation
Small is size-shielded from sun by over-hangings
Water from streams, springs, sub-surface runoff-contains cool water
2 Main Items: for stream order to increase-water becomes warmer-stream speed decreases
Environmental Gradient: Gradual Change-Geophysical-Chemical-Biological
Standing Water vs. Flowing Water:-Aeration-adding of oxygen to water
-Source of Oxygen-Standing water=Photosynthesis
Source of Food:-Autotrophic food chain-self feeding
Detritus Food Chains: begins with non-living organic matter
Heterotrophic Food Chains: other feeding food chainsAdaptations of Organisms:
Unit #3-Ecology of Fresh Water EcosystemsEcology: The study of relations between organisms
& their environmentLevels of Biological Organization:IndividualPopulationCommunityBiomeBiosphereEcosystem: Interacting system that consists of
groups of organisms & their non-living environment
Flow of Matter: energy is gradually lost along a food chain/food web
Flow of Matter in an Ecosystem:Mineral nutrientsNon-mineral nutrients
-macro-micro-recycled through an ecosystem
-nutrient cycle
Abiotic: non-livingBiotic: livingHabitat: nicheFeeding Levels:
-Producers-Consumers-Decomposers
Food Web:Ecological Pyramids:
WATER & SOIL CONSERVATIONBoth resources have become limited and there is
real concern that we are rapidly depleting them.While there seems to be a sufficient volume of
water in most areas of the world, supplies of usable water are generally insufficient due to misuse-poor management-pollution
Productive land is becoming a scare commodity and ownership is very expensive
Water:We live on the water planet
Our bodies and the bodies of plants and animals are about 80% water
Potable: drinkable-free from harmful chemicals and organisms
Water is an essential nutrient for all plant and animal life. Water transports nutrients to living cells and carries away waste products.
Fresh Water: Water that flows from the land to oceans and contains little or no salt
Domestic: Household useSalt Water: Water that rests on the land and
contains salt
Tide Water: Water that flows up the mouth of a river as the ocean tide rises.
Food Chains: The interdependence of plants and animals for food
Universal Solvent: Water-material that dissolves or otherwise changes most other materials
Ocean Water:-Gathers and transports nutrients-Is the habitat for micro-organisms-Carries life supporting oxygen-Cleanses and Purifies
Water Cycle: The cycling of water between the water sources, atmosphere and surface areas
Land: Provides us the solid foundation for our structures, nutrition and support for plants and space for work and recreation.
Soil: is an important component of landSoil must contain:
-The correct proportions of soil-Correct balance of nutrients-Contain some organic matter-Contain adequate moisture
Deserts: -Areas with continuous severe water shortages
Irrigation Practices:-Addition of water to plants to supplement that is provided by rain/snow
Precipitation:-Formation of rain/snow caused by the change of water in the air from a gaseous state to a liquid state
Evaporation: -Changing from a liquid to a vapor or gas
Land serves as a container or reservoirWater Table:
-The level below which soil is saturated or filled with water
Water moves upward in the soil from the water table to provide water for plant roots
Micro-organisms that live in the soil and contributes to the soil’s fertility and structure
Fertility: -The amount and type of nutrients in the soil
Types of Ground WaterSoil is saturated when water is added until all the
spaces or pores are filledThe water that drains out of soil after it has been
wetted is called free or gravitational water. This is what feeds wells and springs.
Plant roots can absorb or take up this moisture called capillary water. Water that is held to tightly for plant roots to absorb is called hygroscopic water.
Plants contribute to water absorption and reduce soil erosion.
Worms-insects-bacteria and other microscopic plants and animals contribute by decomposing plant & animal matter.Conserving Water & Improving Water Quality
Improvement of water quality can be achieved by proper land management-careful water storage-water handling methods.
Practices to Reduce Water PollutionSave Clean Water
-Purify: removal of all foreign materials-Dispose of household products carefully-Care for lawns-gardens-farmland carefully
Practice sensible pest controlControl water run-off from lawns-gardens-feedlots-
fieldsNo-till=Planting crops without plowing or disking
the soilContour=Following the level/slope of the land
around a hillsideAdvantages:
-Securing soil with plant material-Increasing absorption of water-Carrying runoff water away safely
Gully Erosion: Removal of soil to form narrow and deep trenches
Sheet Erosion: Removal of even layers of soilMethods for Reduction of Wind/Water Erosion
-Keep soil covered with growing plants-Cover soil with mulchMulch=Material placed on soil to break the fall of
rain and prevent weeds to occur-helping improve the appearance.
Utilize conservation tillage methods
Using techniques that disturbs the soil the least and leaves maximum plant residue on the surface
Plant Residue: Plant material left when a plant dies-Use contour practices in production-Use strip cropping=alternating strips of row crops(corn) with strips of close growing crops(alfalfa)-Rotate crops=planting of different crops in a given field every year or several years-Increase organic matter in soil=dead plant & animal tissue
Aggregates: Gel-like substance which holds soil particles together
-water absorbing & nutrient holding soil-Provide correct balance of lime & fertilizer
Lime: Material that reduces the acid content of soilFertilizer: Any material that supplies nutrients for
plants-Establish permanent grass waterways
Grass Waterway: Strips of grass growing in the low area of a field where water can gather
41 million acres (10%) of our nation’s cropland is highly erodible at rates of 50 tons per acre per year
Ground water contamination can threaten the health of large populations
Aquifer: Water bearing rock formation that lies underground
Soil erosion can be reduced by good land management practices
Soil Conservation Methods-Reducing rain impact
-Reducing the speed of wind/water moving across land
-Construct terraces-Soil/wall structure built across the slope to capture water
-Avoid over-grazing-Damage to plants and/or soil due to animals eating too much plant material at one time
-Use land according to conservation plan-Maximum production without unacceptable damage to land
-Control soil erosion-Avoid spillage/dumping of gasoline-fuel-oil on
ground-Keep chemical spills from running or seeping into
water or soil-Properly maintain your septic systemLand Erosion: Wearing away of land is a serious
problem world-wide.Port: Having a harbor for ships to take on cargoResearch has shown it takes 300 to 500 years for
nature to develop one inch of topsoil from bedrock
Large areas of the world (3rd world nations) are using a farming technique called “slash & burn” agriculture
Each year, 1.6 billion tons of soil are worn away from 417 million acres of United States farmland into lakes-streams-rivers
1 ton=2,000 pounds