Play
• United Nations High Commissioner for Human Right: play is the right of every child in the world
• stimulates body, decision making, acquisition of new skills, learn negotiation and conflict resolution
• treasure free exploratory play
Play and Cognitive Development • Smilansky (1968): four levels of play showing
increasing cognitive complexity
• 1. functional or locomotor play (begins at infancy): repeated practice in large muscular movements, such as rolling a ball
• 2. constructive play or object play: use of objects or materials to make something
• 3. dramatic play or pretend play: involves make-believe objects, actions or roles
• 4. games with rules are organized games with known procedures and penalties
Mildred Parten’s 6 Types of Play • Unoccupied behavior: watches anything of momentary
interest
• Onlooker behavior: watches other children play
• Solitary independent play: plays alone with toys that are different from those used by nearby children and makes no effort to get close to other children
• Parallel play: children play with similar toys in similar ways, but not together
• Associative play: Children interact, observing each other and sharing material; more interest in being with each other then in the activity
• Cooperative play: child plays in a group organized by some goal such as to make something, play a formal game, or dramatize a situation
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Becoming Boys and Girls
• identity as male or female important feature of a child’s self-concept – first question asked about a newborn is “Boy
or girl?” – children become more aware of gender every
year
• parents select gender-distinct: – clothes – blankets – diapers – pacifiers, etc.
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Sex and Gender
• sex differences: biological differences between males and females
–organs
–hormones
–body type
• gender differences: differences in the roles and behavior of males and females prescribed by the culture
Boy/Girl Segregation
• tendency seems to be universal across cultures
• biology, gender identification, adult reinforcement, and peer group all seem to influence gender differences in play
• gender segregation: girls tend to select other girls as playmates; boys prefer other boys
Gender Schema • mental network of beliefs and expectations
about what it means to be female or male and about what each sex is supposed to wear, do, and feel
• most rigid between 5-7 years of age
• globally, boys’ schemas are more rigid than girls
• boys are harsher on themselves and other boys who fail to behave in gender-typed ways
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Challenges for Parents
• parents differ a great deal in what they believe about children and how they should act toward them
• tend to follow child-rearing patterns of their own parents
• need to decide on a parenting style
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Parenting Styles • Expressions of warmth
– very affectionate or cold and critical
• Strategies for discipline
– how they explain, criticize, persuade, ignore, and punish
• Communication
– listen patiently; others demand silence
• Expectations for maturity
– parents vary in standards for responsibility and self-control
Baumrind’s Parenting Styles-1971
Parenting Style
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Description
• Demanding and controlling
• Favor punitive methods over reasoning
• Stress obedience over independence
• Demanding but reciprocal relationship
• Favor reasoning over physical punishment
• Encourage independence
Parenting Style Continued
• Parenting Style
• Permissive
• Description
• Undemanding and little control exercised
• Allow children to learn from experience as a result of indulgence or neglect
• Neither independence nor obedience promoted
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Summary of Three Patterns of Parenting
• Authoritarian: characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication.
• Permissive: characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control.
• Authoritative: parents set limits, but listen to the child and are flexible.
Parenting Style Added
• Parenting Style
• Neglectful/Uninvolved
• Description
• Little interest in child
• Emotionally detached
• Neglect
Typical Children’s Characteristics
• Parenting Style
• Authoritarian
• Authoritative
• Characteristics
• Lack social competence
• Lack curiosity
• Withdrawn
• Self-reliant
• Self-controlled
• Curious
• Content
Typical Children’s Characteristics
• Parenting Style
• Permissive
• Uninvolved
• Characteristics
• Dependent on others
• Poor impulse control
• Moody
• Immature
• Emotionally detached
• Feel unloved
• Low self-control
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Cultural Variations
• Chinese, Caribbean, and African American parents are often stricter. No-nonsense parenting studies
• Japanese mothers tend to use reasoning, empathy and expressions of disappointment.
• Specific discipline methods and family rules are less important than: – parental warmth – support – concern
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Types of Aggression • instrumental aggression: hurtful behavior
intended to get or keep something that another has
• reactive aggression: impulsive retaliation for another person’s intentional or accidental action
• relational aggression: nonphysical acts aimed at harming social connection between victim and others
• bullying aggression: unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attack, esp. those who are unlikely to defend themselves