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Chapter 10 Liquids, Solids and Phase Changes
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The three phases of matter: solids, liquids and gases
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Phase change properties of pure water at 1 atm pressure
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H2O: a unique substance
What is a boiling point? What does it measure?
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Hydrogen bonds: hydrogen attached to an oxygen in particular, iscapable of causing association. The association is electrostatic in nature and leads to compounds that have significantly more association than one would otherwise expect.
Compounds that form hydrogen bonds have a form of chemical stickyness not found in other materials.
Significance: Self association is fundamental to understanding all biological processes and more often than not, hydrogen bonding is responsible for this self association.
A few examples:
1. reproduction of the genetic code
2. antigen-antibody response
3. transport across cell membranes
4. What hold paper together?
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When many sugars are linked together you havepolysaccharides, which are natural polymers:
11.3
Because the single sugars can be either α or β, two different linkages arise.
When glucose polymerizes,
an α – linkage makes starch
and a β – linkage makes cellulose.
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Hydrogen bonding in H2O
oxygen: red; hydrogen: white
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Other types of weak bonds leading to some self association:
1. Dipole-dipole interactions: forces associated with non-symmetrical molecules especial those that have atoms bonded with large electronegativity differences.
2. London dispersion forces: the weakest of all the forces we encounter. These forces are responsible for our ability to condense substances such as methane, N2 , He. These forces are often encountered in symmetrical molecules and in molecule in which the electrons are shared equally.
What is the experimental evidence for these forces?
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Electronegativities
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a dipole is a vector, that is it has both magnitude and direction
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Dipole moment is define as charge separation*distance of separation; dipole moments are vectors is so far as they have magnitude and direction.
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Fusion enthalpy: the amount of heat necessary to convert a fixedamount of solid at its melting temperature to the liquid at the same temperature. Units: J/mol; J/g
Vaporization enthalpy: the amount of heat necessary to convert afixed amount of liquid at its boiling temperature to the gas at the same temperature. Units: J/mol; J/g
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Normal boiling temperature: the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals 1 atm
How does vapor pressure vary with temperature?
How do we measure vaporization enthalpy?
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One method of measuring vapor pressure
To vacuum
One way of measuring vapor pressures
1. Cool the liquid to a very low temperature
2. Open the valve to vacuum to remove any air
3. Close the valve to the vacuum
4. Replace the liquid with a bath at a constant temperature and record the change in the different levels of mercury
Liquid at a constant temperature
liquid
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What’s ln(P)? Whats’ log(P)?
Plot ln(P) against 1/T where T is in Kelvin
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Logarithms: expressing a number in the form of an exponent
number log logarithm base 10
10 1 101
100 2 102
1000 3 103
number ln logarithm base 2.718
2.718 1 2.7181 = 2.718
7.39 2 2.7182 = 7.39
20.09 3 2.7183 = 20.09
ln(x) = 2.303log(x)
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the log of the number 200
log(200) = 2.3 102.3 = 200; log uses the base 10
ln(200) = 5.2983; 2.7185.2983
Where does the number 2.718 come from?
2.718 is the area under the curve of 1/x where x goes from 0 to infinity
1/x
x
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How do we measure vaporization enthalpy?
It has been found that by measuring the vapor pressure of a liquid as a function of temperature, an exponential increase in vapor pressure is observed.
Furthermore, it has bee also found that by plotting the logarithm of vapor pressure as a function of 1/T where T is in K, a linearplot is obtained.
The slope of the line has been found to equal to -ΔHvap/R where R is the gas constant, 1.987 cal/mol or 8.314 J/mol
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We can express this line using the general equation for a straight line:
y = mx +b
in this case y = lnP, and x = 1/T; the slope of the line is found to be
-ΔHvap/R
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Clausius Clapeyron Equation
ln(P) = 2.303log(P)
ΔHvap = vaporization enthalpy
R=gas constant 1.987 cal/(K mol); 8.314 J/(mol K); 0.0821Latm/(K mol)
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Let calculate the vaporization enthalpy of water at T = 298 K:
lnP1 = -ΔHvap/ [1/T1]/R + b
lnP2 = -ΔHvap [1/T2] /R + b lets subtract the first eq from the second
lnP2-lnP1 = -ΔHvap [1/T2-1/T1] /R
3.459-2.862 = -ΔHvap [1/303-1/293] /R
.597*8.314J/(mol K)= .00011 ΔHvap
ΔHvap = 45120 J/mol at 298 K; the text reports 40670 at 373 K
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We have now learned how to experimentally calculate ΔHvap;
ΔHsub is calculated in the same way using the same equation.
We calculate ΔSvap for a phase change at constant temperature?
ΔSvap = ΔHvap/Tb where ΔHvap is the value measured at the boiling point Tb; likewise ΔHfus = ΔHfus/Tfus where Tfus is the melting point
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The text reports 40670 at 373 K; since the boiling of water takes place at a constant temperature, ΔG = 0; the entropy change
ΔSvap = ΔHvap/Tb = 40670/373 = 109 J/(mol K)
ΔSfus = ΔHfus/Tfus = 6010/273 = 22.0 J/(mol K)
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Phase Diagram of Water
Vapor
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Nitrogen bp = -186 °C
Dry Ice (CO2) bp = -77 °C ?
-77 °C is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of CO2 = 1 atm
Why doesn’t Dry Ice melt?
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Phase Diagram of CO2
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Viscosity and surface tensionViscosity relates to how freely molecules can flow over each other; is related to the nature of the intermolecular forces present in liquid.
Surface tension is the term used to describe the unequal forces acting on those molecules on a surface that are not surrounded by othermolecules; causes formation of spheres
N =kg*m/s2; force= mass*accelation
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Packing in solids
How is structure in the crystalline state determined?
NaCl cubic structure
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A brief tutorial on some properties of waves, light waves
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90°
θ
(90 °- θ)
θ
sin θ = a/d
d= a /sin θ or a =dsin θ
d a
λ = wavelength of light
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BC +CB’ = 2d sin θ = nλ for constructive interference
d = nλ/2sin θ
a =dsin θ
a =BC; CB
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How do different substances pack in the solid?
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52% of the volume occupied
only polonium crystallizes in this motif
68 % of the volume used; examples Fe, Na + 14 other metals
crystallize in this motif
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Hexagonal closest packed
74% of the volume is occupied; Zn, Mg and 19 other metals pack in this motif
Cubic closest packed
74% of the volume is occupied; Ag, Cu and 16 other metals pack in this motif
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Unit cell: smallest repeat unit that can generate the entire 3-d structure; 14 different unit cell geometries possible
3 different kinds of cubic cell geometry
1. primitive cubic
2. face centered cubic
3. body centered cubic
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primitive cubic body centered cubic
How many atoms in each of these simplest repeat units?
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Face centered cubic
How many atoms in
this unit cell?
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Copper crystallizes in a face centered cubic unit cell with an edge length of 3.62x10-8 cm. How many atoms in a unit cell of Cu? What is the radius of a copper atom and what is the density of Cu?
h2 = edge2 + edge2
h2 = 2*(3.62x10-8)2
h =[26.2x10-16]1/2
h = 5.12x10-8 cm
How many radui is h?
4, radius = 1.28x10-8 cm
Volume of unit cell? V= r3
V = (3.62x10-8)3 = 47.8x 10-24 cm3
How many atoms? 4 atoms
If 4 atoms have this volume, then 6x1023 atoms would have a volume of 6x1023x 47.8x 10-24/4 cm3 = 7.17 cm3
63.5g/7.17cm3 = 8.85 g/cm3 ; 8.94g/cm3 (25 °C)
4
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Liquid Crystals
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