Chapter 2 (Part I)
Early Psychological Knowledge
PSK306-History of Psychology Assoc. Prof. Okan Cem Çırakoğlu [email protected]
Early Psychological Knowledge
Psychological Observations
Religious Scriptures
Folklore
Early science
Mesopotamia and Egypt are examples of twoearly civilizations that produced documented butvery fragmented histories of peoples’ searches foranswers about the nature of the world, the role ofhuman beings in it, and supernatural forces. Theseparation of the material and spiritual (the bodyand soul) was an important step down the road of arelentless inquiry into human psychology. Similardivision of the spiritual and material also appearedin written accounts of the early civilizations of theAssyrians, the Jews, the Persians, and theBabylonians.
Early Concepts of the Soul
• Materialism is the fundamental view suggesting that the facts of mental life can be sufficiently explained in physical terms by the existence and nature of matter.
• Idealism is a fundamental view suggesting that the facts of mental life can be sufficiently explained in mental terms. The soul is nonmaterial, immortal, and can exist alone, separated from the body.
• Material monism holds that all things and developments, including psychological processes, no matter how complicated they are, have one similar material origin.
• Atomism is the notion that matter is made-up of small, indivisible particles.
Tradition of Materialism
Atomism
Leucippus5th Century BCE
Thales640-546 BCE
Materialistic explanations of all natural phenomena andmental activities
Matter is made up of small, invisible particles
Tradition of Materialism
Milesian School
Anaximenes550-500 BCE
Air
Anaximander611-547 BCE
Moisture, evolution from fish
Thales640-546 BCE
Water
Material Monism: holds that all things and developments, including psychological processes, no matter how complicated they are, have one similar material origin.
Tradition of Materialism
Heraclitus
Heraclitus530-470 BCE
Soul-PSYCHE
Consisted of specific particles of ever-living fireQuality and strength of soul based on quality of fire
Drunkness > wetness of soulPhysical death > death of psyche
Different states of awareness > today’s consciousnessSleep and wakefulness > weak and strong connectionbetween body and soulBreathing > leads to intellectual strengthSleeping > lessen psychological capacities
Tradition of Materialism
Empedocles
Rhetoric and medicineSoul is more complexFire, water and air
Animals and plants have souls tooHumans: Soul is associated with blood and heart
Empedocles490-430 BCE
Tradition of Materialism
Alcmeaon of Croton
Sensation and thought are connected with brain and NSAnimals have brains and therefore, souls but onlyhumans have intelligence
Balance of blood in the body is associated with differentstates of mental awarenesse.g. Blood is active > person is awake
Alcmeaon of Croton500-450 BCE
Tradition of Materialism
Democritus
Two imp. assumptions:
1. Soul consists of atomsround atoms of fire, movement of body, which is lifeSoul does not survive destruction of the body, bec. atomsdisperse as well
2. Three-centric theory of the localization of the soulAround brain (thinking)Close to chest and heart (emotional processes)Region af liver (needs and desires)
An early theory of causation of psychological functionsand bodily mechanisms regulating psychology
Democritus460-370 BCE
Tradition of Materialism
Epicurus
Basic constituents of the world are invisible atoms
Human soul > fire and airThe more atoms of fire in the soul, the more active thesoul is.All psychological process > different states of concentration of atoms
Epicurus341-271 BCE
Tradition of Materialism
Stoicism
The world consists of a passive matter and active force (pneuma)
The more pneuma is involved, the more active the matter
Four levels of interaction1. Nature: impact of pneuma is limited and insignificant2. Level of plants: pneuma is more active, responsible for growth andprocreation of matter3. Level of animal kingdom: pneuma is more dynamic, enables matter togrow, feel and perceive4. Human level: pneuma represents human soul
Idealism
Idealism is a fundamental view suggesting that the facts of mental life can be sufficiently explained in mental terms.
The soul is nonmaterial, immortal, and can exist alone, separated from the body.
Tradition of Materialism
Plato
Plato427-347 BCE
The world could be dscribed in three dimensions:
Ideal forms (primary reality)Material world (created by God)Psychological (a reflection of the ideal throughmaterial)
Contrary to materialists, Plato believed that soul is bodiless substance
Cave allegoryhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RmBizVdmp68
The triarchic understanding of the soul by Plato
Rational soul
“Desirous” soul
Affective soul
Responsible for abstractthinking and wisdomBrain is a temporary harbor
Emotional, courageous, fearlessAssociated with heart
Responsible for desires and needAssociated with abdominal level
Case In Point – Plato and The Matrix
• If there is a reality beyond our sensory limits, then what can prevent us from studying it?
Aristotle384-322 BCE
HylomorphismSoul as the form of body which is the matter of soul
Merged point of views of materialists and Plato
Soul > an active, creative influence in the bodybody’s form not the body itselfBody and soul > coexist
Aristotle
Nutrition: (growth and
reproduction)
Perception (reflection of
reality)
Reason (highest function
associated with
thinking)
Aristotle held that the soul possesses individual capacities or faculties:
Only human souls possess allthree capacities
Heart is the centre of vitalactivitiesBlood is the source of activities of the soul
Brain > coolant of blood
Aristotle
Functions associated with
growth and strength
Functions associated with
courage, will and emotions
Skills associated with logic and
reason
Aristotle
Aristotle also advanced the concept of psychological functions or skills:
Cognition
• The most fundamental differences among scholars were based on their interpretations of the major source of cognition and its mechanisms.
• These ideas became a base for epistemology
▫ A brunch o philosophy that studies nature of knowledge, its foundations, extent and validity
Cognition
• Materialists shared several important assumptions
• First, they generally believed that the soul serves as the main detector of the processes taking place in reality.
▫ Without sensation, thought is imposible
▫ Thinking help people in interpreting theirsensation
Cognition
• Second, Greek materialists generally supported the view according to which sensation is possible because of a kind of emanation or “discharge” coming from the objects.
▫ Particles of matter or atoms of different shapesand forms
▫ They evoke sensations and thoughts
▫ This is called emanation theory of sensation
Cognition
• Third, most materialists, including Democritus, believed that characteristics of matter such as color, taste, sound, and smell do not belong to atoms.
▫ All sensations are products of an interactionbetween the atoms of the soul and atoms of theexternal world
Cognition
• Fourth, Greek materialists attempted to explain the basic mechanisms of thinking.
• Epicurus;
▫ Impressions
▫ Concepts
▫ Abstract concepts
▫ Experience
▫ Associations
Cognition
• Plato
▫ Human beings possess two kinds of knowledge
Opinions (derived from sensations, cannot representtrue knowledge)
Universal or true knowledge (coming from immortalideas). Soul acquires this knowledge by recollectionswhile travelling in the immortal world of ideas.
Cognition
• Aristotle
▫ He did not use emanation theory
▫ The sensory process is the acquisition of a form of an object by the body organs capable of receptivefunctions such as eye, ear...
▫ Any object can initiate sensation but there must be a specific environment (for example: hearing requiresair)
Emotions and Needs
• Emotions viewed as “intruders” in the process of the logical reflection of reality
• Humans should learn how to control their emotions• Atomic movements cause emotion
▫ For example, positive emotions; movements of round and smooth atoms
▫ Aristotle disagreed with this notion: proposed biological bodily mechanisms instead
• Excessive desires are destructive• Self-control an important virtue
• Madness (no specific details and description)
• Common views of abnormal emotions and mood
▫ There should be a physical sources of certainmoods
▫ Either an excessive surplus or deficiency in bodilysubstances
▫ Some people have predispositions to developabnormal mood symptoms
Abnormal Symptoms
Melancholia
Hippocrates460-377 BCE
HippocratesMelancholia results from particular imbalances of bloodor other humors
Black bile > mental state is disturbed and melancholia, sadness, fear, irritablity occurs.
Melancholia
PlatoIllness is always caused by disproportion or ametria.Excessive pain or pleasure is the source of disturbances.The soul can be contaminated by bitter bodily humors which can generateexcessive sadness or irritability (mania)
AristotleDifferent states of human gall and temprature of black bile.Colder > depressive symptoms, sadness, numbnessWarmer > elevated mood state, cheerfulnessBile’s long term effect > athymia and extasis (depressive and manic states)
The Madness of Hercules
• Hercules
▫ One of the illegitimate sons of Zeus
▫ Hera, Zeus’s wife, was jealous about Hercules
▫ She cast a spell on him
▫ Hercules killed his own wife and three children
• He was forgiven because he was believed to be temporarily insane and had no control over his actions
Evaluating the Impact of the Greeks
• At least 5 major areas of influence:
The study of the soul
The teachings about the
mechanisms of human cognition
The suggestions about the biological
foundations of mental activities
The initial inquiry in the fields of the clinical psychology
The rich observations of social behavior