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Chapter 2The Brain
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The Brain
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Technology to Study the Brain
• Electroencephalograph (EEG): • records “waves” of electrical activity in the brain using metal electrodes
• Computerized axial tomograph (CAT):• thousands of X-ray photos of the brain are combined to form a cross-
sectional picture
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):• produces three-dimensional images of the brain’s soft tissues by
detecting magnetic activity from nuclear particles in brain molecules
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Technology to Study the Brain
• Positron emission tomography (PET): measures neural activity in different brain regions over several minutes by monitoring sugar glucose consumption
• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): measures neural activity in different brain regions averaged over seconds by monitoring blood oxygen levels
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PET Scan
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MRI Scan
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Three Major Brain Regions
• Their names come from their physical location in the human embryo.
– Hindbrain: Located above the spinal cord,
– Midbrain: Located above the hindbrain– Forebrain: Located above the midbrain
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Development of the Brain
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Three Major Brain Regions: Hindbrain
• Hindbrain consists of:
– Medulla: controls breathing, heart rate, swallowing, digestion, and posture
– Pons: associated with sleep and arousal
– Cerebellum: regulates and coordinates body movement and may play a role in learning
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The Cerebellum
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Midbrain
Reticular formation: regulates and maintains consciousness
– plays an important role in controlling arousal
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Forebrain
Controls complex emotional reactions, cognitive processes, and movement patterns. Consists of: – Thalamus: the brain’s sensory relay station
– Limbic system: influences fear, aggression, and new memories
– Cerebral cortex: located on top of these structures; the most complex part of the brain
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Thalamus
• Brain’s Sensory Switchboard
• Directs incoming information from the sensory systems (except smell) to the appropriate location on the cortex.
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The Brainstem and Thalamus
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• a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres
• associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex
• includes the hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala
Limbic System
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The Limbic System
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Hypothalamus
• neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus
• directs several maintenance activities• eating• drinking• body temperature
• helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
• linked to emotion
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Hippocampus
• Structure linked to the processing/formation of new explicit memories
• Manufactures new neurons
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Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la]
– two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion, especially rage and fear
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The Limbic System• Electrode implanted in reward center
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Main Parts of the Human Brain
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Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
• The cerebral cortex is divided into two rounded halves, called the cerebral hemispheres.
– These hemispheres are connected together at the bottom by the corpus callosum.
– Both hemispheres are divided into four major sections called lobes:
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The Brain
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The Cerebral Cortex
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Cortical Localization
• Occipital Lobes
– include the visual areas, each of which receives visual information from the opposite visual field
• Temporal Lobes
– include the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear
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Visual Cortex
• Functional MRI scan of the visual cortex activated by light shown in the subject’s eyes
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Visual and Auditory Cortex
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Cortical Localization
• Frontal Lobes– involved in speaking and muscle
movements and in making plans and judgments
• Parietal Lobes
– include the sensory cortex
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The Cerebral Cortex
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The Cerebral Cortex• Motor Cortex
– area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
• Sensory Cortex– area at the front of the parietal lobes
that registers and processes body sensations
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Association Areas• Areas of the cerebral
cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions
• Involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
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Cerebral Cortex - Speech
• Aphasia– impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere
damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)
• Broca’s Area – an area of the frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements
involved in speech
• Wernicke’s Area – an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language
comprehension and expression
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Specialization and Integration
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Brain Activity when Hearing, Seeing & Speaking Words
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Cortical Lateralization: Right and Left Hemispheres Function Differently
• Right hemisphere: superior to the left hemisphere in visual and spatial tasks, recognizing nonlinguistic sounds, identifying faces, and perceiving and expressing emotions
• Left hemisphere: superior to the right hemisphere at language, logic, and providing explanations for events
• Women may be more likely than men to use both hemispheres for language (their brains are more bilateralized).
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Left-Handers are Different
• 65% have speech on the left (95 % RH)
• Weak correlations:
– + gifted & creative– - reading disabilities, epilepsy, alcoholism,
schizophrenia, allergies, MR
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Brain Reorganization
• Corpus Callosum– large bundle of neural fibers connecting the
two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between the hemispheres
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Brain Reorganization
Corpus Callosum
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Brain Reorganization
– Split Brain– a condition in which the two hemispheres of
the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them
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Brain Reorganization
• The information highway from the eyes to the brain
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Testing the Split Brain
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The Brain Can Alter Its Neural Connections
– Plasticity: the flexibility of the brain to alter its neural connections following injury
– Hemispherectomy: a radical surgical procedure in which one of the cerebral hemispheres is removed to control life-threatening epileptic seizures. The remaining healthy hemisphere takes over many of the functions of the removed hemisphere.
– Plasticity is highest in childhood, but it also occurs in older adults.
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Brain Reorganization
-- the brain’s capacity for modification as evident in brain reorganization following damage (functional plasticity) --and in experiments on the effects of
experience on brain development
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Structural Plasticity)
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Use it or Lose It
• 1. Avoid Harmful Substances
• 2. Exercise
• 3. Eat Sensibly
• 4. Challenge Yourself Mentally
• 5. Wear Your Helmet/Seat Belt.
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Blood-Brain Barrier • A semipermeable wall of tiny blood vessels
that prevent certain chemicals in the bloodstream from reaching the brain
- Protects the brain from many “foreign substances” in the blood that may injure the brain,
- Protects the brain from hormones and neurotransmitters in the rest of the body, and
- Maintains a constant environment for the brain.
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Blood-Brain Barrier
– Beneficial substances allowed to enter the brain through the blood-brain barrier are blood gases, such as oxygen, and small nutritional molecules.
– An important nutritional molecule transported out of the bloodstream in this way is glucose.
– Scientists have learned how to trick the blood-brain barrier into accepting therapeutic drugs through the bloodstream to the brain.
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Blood-Brain BarrierBa