Download - Chapter 4: Measuring Behavior
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Chapter 4:Measuring Behavior
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Definition of Measurement
• The process of applying quantitative labels to observed properties of events using a standard set of rules
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Researchers Need Measurement
• How scientists operationalize empiricism– Without measurement, science is
guesswork and opinion• Applied behavior analysts measure
behavior to answer questions– Basis for talking about behavior
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Practitioners Need Measurement
• To evaluate effects of intervention– Before and after treatment– During treatment
• To guide decision making• To prevent mistakes
– Continue ineffective treatment– Discontinue effective treatment
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Benefits of Measurement
• Optimize effectiveness• Verify legitimacy of treatments• Identify and end use of pseudoscience• Accountability• Meet ethical standards
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Measurable Dimensions of Behavior
• Dimensions are distinct features that can be measured
• Three fundamental properties– Repeatability or countability: behavior can
be counted– Temporal extent: duration– Temporal locus: when behavior occurs
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Measures Based on Repeatability
• Count– Number of responses emitted during an
observation period• Reported as frequency count• Measures of count alone do not provide
sufficient information for analysis
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Measures Based on Repeatability
• Rate/Frequency– Ratio of count per observation period
• More meaningful than count alone• Include counting time for reference• Rate of correct and incorrect responses
helpful in skill development• Reported as number per standard unit
of time
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Guidelines for Using Rate
• Take complexity of response into account
• Useful measure for free operants• Not appropriate for responses within
discrete trials• Not appropriate for continuous behavior
over extended period
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Measures Based on Repeatability
• Celeration– Measure of the change in rate of
responding per unit of time• Reported using Standard Celeration
Chart• Captures behavior acceleration and
deceleration
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Measures Based on Temporal Extent
• Duration– The amount of time a behavior occurs
• Total duration of session• Duration of each occurrence• Reported in standard time units• Count and duration measures provide
different pictures of same behavior
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Measures Based on Temporal Locus
• Response latency– Measure of elapsed time between onset of
stimulus and initiation of response• Typically reported as mean, median,
and range
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Measures Based on Temporal Locus
• Interresponse time– Amount of time that elapses between two
consecutive instances of a response class• Direct measure of temporal locus and
related to rate• Reported as mean, median, and range
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Derivative Measures
• Percentage– A ratio formed by combining the same
dimensional qualities– Expresses proportional quantity
• Proportion of correct to incorrect• Proportion of observation intervals when
behavior occurred
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Considerations for Using Percentage
• Often misunderstood, used incorrectly• Most accurate with divisor of 100 or
more• Percentage may be misleading• Limited use because has no
dimensional quantity • Sets artificial limits on behavior change
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Derivative Measures
• Trials-to-criterion– Measure of the number of response
opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance
• Other measures can be used to determine trials-to-criterion (e.g., rate)
• Typically calculated post facto• Used to compare effectiveness
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Definitional Measures
• Topography– The physical form or shape of a behavior
• Measurable dimension• Malleable by consequences• Not a fundamental quality of behavior
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Definitional Measures
• Magnitude– The force or intensity with which a
response is emitted• Important parameter for some response
classes– E.g., voice volume
• Not a fundamental quality of behavior
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Procedures for Measuring Behavior
• Typically involve one or a combination of these three:
1. Event recording2. Timing3. Time sampling methods
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Event Recording
• Procedures for detecting and recording the number of times a behavior is observed
• Devices include:– Wrist counters, digital counters, masking
tape, paper clips, etc
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Considerations for Event Recording
• Easy to do• Behavior must have discrete beginning
and ending• Rate must not be too high• Inappropriate for behaviors with long
duration
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Timing
• Procedures to measure duration, response latency, and interresponse time
• Duration: – computer systems, stopwatch, wall clocks, tape
recorder• Response latency and interresponse time
– Precise recording of duration between events of interest
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Time Sampling
• Variety of methods for observing and recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments in time
• Observation is divided into intervals, presence or absence of behavior recorded for each interval
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Time Sampling: Whole-Interval Recording
• Used to measure continuous behavior• Brief intervals (5-15 seconds)• At end of interval, record if behavior
occurred throughout • Risk of underestimation• Reported as percentage of intervals
when behavior occurred
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Time Sampling: Partial-Interval Recording
• At end of interval record if behavior occurred at any time during interval
• Multiple occurrences scored as one– Does not capture duration
• Allows recording of multiple behaviors• Reported as percentage of intervals
when behavior occurred
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Time Sampling: Momentary Time Sampling
• Record whether the behavior is occurring at the end of the interval
• Does not require undivided attention• Misses much behavior
– Best for continuous behavior• Reported as percentage of intervals
when behavior occurred
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Time Sampling: Planned Activity Check
• Variation of momentary time sampling– Measures behavior of individuals within a
group• At end of interval, measure number of
students engaged in target activity
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Guidelines for Time Sampling
• Use a timing device to signal beginning and end of observation– Increase accuracy– Not distracted by watching a stopwatch
• Record a response for every interval (e.g., yes or no)– Prevents losing your place with blank
intervals
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Time Sampling Artifactual Variability
• Artifact is something that appears to exist because of the way it is examined or measured
• Time sampling provides estimate of actual occurrences
• Different procedures produce different results
• Differences produce variability in data
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Measuring Behavior by Permanent Product
• Measuring behavior after it has occurred by measuring its effects on the environment
• Ex post facto• All previous procedures can be applied
to permanent product measurement• Products can be a natural or contrived
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Advantages of Permanent Product Recording
• Practitioner free to do other tasks• Possible measurement of otherwise
inaccessible behavior• More accurate, complete, continuous• Easier data collection (IOA, treatment
integrity)• Measurement of complex behavior
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Determining Appropriate Use
• Is real-time measurement needed?– Moment to moment decisions required
• Can behavior be measured by permanent product?– Each occurrence must produce same
product– Product can only be produced by target
behavior
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Determining Appropriate Use
• Will a contrived product affect the behavior?– Reactivity effects
• Cost to obtain and measure the permanent product?– Availability, cost and effort of generating
the product
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Cooper, Heron, and HewardApplied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved
Computer-Assisted Measurement
• Data collection and analysis software combined– Multiple systems available– Sophisticated and easy to use– Laptops, hand-held computers, PDAs
• Simultaneous recording of multiple behaviors across multiple dimensions