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Chapter 6Chapter 6
6.1 Running Water6.1 Running Water6.2 The Work of Streams6.2 The Work of Streams
6.3 Water Beneath the Surface6.3 Water Beneath the Surface
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The Water Cycle The Water Cycle
Illustrates the circulation of Earth’s water supply Processes involved in the cycle
• Precipitation• Evaporation• Infiltration• Runoff• Transpiration
>Water cycle drawing worksheet
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Sources of Earth’s waterSources of Earth’s water
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Running water Running water
Streamflow • Factors that determine velocity
• Gradient, or slope • Channel characteristics
• Shape• Size• Roughness
• Discharge – volume of water flowing in the stream
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Running water Running water
Upstream-downstream changes • Profile
• Cross-sectional view of a stream • From head (source) to mouth
• Profile is a smooth curve • Gradient decreases from the head to the mouth
• Factors that increase downstream • Velocity• Discharge• Channel size
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Running water Running water
Upstream-downstream changes • Profile
• Factors that decrease downstream• Gradient, or slope • Channel roughness
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Longitudinal profile Longitudinal profile of a streamof a stream
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Running water Running water
Base level • Lowest point to which a stream can erode • Two general types
• Ultimate – sea level• Temporary, or local
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Adjustment of base level Adjustment of base level to changing conditionsto changing conditions
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The Work of StreamsThe Work of Streams
Stream channels are eroded through• Abrasion• Grinding• Dissolving soluble materials
• Sediment transport• Dissolved load • Suspended load• Bed load
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The Work of StreamsThe Work of Streams
Transportation of sediment• Load is related to a stream’s
• Competence – maximum particle size a stream can transport
• Capacity – maximum load
• Capacity is related to discharge… The greater the volume of water in a stream, the greater its capacity for carrying sediment
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The Work of StreamsThe Work of Streams
Deposition
• Caused by a decrease in velocity
• Competence is reduced
• Sediment begins to drop out • Stream sediments • Known as alluvium, or well-sorted deposits from a
stream
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The Work of StreamsThe Work of Streams
Deposition• Features produced by deposition
• Deltas – exist in ocean or lakes• Natural levees – Form parallel to the stream
channel
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Formation of natural levees Formation of natural levees by repeated floodingby repeated flooding
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The Work of StreamsThe Work of Streams
Stream valleys • Characteristics of narrow valleys
• V-shaped• Downcutting toward base level• Features often include
• Rapids• Waterfalls
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A narrow, V-shaped valleyA narrow, V-shaped valley
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The Work of StreamsThe Work of Streams
Stream valleys • Characteristics of wide valleys
• Stream is near base level • Downward erosion is less dominant • Stream energy is directed from side to side
• Floodplains• Features often include
• Meanders• Cutoffs• Oxbow lakes
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Continued erosion and Continued erosion and deposition widens the valleydeposition widens the valley
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A wide stream valley is A wide stream valley is characterized by meandering on characterized by meandering on
a well-developed floodplaina well-developed floodplain
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Formation Formation of a cutoff of a cutoff and oxbow and oxbow
lakelake
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Erosion and deposition along Erosion and deposition along a meandering streama meandering stream
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A meander loop on the A meander loop on the Colorado River Colorado River
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The Work of StreamsThe Work of Streams
Floods and flood control • Floods are the most common geologic hazard • Causes of floods
• Weather• Rapid spring snow melt• Storms / heavy rains
• Human interference with the stream system• Dam or levee failure• Building / developing on wetlands
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The Work of StreamsThe Work of Streams
Floods and flood control • Engineering efforts
• Artificial levees• Flood-control dams
• Minimizing development on floodplains, allowing floodplains to naturally absorb floodwaters
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Satellite view of the Missouri Satellite view of the Missouri River flowing into the River flowing into the
Mississippi River near St. LouisMississippi River near St. Louis
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Same satellite view during Same satellite view during flooding in 1993flooding in 1993
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The Work of StreamsThe Work of Streams
Drainage basin• Land area that contributes water to a stream• A divide separates drainage basins
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Drainage basins and Drainage basins and drainage dividesdrainage divides
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Water beneath the Water beneath the surface (groundwater) surface (groundwater)
Largest freshwater reservoir for humans Geological roles
• As an erosional agent, dissolving by groundwater produces
• Sinkholes• Caverns
• Helps to maintain a steady streamflow
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Water beneath the Water beneath the surface (groundwater) surface (groundwater)
Distribution and movement of groundwater • Distribution of groundwater
• Belt of soil moisture (close to the surface)• Zone of saturation
• Zone of Aeration (unsaturated zone)• Pore spaces in the material are filled mainly
with air
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Water beneath the Water beneath the surface (groundwater) surface (groundwater)
Distribution of groundwater• Zone of saturation
• All pore spaces in the material are filled with water
• Water within the pores is groundwater• Water table – the upper limit of the zone of
saturation
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Features associated with Features associated with subsurface watersubsurface water
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Water beneath the Water beneath the surface (groundwater) surface (groundwater)
Distribution and movement of groundwater • Movement
• Porosity • Percentage of pore spaces • Ability to store water
• Permeability• Ability to transmit water through connected
pore spaces (water can flow through)• Aquitard – an impermeable layer of material • Aquifer – a permeable layer of material
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Water beneath the Water beneath the surface (groundwater) surface (groundwater)
Springs • Hot springs
• Water is 6–9°C warmer than the mean air temperature of the locality
• Heated by cooling of igneous rock
• Geysers • Intermittent hot springs • Water turns to steam and erupts
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Old Faithful geyser in Old Faithful geyser in Yellowstone National ParkYellowstone National Park
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Water beneath the Water beneath the surface (groundwater) surface (groundwater)
Wells• Pumping can cause a drawdown (lowering)
of the water table• Pumping can form a cone of depression in
the water table• Artesian wells
• Water in the well rises higher than the initial groundwater level
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Formation of a cone of Formation of a cone of depression in the water tabledepression in the water table
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Artesian systemsArtesian systems
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Water beneath the Water beneath the surface (groundwater) surface (groundwater)
Environmental probs with groundwater• Treating it as a nonrenewable resource
• Removing it faster that it can be replenished
• Land subsidence caused by its withdrawal • San Joaquin Valley, California
• Contamination• Septic, Farm waste, inadequate or broken
sewers
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Water beneath the Water beneath the surface (groundwater) surface (groundwater)
Geologic work of groundwater • Groundwater is often mildly acidic
• Dissolves calcite in limestone
• Caverns • Formed by dissolving rock beneath Earth’s
surface • Formed in the zone of saturation
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Water beneath the Water beneath the surface (groundwater) surface (groundwater)
Geologic work of groundwater • Caverns
• Features found within caverns • Form in the zone of aeration • Composed of dripstone / Travertine• Calcite deposited as dripping water evaporates • Common features include stalactites (hanging
from the ceiling) and stalagmites (growing upward from the floor)
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Cave Features in Lehman Caves, Great Cave Features in Lehman Caves, Great Basin National Park, and Carlsbad Basin National Park, and Carlsbad
Caverns National ParkCaverns National Park
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Water beneath the Water beneath the surface (groundwater) surface (groundwater)
Geologic work of groundwater • Karst topography
• Formed by dissolving rock at, or near, Earth’s surface
• Common features • Sinkholes – surface depressions• Sinkholes form by dissolving bedrock and
cavern collapse• Caves and caverns
• Area lacks good surface drainage (few streams if any, water is mostly funneled underground)
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Features of karst Features of karst topographytopography