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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Chapter 7
Periodic Properties
of the Elements
Chemistry, The Central Science, 10th edition
Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.; and Bruce E. Bursten
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
St. Peters, MO
2006, Prentice Hall, Inc.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Development of Periodic Table
• Elements in the
same group
generally have
similar chemical
properties.
• Properties are not
identical, however.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Development of Periodic Table
Dmitri
Mendeleev and
Lothar Meyer
independently
came to the
same conclusion
about how
elements should
be grouped.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Development of Periodic Table
Mendeleev, for instance, predicted the
discovery of germanium (which he called eka-
silicon) as an element with an atomic weight
between that of zinc and arsenic, but with
chemical properties similar to those of silicon.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Periodic Trends
• In this chapter, we will rationalize
observed trends in
Sizes of atoms and ions.
Ionization energy.
Electron affinity.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Effective Nuclear Charge
• In a many-electron
atom, electrons are
both attracted to the
nucleus and repelled
by other electrons.
• The nuclear charge
that an electron
experiences depends
on both factors.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Effective Nuclear Charge
The effective nuclear
charge, Zeff, is found
this way:
Zeff = Z − S
where Z is the atomic
number and S is a
screening constant,
usually close to the
number of inner
electrons.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Sizes of Atoms
The bonding atomic
radius is defined as
one-half of the
distance between
covalently bonded
nuclei.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Sizes of Atoms Bonding atomic
radius tends to…
…decrease from left to
right across a row
due to increasing Zeff.
…increase from top to
bottom of a column
due to increasing value
of n
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Sizes of Ions
• Ionic size depends
upon:
Nuclear charge.
Number of
electrons.
Orbitals in which
electrons reside.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Sizes of Ions
• Cations are
smaller than their
parent atoms.
The outermost
electron is
removed and
repulsions are
reduced.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Sizes of Ions
• Anions are larger
than their parent
atoms.
Electrons are
added and
repulsions are
increased.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Sizes of Ions
• Ions increase in size
as you go down a
column.
Due to increasing
value of n.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Sizes of Ions
• In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same
number of electrons.
• Ionic size decreases with an increasing
nuclear charge.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Ionization Energy
• Amount of energy required to remove
an electron from the ground state of a
gaseous atom or ion.
First ionization energy is that energy
required to remove first electron.
Second ionization energy is that energy
required to remove second electron, etc.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Ionization Energy
• It requires more energy to remove each
successive electron.
• When all valence electrons have been removed,
the ionization energy takes a quantum leap.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Trends in First Ionization Energies
• As one goes down a
column, less energy
is required to remove
the first electron.
For atoms in the same
group, Zeff is
essentially the same,
but the valence
electrons are farther
from the nucleus.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Trends in First Ionization Energies
• Generally, as one
goes across a row, it
gets harder to
remove an electron.
As you go from left to
right, Zeff increases.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Trends in First Ionization Energies
However, there are
two apparent
discontinuities in this
trend.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Trends in First Ionization Energies
• The first occurs between Groups IIA and IIIA.
• Electron removed from p-orbital rather than s-orbital Electron farther from
nucleus
Small amount of repulsion by s electrons.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Trends in First Ionization Energies
• The second occurs
between Groups VA
and VIA.
Electron removed
comes from doubly
occupied orbital.
Repulsion from other
electron in orbital helps
in its removal.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Electron Affinity
Energy change accompanying addition of
electron to gaseous atom:
Cl + e− Cl−
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Trends in Electron Affinity
In general, electron
affinity becomes
more exothermic as
you go from left to
right across a row.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Trends in Electron Affinity
There are
again,
however, two
discontinuities
in this trend.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Trends in Electron Affinity
• The first occurs
between Groups IA
and IIA.
Added electron must
go in p-orbital, not s-
orbital.
Electron is farther
from nucleus and
feels repulsion from
s-electrons.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Trends in Electron Affinity
• The second occurs
between Groups IVA
and VA.
Group VA has no
empty orbitals.
Extra electron must
go into occupied
orbital, creating
repulsion.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Properties of Metal, Nonmetals,
and Metalloids
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Metals versus Nonmetals
Differences between metals and nonmetals
tend to revolve around these properties.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Metals versus Nonmetals
• Metals tend to form cations.
• Nonmetals tend to form anions.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Metals
Tend to be lustrous,
malleable, ductile,
and good
conductors of heat
and electricity.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Metals
• Compounds formed
between metals and
nonmetals tend to
be ionic.
• Metal oxides tend to
be basic.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Nonmetals
• Dull, brittle substances that are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• Tend to gain electrons in reactions with metals to acquire noble gas configuration.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Nonmetals
• Substances
containing only
nonmetals are
molecular
compounds.
• Most nonmetal
oxides are acidic.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Metalloids
• Have some
characteristics of
metals, some of
nonmetals.
• For instance, silicon
looks shiny, but is
brittle and fairly poor
conductor.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Group Trends
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Alkali Metals
• Soft, metallic solids.
• Name comes from
Arabic word for
ashes.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Alkali Metals
• Found only as compounds in nature.
• Have low densities and melting points.
• Also have low ionization energies.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Alkali Metals
Their reactions with water are famously exothermic.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Alkali Metals
• Alkali metals (except Li) react with oxygen to
form peroxides.
• K, Rb, and Cs also form superoxides:
K + O2 KO2
• Produce bright colors when placed in flame.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Alkaline Earth Metals
• Have higher densities and melting points than
alkali metals.
• Have low ionization energies, but not as low
as alkali metals.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Alkaline Earth Metals
• Be does not react
with water, Mg
reacts only with
steam, but others
react readily with
water.
• Reactivity tends to
increase as go down
group.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Group 6A
• Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.
• Tellurium is a metalloid.
• The radioactive polonium is a metal.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Oxygen
• Two allotropes: O2
O3, ozone
• Three anions: O2−, oxide
O22−, peroxide
O21−, superoxide
• Tends to take electrons from other elements (oxidation)
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Sulfur
• Weaker oxidizing
agent than oxygen.
• Most stable
allotrope is S8, a
ringed molecule.
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Group VIIA: Halogens
• Prototypical nonmetals
• Name comes from the Greek halos and
gennao: “salt formers”
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Group VIIA: Halogens
• Large, negative electron
affinities
Therefore, tend to oxidize
other elements easily
• React directly with metals
to form metal halides
• Chlorine added to water
supplies to serve as
disinfectant
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Group VIIIA: Noble Gases
• Astronomical ionization energies
• Positive electron affinities Therefore, relatively unreactive
• Monatomic gases
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Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Group VIIIA: Noble Gases
• Xe forms three
compounds:
XeF2
XeF4 (at right)
XeF6
• Kr forms only one stable
compound:
KrF2
• The unstable HArF was
synthesized in 2000.