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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Review of Related Literature
1. Classroom Interaction
The classroom is the place where lecturers and learners come
together and language learning is supposed to happen. As stated by
Allwright and Bailey, classroom has been defined as the gathering, for a
given period of time, of two or more persons (one of whom generally
assumes the role of instructor) for the purposes of language learning.1 It
can be said that classroom interaction is the place that lecturer and
students build relation to communicate each other to reach the purpose of
language learning.
Furthermore, according to Allwright and Bailey,
“Classroom interaction has to be managed by everyone taking
parts both of teacher or students, not just by the teacher because
interaction is obviously not something you just to people, but
something people do together, collectively.”2
By condition above, the purpose of the language classroom
interaction is the opportunity that gives for everyone who is in language
learning both of lecturer or students. Therefore, to achieve a successful
1 D. Allwright - K.M. Baily, Kathleen M. Focus on the Language Classroom: An Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers (New York. Cambridge University Press, 1991), 18-19. 2 D. Allwright - K.M. Baily, Kathleen M. Focus on the Language Classroom: An Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers (New York. Cambridge University Press, 1991), 18-19.
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interaction, all the participants involved in the exchange should unite their
efforts in a way the interaction was managed by everyone taking part in it
and not just by the lecturer. So that, managing classroom interaction and
managing learning should come together. Every time the lecturer asks
something to certain student, then all the students can pay attention to
what happens and learn something from it.
We can conclude that classroom interaction is an interaction
between lecturer and students that happens when they participated in the
classroom. Therefore, to get a good classroom interaction, it needs to be
managed by everyone taking part, by a lecturer and also by students. How
the interaction develops, depends on the attitudes and intentions of the
people involved, and on their interpretations of each other’s attitudes.
2. Lecturer-Students Interaction
The communicative process involves interaction between at least
two people (lecturer-students or student-student) who share a list of signs
and semiotic rules.3 The concept of interaction is defined as “reciprocal
events that require at least two objects and two actions. Interaction occurs
when these objects and events naturally influence one another”.4
3 Ilknur ISTIFCI - Ugur DEMIRAY, “Role and function of meta communication concept as nonverbal communication in teaching EFL”. International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications. October, November, December 2011 Volume: 2 Issue: 4Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249, 97 4 E.D. Wagner. “In Support of a Functional Definition of Interaction” The American Journal of Distance Education. 8(2), 1994, 8
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Therefore, interactions occur when there are two objects that influence
each other through giving and receiving messages in order to achieve
communication. It means that interaction do not occur only from one side.
In classroom, lecturer-students interaction is communication between
teacher and students that make effect in learning process. Though
interaction with their lecturer, students can increase their language store
as they listen to or read authentic linguistic material, or even the output of
their fellow students in discussions skits, joint problem-solving tasks, or
dialogues.5
The concept of interaction has a significant importance in the
classroom too; it is an essential part in learning and teaching processes.
Interaction is something people can do together i.e. collectively.6
Obviously, in the classroom it is considered as important for the lecturer
to manage who should talk, to whom, on what topic, in what language
and so on. One set of theories, presented by Tyson and Carroll, looks
teaching process as a process of interaction.7 The lecturer does something
to the students and the students do something in return. As the result of
these reciprocal actions, the students learn. If this interpersonal
5 Wilga M. Rivers, Interactive Language Teaching. (Cambridge University Press, 1987), 6 D. Allwright - K.M. Baily, Focus on the Language Classroom. (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1991), 18-19. 7 James C. Tyson – Marry Carroll, Conceptual tools for teaching in secondary schools. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1970), 6.
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relationship is good, it means that the learning will occur. On the
contrary, if it is bad, the process of learning is not occur, it will in less
degree and with less stability. From the definition above, it means that
interaction has many influences to the leaning process to achieve the goal
of learning.
Lecturer-students interaction is of significant importance in
foreign language teaching and learning. It is argued that interactions
between lecturers and students facilitate language development and lead
to better language learning.8 This type of interaction as Coulthard
mentions has received a great deal from teachers in a wide range of
disciplines. It happens between the lecturer and one learner or many other
learners, that is to say a lecturer takes a part in such interaction.9 It can be
said that interaction will happen when the lecturer and the students
interact each other. He talks with his students the content of the course,
asks questions, uses students’ ideas, lectures, gives directions, criticizes or
justifies student talk responses. On the other hand, the students will
benefit by drawing on the experience of their teachers on how well to
interact in the manner that is most effective.10 In this case, lecturer talk is
important to encourage students to respond lecturer talk. In order to,
8 Massoud Rahimpour, “Teacher-Students’ Interactions in Task-Based vs Form-Focused Instruction”. World Journal of Education. Vol. 1, No. 1; April 2011, 171 9 M. Coulthard, An Introduction to Discourse Analysis (London: Longman, 1977), 45. 10 M. Coulthard, An Introduction to Discourse Analysis (London: Longman, 1977), 45.
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students can have the experience and practice their language learning to
create good interaction.
3. Methods of Interaction
There are several methods of classroom interaction analysis.
Among the famous methods are Flanders’ Interaction Analysis Categories
(FIAC) and Brown Interaction Analysis System (BIAS).
a. Flanders’ Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC)
Flanders’ Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) has been
widely referred to and used as a model of classroom interaction
analysis. Flanders used the term for his ten-category observation
schedule.11
Table 2.1 Flanders’ interaction analysis categories (FIAC)
Lecturer
talk
Category number
Activity
Indirect influence
1. 2. 3.
4.
Accepts feeling Praises or encourages Accepts or uses ideas of pupils Asks questions
Direct influence 5.
6. 7.
Lecturing Giving directions Criticizing or justifying authority
Pupil talk 8. 9.
Pupil-talk response Pupil-talk Initiation
11 D. Allwright – K. Bailey. Focus on the language classroom. (New York: Cambridge University Press. 1990), 10.
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Silence 10. Silence or confusion
b. Brown Interaction Analysis System (BIAS)
This system was developed by Brown and designed for use by
teams of students and lecturers in microteaching.12 This system is
simpler than FIAC, with only seven categories, three types of lecturer
talk, two of student talk, one silence, and unclassified. The complete
categories and the explanation of each are presented in the following
figure:
Table 2.2 Brown interaction analysis system (BIAS)
TL Teacher lectures, describes, explains, narrates, directs
TQ Teacher questions about content or procedure, which pupils are intended to answer
TR Teacher responds, accepts feelings of the class; describes past and future feelings in a non-threatening way; praises, encourages, jokes with pupils; accepts or uses pupils' ideas; builds upon pupil responses; uses mild criticism such as 'No, not quite.'
PR Pupils respond directly and predictably to teacher questions and directions
PV Pupils volunteer information, comments or questions
S Silence. Pauses, short periods of silence
X Unclassifiable. Confusion in which communications cannot be understood; unusual
12 Brown, G. Microteaching: A programme of teaching skills. (London: Harper & Row Publishing Company, 1975), 66.
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activities such as reprimanding or criticizing pupils, demonstrating without accompanying teacher or pupil talk; short spates of blackboard work without accompanying teacher or pupil work.
4. Interaction Analysis by Flander
Flanders’ system is an observational tool used to classify the
verbal behavior of teachers, and students as they interact in the
classroom.13 It means that Flanders’ system is an observation tool to
measure or to analysis category of lecturer talk and student talk in
classroom.
Flanders’ instrument was designed for observing only the verbal
communication in the classroom and non-verbal gestures are not taken
into account.14 From that definition, it can be said that Flander’s
instrument was designed for analyzing only the verbal communication in
classroom activity.
According to Thakur, classroom interaction analysis may be
defined as:
“An instrument which is designed to record categories of verbal
interaction during, or from, recorded teaching learning sessions. It
13 Selvabarady. “Flanders interaction analysis” (http://www.slideshare.net/selvabarady/flanders-interaction-analysis, accessed on April, 23th 2014) 14 Selvabarady, Flanders interaction analysis” (http://www.slideshare.net/selvabarady/flanders-interaction-analysis, accessed on April, 23th 2014)
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is a technique for capturing qualitative and quantitative
dimensions of teacher’s verbal behavior in the classroom.”15
From definition above, it can be said that classroom interaction
analysis was design to measure the category of verbal interaction during
classroom activity.
Flander’s interaction analysis has two main categories: lecturer
talk and pupil’s talk. A third category covers other verbal behavior, i.e.,
silence or confusion.16
a. Lecturer Talk
Lecturer talk is special language that the lecturer uses when
addressing learners in classroom.17 It mean that lecturer talk is the
language typically used by teachers in their communication in
classroom.
According to Flanders, as quoted by Krypsin and Feldhusen,
there are two major category of teacher talk: indirect lecturer talk and
direct lecturer talk.
15 Selvabarady, Flanders interaction analysis” (http://www.slideshare.net/selvabarady/flanders-interaction-analysis, accessed on April, 23th 2014) 16 Selvabarady, Flanders interaction analysis” (http://www.slideshare.net/selvabarady/flanders-interaction-analysis, accessed on April, 23th 2014) 17 R. Ellis, Classroom Second Language Development. (Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International (U.K) Ltd. 1988), 96.
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Table 2.3 example of lecturer talk
Lecturer’s statement Category
1. “What your name?”
2. “David! Take your seat!”
Indirect lecturer talk
Direct lecturer talk
1) Indirect Lecturer Talk
According to Flander’s Interaction Analysis Categories
(FIAC), there are four categories of indirect lecturer talk, they
are:18
a) Accepts feeling: The lecturer accepts feelings when he/she
says he/she understands how the student feels. Included in this
category are statements that recall past feelings, refer to
enjoyable or uncomfortable feelings or predict happy or sad
events that may occur.
b) Praises or encourages: Praises or encourages pupil action or
behavior. This includes jokes that release tension but do not
threaten students at the expense of others. Often praise is a
simple phrase such as, “good job,” “fine,” or “all right.”
Encouragement is slightly different and includes statements
such as “go on,” “say that again,” or “tell us more about it.”
18 Selvabarady, Flanders interaction analysis” (http://www.slideshare.net/selvabarady/flanders-interaction-analysis, accessed on April, 23th 2014)
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c) Accepts or uses ideas of pupils: Lecturer clarifies or builds or
develops ideas suggested by students. It only includes
acceptance of student ideas. Included here is when the lecturer
says, “I see what you mean. That’s a good point.”
d) Asks questions: Asking question about content to procedure,
based on lecturer ideas, with the intent that a pupil will
answer. This includes only questions from which the lecturer
expects answers.
2) Direct Lecturer Talk
Based on Flanders categories, direct lecturer talk is divided
into smaller and more meaningful unit:19
a) Lecturing: Lecturing is defined as the form of verbal behavior
used to give information, opinions, or orientation.
b) Giving directions: Directions, commands or orders to which a
pupil is expected to comply. This is used only when the
student’s compliance takes the form of an observable act. An
example would be if the lecturer says, “Chad, move to the seat
up front.”
c) Criticizing or justifying authority: A statement of criticism
is one designed to change student behavior from unacceptable
19 Selvabarady, Flanders interaction analysis” (http://www.slideshare.net/selvabarady/flanders-interaction-analysis, accessed on April, 23th 2014)
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to acceptable. The lecturer says, in effect, “I don’t like what
you are doing, do something else.” Another group of
statements included in this category are statements of defense
or self-justification.
From explanation above, it mean that lecturer talk is important
to encouraging students to involve directly in the classroom activity.
Thus, lecturer talk can make student to active in classroom activity in
order to they accustomed to speak up. When lecturer asked question,
uses students idea, and praise students’ comment, the teacher can
motivate students to active and practice in classroom activity.
Lecturer talk is mostly important to language teaching.20
According to pedagogical theory, the language that lecturers use in
classrooms determines the success of a target to be achieved in the
lesson. Many scholars found lecturer talk makes up around 70% of
classroom language.21 In this case, it can be said that lecturer talk is
kind of language that used by lecturer that have many function in
being making students success in learning. In addition, it is important
for lecturers to know the quality of their teaching in order to the
teacher can improve her/his teaching. This condition make the
20 Vivian Cook, Second Language Learning and Language Teaching (2nd Edition). (Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000), 144. 21 Craig Chaudron, Second Language Classrooms: Research on Teaching and Learning. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 50-85.
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researcher want to know the quality of teacher talk from students’
perception.
b. Student Talk
According to Flander’s Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC),
student talk is sort of talk that exists besides lecturer talk. There are
two categories of student talk, they are:22
1) Student-talk response: Talk by students in response to lecturer.
In this case, lecturer ask question and students respond it. Lecturer
here initiates the contact or solicits pupil statement or structures
the situation.
2) Student-talk Initiation: An activity in which a student raises
his/her hand to make a statement or ask a question when he/she
has not been prompted by the lecturer to do so.
From that definition, it can be said that students talk is language
that used by the students to respond lecturer talk or initiation their idea.
Moreover, students’ participation is important for students to respond
when teacher asked question in order to they can active in classroom
activity and also they can get good input from that participation.
22 Selvabarady, Flanders interaction analysis” (http://www.slideshare.net/selvabarady/flanders-interaction-analysis, accessed on April, 23th 2014)
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c. Silence or Confusion
Silence or confuse means pause, short periods of confusion in
which communication cannot be understood by the observer.23 It can
be said that silence is short periods of confusion when the researcher
did not understand about communication which happens in the
classroom.
5. Students’ Perception
Students’ perception is an opinion of the students about teaching
process. Student surveys also can provide feedback for improvement.24
Lecturers want to know if their students feel sufficiently challenged,
engaged, and comfortable asking them for help.25 It means that teachers
can know their students feel that they are interesting or boring in teaching
process from students’ perception. In addition, students’ perception is
important for lecturers to know the opinion about their teaching, so that
the lecturers can improve their teaching process.
23 Selvabarady, Flanders interaction analysis” (http://www.slideshare.net/selvabarady/flanders-interaction-analysis, accessed on April, 23th 2014) 24 Bill – Melinda. “Asking Students about Teaching” (http: www.gatesfoundation.org, accessed on July, 1st 2014) 25 Bill – Melinda. “Asking Students about Teaching” (http: www.gatesfoundation.org, accessed on July, 1st 2014)
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According to Ahmad and Aziz, students’ perceptions also can give
suggestion to the lecturers’ development in the future.26 It means that
students’ perception can help the lecturers build their learning process to
be better. From that condition, the researcher wants to know students’
perception about lecturer talk in interaction with the students. Whereas
the students interesting or not in teaching process.
6. Intensive English Program (IEP) UIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya
Intensive English Program (IEP) is one of program in Foreign
Language Competence Development Program (P2KBA) handled by
Language Development Center at UIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya. This
program created for first year students of UIN Sunan Ampel for all
faculties (Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teaching Training, Faculty of Adab
and Humanities, Faculty of Da’wah and Communication, Faculty of
Ushuluddin and Islamic Thought, Faculty of Sharia and Law, Faculty of
Social Sciences and Political Sciences, Faculty of Economy and Islamic
Business, Faculty of Psychology and Health, and Faculty of Science and
Technology) that concern on psychomotor, cognitive, and affective
26 F. Ahmad - Aziz, J. Students’ perceptions of the teachers’ teaching of literature communicating and understanding through the Eyes of the audience. (The British journal of Arts and Social Science, 1(1), 2011), 70-80.
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aspects.27 IEP is held every Tuesday and Thursday morning at 6 a.m. –
7.30 a.m.
Determination of IEP classes is determined by pre-test as
placement test for all students to recognize the English competence level
of each student. By knowing score of pre-test, the students are placed in
class based on their level. It becomes the consideration of the institution
to give appropriate material and methods based on each level. This pre-
test is conducted in each faculties at UIN Sunan Ampel Suabaya, thus one
class there will be a lot of students from different majors, except for
students of English education department they are placed in a classroom
without being mixed with other majors.
IEP is held for two semester in first year study. In the first
semester, IEP is focused on General English but the material emphasized
on speaking while in the second semester, students are taught specifically
in TOEFL. All students are obligated to attend these classes and are
expected to pass the minimum score of 400-both for TOEFL and TOEFL
at in the end of the second semester. Students who can pass IEP, they will
get certificate. The certificate of IEP becomes a requirement for students
who will take a thesis.
27 Pusat Pengembangan Bahasa (P2B). Pedoman Program Kompetensi Berbahasa Asing (P2KBA).(Surabaya: Pusat Pengembangan Bahasa (P2B) IAIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya, 2012), 1-25
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B. Previous Studies
The researcher found the similar case of the previous study. This is
also the analysis of the teacher talk but focusing in knowledge and
understanding teacher talk in EYL classroom under the title “A Descriptive
Study on The Teacher Talk at EYL Classroom”. The research findings
show that despite the teacher talk’s capability to be good model for
young learners, most students found the class more motivating, interesting,
and challenging when the teachers minimized their teacher talk and made
use not only more constructive teacher talk but also interesting activities.28
But the result of the sample is too low because the researcher only took 18
students in EYL classroom. It is a little a doubt that it cannot be as the
representative of interaction.
In addition, another study focusing on the categories of talk, the
category that is used to promote interaction and the language that is mostly
used during interaction under the title “The Descriptive Study on the
Classroom Interaction during the English-Teaching Learning Process at the
Eighth Grade of SMPN 1 Banjarmasin”. The result of this research shows
that the teacher’s talk achieve 55.5% in VIII B and 53.0% in VIII C. While,
student talk achieve 36.4% VIII B and 39.8% in VIII C. Moreover, the
28 Liani Setiawati, A Descriptive Study on the Teacher Talk at EYL Classroom (Conaplin Journal: Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 1 No. 2, 2012), 3
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percentage of teacher-students’ talk is 8.1% in VIII B and 7.2% in VIII C.29
The category that is frequently occurred to promote the interaction is asking
question. During the interaction, the language that is mostly used is English.
The similar topic is also found in this study by the title “Interaction in
English as a Foreign Language Classroom (A Case of Two State Senior High
Schools in Semarang in the Academic Year 2009/2010).” The main
objectives of the proposed study were to find out the amount of time spent
by teacher (TTT) and by students (STT) and to find out the characteristics of
classroom interaction. The study involved students and teachers of SMAN 3
Semarang and SMAN 6 Semarang in the academic year 2009/2010 as the
object of the study.30
In addition, the similar topic is also found in the study under the title
“Classroom Interaction: An Analysis of Teacher Talk and Student Talk in
English for Young Learners (EYL)”. The researcher has presented the
consistency of the findings from the previous research that teacher talk plays
dominant part in classroom interaction as mentioned by Nunan. It can be
shown from the high percentage of giving direction, lecturing and asking
29 Mujahidah, “The Descriptive Study on the Classroom Interaction during the English-Teaching Learning Process at the Eighth Grade of SMPN 1 Banjarmasin.” (http://jurnal.englishdept.fkipunlam.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/JURNAL-SKRIPSI.pdf, accessed on April, 26th 2014). 30 Kurniawan Yudhi Nugroho. “Interaction in English as a Foreign Language Classroom (A Case of Two State Senior High Schools in Semarang in the Academic Year 2009/2010)”. English Education
Journal. Vol 1, No 1 (2011), 1.
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question by which the teacher led the flow of interaction.31 The researcher
focused on teacher talk implication on student’s motivation and teacher’s
roles in classroom interaction.
The researcher found the similar topic which has done under the title
“An Analysis of Teacher Talk in English Classes in SMK PGRI 4
Denpasar”. The research focuses on the effectiveness/ineffectiveness of
Teacher Talk and the aspect of Teacher Talk in classroom observation. The
researcher found that the teaching effectiveness elements used in the
classroom were in the form of academic learning time, the use of
reinforcement, cues and feedback, co-operative learning, classroom
atmosphere, higher order questions, advance organizers, direct instruction,
indirect teaching and democratic classroom.32
Finally, the researcher concludes that those all previous studies
significantly have the similarities and differences with this research.
However, those literatures influence this research as the foundation. This
research focuses on lecturer-student interaction analysis in English intensive
class. The researcher states that the different focus of this research with
those previous studies is students’ perception about lecturer talk.
31 Rini Triani Pujiastuti, Classroom Interaction: An Analysis of Teacher Talk and Student Talk in English for Young Learners (EYL) (Journal of English and Education 2013, 1(1)), 163-172. 32 Ni Wayan Widha Astiti. “An Analysis of Teacher Talk in English Classes in SMK PGRI 4 Denpasar.” Jurnal Penelitian. Vol 1, No 2 (2012), 1