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CHAPTER II

SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES: AN OVERVIEW

2.12.12.12.1 Learning DisabilityLearning DisabilityLearning DisabilityLearning Disability

2.22.22.22.2 Historical PHistorical PHistorical PHistorical Perspectiveserspectiveserspectiveserspectives

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2.42.42.42.4 Theories on Learning DisabilityTheories on Learning DisabilityTheories on Learning DisabilityTheories on Learning Disability

2.52.52.52.5 Theories on Specific Learning DisabilityTheories on Specific Learning DisabilityTheories on Specific Learning DisabilityTheories on Specific Learning Disability

2.62.62.62.6 Causes of LCauses of LCauses of LCauses of Learning Disorderearning Disorderearning Disorderearning Disorder

2.72.72.72.7 DiscrepaDiscrepaDiscrepaDiscrepancy in Diagnosing Learning Disabilityncy in Diagnosing Learning Disabilityncy in Diagnosing Learning Disabilityncy in Diagnosing Learning Disability

2.82.82.82.8 Over view of Learning DisabilityOver view of Learning DisabilityOver view of Learning DisabilityOver view of Learning Disability

2.92.92.92.9 Key facts about Learning DisabilityKey facts about Learning DisabilityKey facts about Learning DisabilityKey facts about Learning Disability

2.102.102.102.10 Specific Learning DisabilitiesSpecific Learning DisabilitiesSpecific Learning DisabilitiesSpecific Learning Disabilities

2.112.112.112.11 Characteristics of Specific Learning DisabilitiesCharacteristics of Specific Learning DisabilitiesCharacteristics of Specific Learning DisabilitiesCharacteristics of Specific Learning Disabilities

2.122.122.122.12 Causes of Specific Learning DisabilitiesCauses of Specific Learning DisabilitiesCauses of Specific Learning DisabilitiesCauses of Specific Learning Disabilities

2.132.132.132.13 PPPPrevalence of Specific Learevalence of Specific Learevalence of Specific Learevalence of Specific Learning Disabilitiesrning Disabilitiesrning Disabilitiesrning Disabilities

2.142.142.142.14 Types of STypes of STypes of STypes of Specific Learning Disabilitiespecific Learning Disabilitiespecific Learning Disabilitiespecific Learning Disabilities

2.152.152.152.15 Educational Implications of SEducational Implications of SEducational Implications of SEducational Implications of Specific Learning Disabilitiespecific Learning Disabilitiespecific Learning Disabilitiespecific Learning Disabilities

2.162.162.162.16 FFFFactors associated with positive out comesactors associated with positive out comesactors associated with positive out comesactors associated with positive out comes

2.172.172.172.17 ParentsParentsParentsParents’ ’ ’ ’ P P P Perspectiveserspectiveserspectiveserspectives

2.182.182.182.18 Role of Role of Role of Role of Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers

2.192.192.192.19 TTTTips for Teachers ips for Teachers ips for Teachers ips for Teachers

2.202.202.202.20 Principles to Motivate LPrinciples to Motivate LPrinciples to Motivate LPrinciples to Motivate Leaeaeaearning Stylerning Stylerning Stylerning Stylessss

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2.222.222.222.22 AAAAdvantages and Disadvantages of Learning Styledvantages and Disadvantages of Learning Styledvantages and Disadvantages of Learning Styledvantages and Disadvantages of Learning Stylessss

Specific Learning Disabilities: An Overview 17171717

SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES: AN OVERVIEW

2.1 LEARNING DISABILITY

A neurobiological disorder in which a person’s brain works or is structured

differently affecting one or more of the basic processes involved in understanding or

using spoken or written language. Such a disability may result in a problem with

listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, or doing mathematical

calculations. Experts believe that children with learning disabilities have a problem with

the way the brain handles information, which in turn hinders the normal learning process.

Learning disabilities affect one in seven people, and represent a national problem

of enormous proportions. Every year, 120,000 additional students are diagnosed with

learning disabilities a diagnosis now shared by 2.4 million school children in the United

States. Many thousands more are never properly diagnosed or treated, or don’t get

treatment because they are not considered eligible for service.

The most common learning disability is difficulty with language and reading. A

recent National Institute of Health study showed that 67 % of young students identified

as being at risk for reading difficulties were able to achieve average or above-average

reading ability when they received help early.

All children learn in highly individual ways. Children with learning disabilities

simply process information differently, but they are generally of normal or above-

average intelligence.

Sometimes overlooked as ‘hidden handicaps,’ learning disabilities are often not

easily recognized, accepted or considered serious once detected. The impact of the

disability, which often runs in families, ranges from relatively mild to severe. Learning

disabilities can be lifelong conditions that, in some cases, affect many parts of a person’s

life: school or work, daily routines, friendship, and family life. In some people, many

overlapping learning disabilities may be apparent, while others may have a single,

isolated learning problem that has little impact on other areas of their lives.

LD are not the same as mental retardation, autism, deafness, blindness, or

behavioural disorders. Nor are learning disabilities caused by poverty, environmental

factors, or cultural differences. LD are not curable, but individuals can learn to


compensate for and even overcome areas of weakness. Attention deficit and

hyperactivity sometimes appear with LD, but not always.

Common Learning Disabilities include:

Dyslexia: A language based disability in which a person has trouble in understanding

words, sentences, or paragraphs.

Dysgraphia: A writing disability in which a person finds it hard to form letters correctly

or write within a defined space.

Dyscalculia: A mathematical disability in which a person has difficulty in solving

arithmetic problems and grasping math concepts.

Auditory and visual processing disabilities: A sensory disability in which a person has

difficulty in understanding language despite normal hearing and vision.

More than one in six children will experience a problem in learning to read

during the first three years in school, according to US Department of Education.

Currently, more than 2.8 million school-age children receive special education services

as students with learning disabilities, which represents about 5 % of all children in public

schools. However, these statistics don’t include the tens of thousand of students who

attend private and religious schools not do they include the scores of students, who may

have serious problems with learning, but who may not meet the criteria established by

school districts to receive special education services.

Symptoms

The earlier a LD is detected, the better chance a child will have of succeeding in

school and in life. Parents are encouraged to understand the warning signs of a learning

disability as early as preschool, since the first years in school are especially crucial for a

young child.

However, the very definition of “Learning Disability” hinders its identification

with young children. The crucial element in identifying learning disabilities is to collect

their academic performance. How can a LD in reading be identified when a child is too

young to be taught to read? With young children, the range of what is “normal” is so

wide that it is extremely difficulty in most cases, and impossible in others, to tell the

difference between simple developmental immaturity and a learning disability.


There is no one indication of Learning Disabilities. Although most children have

an occasional problem with learning or behaviour, a consistent pattern of the following

problems may suggest the need for further testing.

Disabilities

If an individual does not benefit from a regular education programme and is not

socially disadvantaged, intellectually limited, Pedagogically deprived, and shows no

evidence for hard sign Neuro physiological dysfunction, that individual is characterised

as learning disabled. If an individual has difficulty in communicating either expressively

or receptively, and can not read or do mathematics within the criterion range established

by the school district, that individual is similarly considered to be learning disabled.

The lack of precision in evidence for this characterization of the learning disabled

reflects the confusion found in clinical and educational settings. Concern over learning

disabilities is widespread and has become a major field of interest in neurology,

psychology, and education. The disability may be specific or generalized to all cognitive

areas. It may be present with or without behavioural, social, or motor problems. In short,

learning disabilities are Dyslexia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia. Each case is symptom

specific. Major concerns for any professional are the appropriate diagnostic and

remedial/compensatory programmes.

Estimate of the frequency of learning disabilities is very accurate because of the

lack of precise definition, but the following guidelines seem to holed internationally for

the literate population. 2 to 4% show signs of severe disability in interpreting text,

communicating verbally and writing, while another 3 to 5% show substantial difficulty

with specific areas such as reading (Dyslexia), writing (Dysgraphia) and math

(Dyscalculia). In contrast, readers who do poorly because of intellectual limitations or

poor skill acquisition can account for as much as 15% of the population and they are not

considered to be learning disabled. Less criteria also hinder the accumulations of more

accurate statistics on frequency, Learning Disabilities are known to be distributed

equally across age, socioeconomic status, intellectual levels, and throughout literate

cultures.


Importance in Education Field

The problem we face today in each class room is that of the poor performance of

healthy and intelligent children who are neither retarded nor mentally or physically

handicapped. These children possess normal vision and hearing and yet for some reason

they cannot function in a school environment. They can barely read, write but confuses

in mathematics. Yet their 1ntelligence Quotient (IQ) measure 130 or above and

apparently capable of high quality work. The condition of these children is perplexing,

most probably, a veritable constellation of difficulties may be at fault. Some interpreted

that such children demonstrate signs of emotional disturbance because of their learning

disability. Most of these children have become so accustomed to failure as such there is a

need to convince them of the possibility of succeeding. These children exhibit many

other behavioural characteristics which may make them disruptive in the classroom and

at home. As regards to children with LD, is assumed that there is either a general show

down in the progress of development as compared to age peers or that there has been an

actual break down at some point. The obvious answer is that the course of development

through remedial or therapeutic methods (Kephart, 1967).

Besides the visually and auditory handicapped, the normal deviation, the

physically handicapped, the speech defective and the emotionally disturbed, there existed

another class of disadvantaged children who are physically unimpaired and intellectually

normal but who failed to perceive visually, to process the information to talk, read, spell

or think adequately. As a result the analysis of the behaviour of these children, a new

discipline came into psychology, neurology, remedial reading, speech therapy etc the

subject of this new field were given various names-children with minimal cerebral

dysfunction, children with perceptual handicaps, brain-inferred children with perceptual

handicaps, brain-inferred children and children with LD. The children with LD has

become the most acceptable term since it emphasizes the educational character of such

disorders.

Learning Disabilities have been in the centre of the special education stage since

1968, even in the United States of America. McRal & McCarthy who are known as a

practically oriented educators of children with learning disabilities stated in 1969,

“Although the early impels of the published work of Strauss and Lehtinen with the brain

injured dated from the late 1940’s and early 1950’s and the work of Orton and dyslexia


group dated from 1920’s and 1930’s, the educational scene remained quite unruffled as

late as the early 1960’s. It is probably safe to say that in 1960 there were no public

school classes for the learning disabled children except for remedial reading programme

(Gearheart, 1973). The serious remedial reading cases were called dyslexia who had

severe reading problems, with tendency to reverse symbols and produce mirror writing.

1960 there was a tremendous change and progress in this area, due to

considerable additional research conducted between 1965 and 1970 in the light of the

earlier efforts made by several researchers. By 1969, there were twelve states in the

united states of America which had legislation specifically mentioning children with LD

and four states used terms ‘Learning Disabilities’ or ‘SLD’ (Gearheart, 1973). Different

other states used different terminology, and Colorado used the term ‘educationally

handicapped’. Idaho used the term ‘perceptual impairments’.

2.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF T HE

FIELD

LD as a comprehensive field of study had its beginning in 1947 with the

publication of “Psychology and Education of the Brain injured child”, by Strausa and

Lehtinen (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2008).

The early work of Strauss on brain-injured child was questioned in the light of

new knowledge and insights and later many new concepts and terms were examined and

introduced, such as brain-damage, perceptual handicap, minimal brain dysfunction,

Strauss syndrome and finally LD. It may be accepted that the historical development of

the field of LD is nothing but process of building towards systematic knowledge.

Kirk (1963) was the first writer who used the term ‘LD’ to describe a group of

children who had disorders in the development of language, speech, reading and

associated communication skills needed for social interaction. Blind and deaf, mentally

retarded and emotionally disturbed children were excluded from this group. Johnson and

Myklebust (1967) made slight alteration to the term ‘LD’ by introducing the term

‘psycho neurological learning disabilities. In their opinion, the concept that the

‘psychology of learning’ is disturbed because of an impairment of the central nervous

system. Due to neurological deficit, the learning process of these children is different.

Hence, the term, “psychological learning disabilities” assumes the concern with learning


and education as well as the medical pathology or etymology. However, the term,

‘Learning Disabilities’ is mostly accepted by the teachers and parents is focus mainly on

the educational problems of the children. At present, it appears to be a satisfactory one,

as it covers a wide range and diverse type of learning disorders.

The term gradually gained recognition and general acceptance as a result many

councils and organizations came into existence. In states, many parent groups were

formed to bring the findings of this field to the attention of educators, physicians and

legislators.

But no substantial thought and attention has been made to this dynamic field in

India, as pointed out earlier, the reasons might be due to lack of attempt and involvement

by the educators and researchers. Thought we find high percentage of such children in

our country, it is rather a great disappointment not to make a thorough attempt to save

these children in spite of processing good resources of men and materials. When our

country, is in a position to establish ‘educational consultancy firm’ to guide and help the

developing countries, it is right time to encourage this field through research, education

and legislation so that these sufferers be brought back to the main stream of education.

In the united states many councils, organizations, such as ‘Division for Children

with Learning Disability (DCLD), ‘Association for children with Learning Disabilities

(ACLD) were established. A congressional bill entitled the ‘Children with SLD Act’,

became law in 1970 as part of the Elementary and Secondary Educations Amendment of

1969 (Lerner, 1976). This legislation included special programmes for children with

SLD and authorized provision for research, training of educational personnel and the

development of model in the field of learning disabilities. The term was thus officially

accepted, and as a result much work was contributed by ACLD and DCLD for the

benefit of the learning disabled.

LEARNING DISABILITY – DEFINED

Various attempts have been made to identify the population of children with

learning disabilities and several dimensions have been considered while defining the

term. A brief discussion of different approaches to the problem is added here. It is useful

for different disciplines to define conditions on the basis of its orientation and criteria.


Cruickshank (1967) observes that specific neurological conditions gives rise to

dysfunction and refers to these children as ’brain injured’. Johnson and Myklebust

(1967) referred to these children “as having a psycho neurological learning disability,

meaning that behaviour has been disturbed as a result of a dysfunction of the brain and

that the problem is one of altered processes, not of a generalized incapacity to learn”.

The definitions of Cruickshank and Myklebust may be known as cause-oriented

definitions. Those who take the cause –oriented look at learning disorders from the

perspective attempt to identify the source or etymology of observed behaviour,

Clements’s (1966) whose definition also is cause-oriented runs the terms “minimal brain

dysfunction syndrome”, refers to children of near average, average or above average

general intelligence with certain learning or behaviour disabilities ranging from mild to

severe, which are associated with deviations of function of the central nervous system.

These deviations may manifest themselves by various contributions of impairments in

perception conceptualization, impulse or motor functions”.

The effect-oriented definitions stress mostly educationally significant factors

such as the child’s difficulty in academic and learning task. Effect-oriented definitions

may include a list of other children with special needs who are not considered learning

disabled. For example, Kirk’s definition emphasized disability on one or more of a

learning process. According to him LD refers in one or more of the process of speech,

language, reading, spelling, writing or arithmetic resulting from a possible cerebral

dysfunction and emotional or behavioural disturbance and not from mental retardation,

sensory deprivation or cultural or instructional factors.

Another emphasis in the identification of the LD population is on the irregular

development of mental abilities. The growth in the various areas may be uneven and

inconsistent. Myers and Hamill (1969) called this as the “principle of disparity”.

Gallagher (1966) stressed on such developmental imbalance in identifying the population

of such children. Gallagher defined children with developmental imbalances as those

who reveal a developmental disparity in psychological processes related to education of

such a degree as to require the instructional programming of developmental tasks

appropriate to the nature and level of the deviant developmental process. Baleman’s

(1965) definition also stressed the “principle of disparity” and disorders in the basic

learning process. In her view, children with specific learning disabilities manifest an


educationally significant discrepancy between their estimated intellectual potential and

actual level of performance related to basic disorders in the learning process, which may

or may not be accompanied by demonstrable central nervous system dysfunction and

which are not secondary to generalized mental retardation, educational or cultural

deprivation, severe emotional disturbance or sensory loss. She used the criterion of a

significant disseverance between what the child is potentially capable of learning what in

fact has been learned while defining the term LD.

Another criterion used to define the term is by exclusion. That is, the children

who are called LD, do not primarily fit into any other area of exceptionality. In other

words these children are not primarily retarded, emotionally disturbed, culturally

deprived, rather sensorically handicapped. This criterion is included even in the

definition of Johnson & Myklebust (1967) i.e. “children with special LD exhibit a

disorder in one or more of the psychological process involved in understanding or using

spoken or written languages. These may be manifested in disorders of listening, thinking,

talking, reading, writing, spelling or arithmetic. They include conditions which have

been referred to as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction,

dyslexia, developmental aphasia etc. They do not include learning problems which are

due primarily to visual, hearing or motor handicaps to mental retardation, emotional

disturbance or to environmental disadvantage.”

Ross (1977) defined a learning disabled child as: a child of at least average

intelligence whose academic performance is impaired by a developmental delay in the

ability to sustain selective attention. Such a child required specialized instruction in order

to permit the use of his or her full intellectual potential.

According to this definition, a LD child is neither damaged nor permanently

impaired. The Disability is an inability to make use of the unspecialized instruction

usually found in the typical classroom. Given proper and specialized instruction, the

disability disappears. The problem is thus an educational problem not a psychological or

mental problem. LD is not a lack in the child’s ability, but it is a lack in educators ability

to identify and teach children.

An analysis of these definitions lead as to several conclusions and

generalizations. These must be a significant discrepancy between the actual level of

performance and the level that might be expected in terms of his intellectual potential


and his sensory capacity.

1. LD children should have average or above average intelligence.

2. They must have adequate sensory acuity.

3. They must be achieving considerably less than the composite of their 1.Q, age,

and educational opportunity.

2.3 GROUPS OF THEORISTS OF LEARNING DISABILITY

There are three important groups of theorists in the field of learning disabilities.

They are Perceptual Motor Theorists (Swanson & Wetson, 1989), Language Theorists

(Mercer, 1987), and Information Processing Theorists (Lerner, 1989).

As the name implies, perceptual motor theorists were concerned with impaired

perception and delayed motor development as possible causes of learning problems.

Children who had difficulty in copying material from the blackboard, who

frequently reversed letters, numbers and words, who could not accurately reproduce a

geometric design, were believed to demonstrate perceptual motor problems. This

emphasis on brain-based reading problems based on letter or word reversals and

problems in writing.

Another group of theorists tended to view academic achievement in terms of the

case of language. From this perspective, children would be described as learning

disabled based on incomplete speech development, incorrect usage of various rules of

grammar, inappropriate understanding of pronoun reference and other speech and

language problems. These problems were believed to be the basis of other difficulties in

written language and reading. The emphasis on language task and reading skills within

the present instructional approaches to learning disabilities can be traced directly to this

group.

Information processing theorists explore how the learning disabled child task in

sensory data, interprets and elaborate this information, and uses it to perform a task

(Lerner, 1989). According to Swanson (1989), first the sensory information comes to the

individual (input stimuli) who then clusters it with previous knowledge within the brain

(memory and experience) and programmes or manipulates the information (executive

function), which leads to a response or performance activity (output performance). This

theory emphasizes that the learner must co-ordinate several kinds of cognitive abilities


rather than using a single appropriate cognitive strategy. Learners must not only integrate

abilities and types of knowledge but also select from a repertoire of possible strategies, a

plan of action relevant for solving a problem or completing a task. The cognitive theories

of learning disabilities imply that these children have deficit in cognitive processing

abilities that impede their ability to learn

2.4 THEORIES ON LEARNING DISABILITY

Being a recently recognized phenomenon, the issue of learning disabilities is

increasingly drawing attention of social researchers. Theories of child development and

learning have influenced discussions of school readiness. Theories Maturationist,

Environmentalist and Consructivist theories have had profound impact on kindergarten

readiness practices (Powell, 1991).

Maturationist Theory

Maturationistic theory was advanced by the work of Arnold Gessell.

Maturationists believe that development is a biological process that occurs automatically

in predictable, stages on time (Hunt, 1969). This perspective leads many educators and

families to assume that young children will acquire knowledge naturally and

automatically as they grow physically and become older, provided that they are healthy

(Demarest, et al., 1993).

Environmentalist Theory

Theorists such as John Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura contributed

greatly to the environmentalist perspective of development. Environmentalists believe

that the child’s environment shapes his/her learning and behaviour, In fact, human

behaviour, development, and learning are thought of as reactions to the environment.

This perspective leads man/families, schools, and educators to assume that young

children develop and acquire new knowledge by reacting to their surroundings.

Constructivist Theory

The constructivist perspective of readiness and development was advanced by

theorists such as Jean Piaget, Maria Montessori, and Lev Vygotsky. They are consistent

in their belief that learning and development occr-rr when young children interact with

the environment and people around them (Hunt, 1969). Constructivists view young

children as active participants in the learning process. In addition, constructivists believe


young children initiate most of the activities required for learning and development.

Because active interaction with the environment and people are necessary for learning

and development, constructivists believe that children are ready for school when they can

initiate many of the interactions they havewith the environment and people around them.

2.5 THEORIES ON SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES

Several theories have been propounded in relation to the specific learning

disabilities in reading and writing, grouped under the term Dyslexia. These theories are

of two broad types.

a. Biological

Biological theories of dyslexia describe dyslexic differences in terms of genetics

and the structure of the brain.

b. Cognitive

Cognitive theories of dyslexia describe dyslexic difficulties in terms of the

working of the brain. They focus on dyslexia as a difference in information processing -

how the brain handles information coming to it through the senses Educationalists see

dyslexia principally as a difference at this level.

Some of the major theories which seek to explain the phenomenon of dyslexia are

described below:

a. The Evolutionary Hypothesis

This theory posits that reading is an unnatural act, and carried out by humans for

an exceedingly brief period in our evolutionary history (Dalby.1986). There is no

evidence that "pathology" underlies dyslexia but much evidence for cerebral variation or

differences. It is these essential differences that are taxed with the artificial task of

reading.

b. Phonological Processing Theory

Phonological processing is the ability to remember and assign the sounds

associated with written letters and words. The phonological processing theory (also

called phonolocial deficit theory) states that all the symptoms of dyslexia are caused by

impairment in the ability to process written words into sounds. Most experts agree that

difficulties in phonological processing pray an important part in dyslexia. However,


some argue that the difficulty in phonological processing is in fact a symptom, rather

than the main cause of dyslexia.

The phonological hypothesis postulates that dyslexics have a specific impairment

in the representation, storage and or retrieval of speech sounds. It explains dyslexics,

reading impairment on the basis that learning to read an alphabetic system requires

learning the grapheme/phoneme correspondence, i.e. the correspondence between letters

and constituent sounds of speech. If these sounds are poorly represented, stored or

retrieved, the learning of grapherne /phoneme correspondences, the foundation of

reading by phonic methods for alphabetic systems, will be affected accordingly.

C. The Cerebellum Theory

The cerebellum theory also called automaticity theory, states that dyslexia is

caused by physical differences in the cerebellum. The cerebellum is also responsible for

coordination and one's ability to estimate how much Time has passed. This may explain

why many people with dyslexia Have problems with both coordination and time

management. Here the biological claim is that the dyslexic's cerebellum is mildly

disfunctional and that a number of cognitive difficulties ensue because of that. Firstly,

the cerebellum plays a role in motor control and therefore in speech articulation. It is

postulated that retarded or disfunctional articulation would lead to deficient phonological

representations. Secondly, the cerebellum plays a role in the automatization of over

learned tasks, such as driving, typing and reading. A weak capacity to automatize would

affect, among other things, the learning of grapheme-phoneme correspondences. Support

for the cerebellar theory comes from evidence of poor performance of dyslexics in a

large number of motor tasks, in dual tasks demonstrating impaired automatization of

balance, and in time estimation, a non-motor cerebellar task. Brain imaging studies have

also shown anatornical, metabolic and activation differences the cerebellum of dyslexics.

d. The Magnocellular Theory

The magnocellular theory argues that dyslexia is caused by the impaired

development of large brain cells (neurons) known as magnocells. Magnocells are

responsible for making sure that eyes look at the right words at the right time when

reading. Defects with the magnocells may cause someone with dyslexia to look at letters

and words in the wrong order and at the wrong time. This theory manages to account for


all known Manifestations of dyslexia: visual, auditory, tactile, motor and consequently

phonological. Evidence specifically relevant to the magnocellular theory includes

magnocellular abnormalities in the medical as well as the lateral geniculate nucleus of

dyslexics’ brains, poor, performance of dyslexics in the tactile domain, and the co-

occurrence of visual and auditory problems in certain dyslexics.

e. The Working Memory Theory

The brain first keeps all new information in a part of the memory called the

'working memory'. The information is then either transferred to long-term memory or

forgotten. Dyslexia is the result of the brain discarding new information relating to

reading and writing instead of transferring it to the long-term memory.

f. The Rapid Auditory Processing Theory

The rapid auditory processing theory is an alternative to the phonological deficit

theory. This theory specifies that the primary deficit lies in the perception of short or

rapidly varying sounds. Support for this theory arises from evidence that dyslexics show

poor performance on a number of auditory tasks, including frequency discrimination and

temporal order judgment. Backward masking tasks, in particular, demonstrate a 100-fold

(40 dB) difference in sensitivity between normals and dyslexics.

g. The Visual Theory

The visual theory (Stein & Walsh, 1997) reflects another long standing tradition

in the study of dyslexic that of considering it as a visual impairment giving rise to

difficulties with the processing of letters and words on a page of text. This may take the

form of unstable binocular fixations, poor convergence, or increased visual crowding.

The visual theory does not exclude a phonological deficit, but emphasizes a visual

contribution to reading problems, at least in some dyslexic individuals.

h. The Perceptual Visual-Noise Exclusion Hypothesis

The concept of a perceptual noise exclusion (Visual-Noise) deficit is an emerging

hypothesis, supported by research showing that dyslexic subjects experience difficulty in

performing visual tasks such as motion detection in the presence of perceptual

distractions, but do not show the same impairment when the distracting factors are

removed in an experimental setting. The researchers have analogized their findings

concerning visual discrimination tasks to findings in other research related to auditory


discrimination tasks. They assert that dyslexic symptoms arise because of an impaired

ability to filter out both visual and auditory distractions, and to categorize information so

as to distinguish the important sensory data from the irrelevant.

New researches are still going on which generate new theories and data leading to

have better indepth knowledge about learning disabilities. Such innovations help in

diagnosis and interventions.

2.6 CAUSES OF LEARNING DISORDER

The Right Hemisphere controls essentially Non-verbal and Abstract functions,

Art and Music, Imagination and Intuition. The Left Hemisphere controls Reasoning,

Logical, Deductionistic or Mathematical thinking and verbal skills. The left brain is also

responsible for understanding (through hearing and reading), and expressing (through

talking and writing) of Language (Sharma, 2002).

Figure No. 2.1

Side view of language area in the left hemisphere of the brain

A specific area towards the front of the Left brain (Broca’s area) is in change of

expressing Language; a location at the back (Wernickes’s area) is where understanding

of speech that we hear takes place. There is a tiny language area in the right hemisphere

too.

A plethoria of functions related to language are controlled by these various areas

in the left and Right Hemispheres, and by their communication with each other. Any

developmental deficiency in these functions gives rise to faulty comprehension or

expression of language, causing Learning Disorders. This may be depicted by a diagram

of the Non- Dyslexic and Dyslexic brain.


Figure No. 2.2

Diagram of the Non- Dyslexic and Dyslexic Brain

Neuroscientist once believed that all learning disabilities are caused by a single

neurological problem. By contrast, recent research has shown that learning disabilities do

not stem from a single cause but from difficulties in bringing together information from

different regions of the brain. These difficulties can arise during the foetal development

of the child. Some factors that affect brain development (Sousa, 2007) are as follows.

Table No. 2.1

Some Factors That Affect Brain Development

Genetic Links

Tobacco, Alcohol, and Other Drug Use

Because learning disabilities tend to run in families, a genetic link is likely. However, the parent's learning disability often takes a Slightly different form in the child. This may indicate that inheriting a specific learning disability involves several genes. Brain dysfunction that can lead to a learning disability, the dysfunction; may not become evident. Some learning difficulties may stem from their family environment. Parents with an expressive language disorder; for example, may talk less to their children, or their language. Hence the child lacks a good model for acquiring language and, consequently, may seem learning disabled.

The mother's use of cigarettes, alcohol, or other drugs may damage the unborn child. Mothers who smoke during pregnancy often bear smaller babies who tend to be at risk for problems, including learning disorders. Alcohol can distort neural growth, which often leads to hyperactivity and intellectual impairment. Even small amounts of alcohol during pregnancy can affect the frontal lobe and lead later to problems with attention, learning, and memory. Drugs like cocaine (especially crack) seem to affect the development of the receptor cells that transmit incoming information from our senses. This receptor damage may cause children to have difficulty in understanding speech sounds or letters, a common problem found in the offspring of crack-addicted


Problems during Pregnancy by Delivery

Toxin in the Child's Environment

Stress in the Child's Environment

Sometimes the mother's immune system attacks the fetus, causing formed brain cells to settle in the wrong part of the brain. This migration may disturb the formation of neural networks needed for language and cognitive thought. During delivery, the umbilical cord may became twisted and temporarily cut off oxygen to the brain, which can damage or kill neurons and lead to learning disorders.

Environmental toxins may disrupt brain cell growth and development in the early years. Lead and cadmium are getting particular research attention. Lead and mercury are still found in the environment, and both can cause learning difficulties and behaviour problems.

Prolonged and inappropriate stress in the environment can harm the brain at any age. Corticosteroids released into the bloodstream during stress can damage the hippocampus and thus interfere with the coding of new information into memory. These chemicals also damage neurons in other brain areas, thereby increasing the risk of stroke, seizure, and infections.

Inheriting a genetic tendency for a learning problem does not necessarily mean

that the trait will appear. We recognize now the powerful influence of the environment in

determining whether certain genetic traits arise and affect one's behaviour and learning.

2.7 "DISCREPANCY" IN DIAGNOSING A LEARNING DISABILI TY

According to Ortiz (2004), "Perhaps the most controversial aspect of the

definition of LD is that the observed academic problems are greater than what might be

expected based on the child's intellectual ability." This assumption is rarely questioned

because it seems to make the most sense. As noted previously, LD is generally not

diagnosed in individuals who have mental retardation, because it is expected that people

with low cognitive ability will have problems learning to read, write, or do math. On the

other hand, an assumption implicit in most definitions of LD is that a child would be able

to perform at a level consistent with ability level. That is, children with LD are

performing below their ability, intelligence, or potential.

Under the provisions of IDEA, decisions regarding the presence or absence of

any disability, as well as the provision of special education services, are determined by a

multidisciplinary team, which, by law, must include the parents, a regular education

teacher, an administrator, and all professional staff who have evaluated the child. The

notion of discrepancy is reflected in IDEA, which states that "a team may determine that

a child has a specific learning disability" if two conditions are met: (1) the child does not


achieve commensurate with his or her age and ability levels if provided with learning

experiences appropriate for the child's age and ability levels, and (2) the team finds that a

child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability.

There are numerous criticisms of using discrepancy formulas, (Pierangelo &

Giuliani, 2008) including the following:

• IQ tests are not reliable and are unfair to many groups of children.

• Results have little utility in planning a student's educational programme.

• The process is not helpful in determining which intervention might be successful.

• The outcomes are not related to performance in the classroom, in the general

education curriculum, or on district- or statewide assessments.

• Children must fail before they qualify for needed services (Smith, et.al., 2004).

The Exclusionary Clause

The definition of learning disability under IDEA also has what is referred to as

an "exclusionary clause." The exclusionary clause states that a learning disability "does

not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing or motor

disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental,

cultural, or economic disadvantage" (34 C.RR § 300.7[c][10]). The purpose of this

exclusionary clause is to help prevent the improper labeling of children, especially those

from distinct cultures who have acquired learning styles, language, or behaviours that are

not compatible with the academic requirements of schools in dominant culture. However,

the exclusionary clause has generated tremendous debate and controversy among experts

in the field.

The wording of the "exclusion clause'' in the federal definition of learning

disabilities lends itself to the misinterpretation that individuals with learning disabilities

cannot be multi handicapped or be from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. It

is essential to understand and recognize the learning disabilities as they might occur

within the varying disability categories as well as different cultural and linguistic groups.

Individuals within these groups frequently have received inappropriate educational

assessment, planning, and instruction because they could not be identified as learning

disabled.


Child with LD in the General Classroom

Supporting an LD child in the classroom depends on the nature and severity of

his skill deficits. A lot of general help is, however, always possible.

Seat the LD children at the front of the class to enable some personal teaching in

proximity. These children learn better under your nose.

Disabilities tend to run in families indicates a possible genetic link (Winkler,

2006). Researchers have found that about 35 to 45 % of first-degree relatives-that is, the

immediate birth family (parents and siblings)-of persons with reading disabilities have

reading disabilities. Twin studies have shown that if one twin has a reading disability, the

probability of the other twin's also having a reading disability is 68 % for identical twins

(monozygotic) and 40 % for fraternal twins (dizygotic). The research evidence generally

supports the hypothesis that certain types of learning problems, including reading

disabilities, are more common among identical twins than fraternal twins. Some experts

are beginning to suggest that an interactive relationship among several genes establishes

the risk factors for reading disabilities. Similar findings are also observed in twins with

speech and language disorders (Wood & Grigorenko, 2001). There are some

misconceptions about LD (Sousa, 2007).

Table No. 2.2

Misconceptions and explanations about Learning Disability

MISCONCEPTION EXPLANATION

Learning disabilities are common and therefore easy to diagnose.

Children with learning disabilities are identified in kindergarten or first grade.

Children outgrow their learning disabilities.

Learning disabilities are often hidden and thus difficult to diagnose. Brain imaging continues to show promise in the diagnosis of some learning disabilities. Until this method becomes feasible, diagnosis of a learning disability needs to result from extensive observation and testing by a clinical team.

Learning disabilities often go unrecognized in the early years, and most are, not identified until third grade, middle school, high school, or even college."

Most learning disabilities last throughout life, and a few can be remediated. Many adults have devised strategies to cope successfully with their disabilities and lead productive lives.


Learning with disabilities caused by poor parenting

Accommodations provided to students with learning disabilities, particularly during testing, gives them an unfair advantage over students without disabilities.

Medication, diet or other treatment can cure learning disabilities

Students with learning disabilities don't try hard enough in school.

Learning disabilities affect everything the child does at school.

Children with learning disabilities are just "slow.

No definitive association exists between the child-rearing skills of parents and the presence or absence of permanent learning disabilities in their children. However, home discipline, the degree of parental interaction, and other factors may affect a child's self-image and enthusiasm for success in school. Physical abuse can cause permanent changes in the brain.

Accommodations do not favour these students. Rather, accommodations allow access to the information that gives students with a learning disability the means to demonstrate their knowledge, skills, and abilities. Without modifications, common forms of instruction and testing often inadvertently reflect a student's disability rather than the subject at hand. For example, a student who has a writing disability would be greatly impaired during a written essay exam, even though the student was skilled in the art and mechanics of composing an essay. The use of a word processor allows this student to be assessed on knowledge rather than on the limitations that the writing difficulties imposed.

No quick fix exists to cure learning disabilities. Even medication given to ADHD children mediates the symptoms but does not cure the disorder. Because most learning disabilities are considered lifelong, the support and understanding of, and attention to the child's needs are basic to long-term treatment. However, certain interventions for children with dyslexia have been successful.

Ironically, brain scans show that many students with learning disabilities are working harder at certain tasks than other students, but the result is less successful. Students with learning disabilities often give up trying at school because of their fear of failure.

Some learning disabilities are very specific. Thus a student's weakness may affect performance in one classroom setting but not in another, or only at a particular grade level.

Most learning disabilities are independent of cognitive ability. Children at all intellectual levels-including the gifted-can have learning problems.


2.8 OVERVIEW OF LEARNING DISABILITIES

On April 6, 1963, the term learning disabilities was coined by Professor Sam

Kirk and others at a meeting of parents and professionals in Chicago (Pierangelo &

Giuliani, 2006). In 1975, the disability category "Specific Learning Disability" was first

included in the federal law, P.L. 94-442, the Education for All Handicapped Children

Act (Hunt & Marshall, 2005).

In general, learning disabilities refers to a neurobiological disorder related to

differences in how one's brain works and is structured. Further, learning disability is a

general term that describes specific kinds of learning problems. A learning disability can

cause a person to have trouble learning and using certain skills (Lerner, 2002). The skills

most often affected are reading, writing, listening, speaking, reasoning, and doing math

(Heward, 2005; National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, 2004;

Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2006).

Learning disabilities (LD) vary from person to person and encompass a

heterogeneous group of disorders. One person with LD may not have the same kind of

learning problems as another person with LD. Someone with LD may have problems

With understanding math. Another person may have trouble understanding what people

are saying. Therefore, no single profile of an individual with LD can be accurate because

of the inter-individual differences in the disorder (Friend, 2005).

Children with learning disabilities are not "dumb" or "lazy." In fact, they usually

have average or above-average intelligence. Their brains just process information

differently (Gargiulo, 2004). The general belief among researchers is that learning

disabilities exist because of some type of dysfunction in the brain, not because of

external factors such as limited experience or poor teaching (Friend, 2005; Hallahan &

Kauffman, 2006).

2.9 KEY FACTS ABOUT LEARNING DISABILITIES

To understand the impact learning disabilities have on children and young adults

in the United States, it's helpful to look at some key statistics (Pierangelo & Giuliani,

2008).

• Nearly 2.9 million students are currently receiving special education services for

learning disabilities in the United States (U.S. Department of Education, 2002).


• Approximately 50% of students receiving special education services through the

public schools are identified as having learning disabilities (U.S. Department of

Education, 2004).

• The majority (around 85%) of all individuals with learning disabilities have

difficulties in the area of reading (President's Commission on Excellence in

Special Education, 2002).

• Two-thirds of secondary students with learning disabilities are reading three or

more grade levels behind. About 20% are reading five or more grade levels

behind (The Achievements of Youth with Disabilities during Secondary School,

National Longitudinal Transition Study-2, 2003, cited in National Center for

Learning Disabilities, 2004).

• Of parents who noticed their child exhibiting signs of difficulty with learning,

44% waited a year or more before acknowledging their child might have a serious

problem (Roper Starch Poll: Measuring Progress in Public and Parental

Understanding of Learning Disabilities, 2000, cited in National Center for


• More than 27% of children with learning disabilities drop out of high school,

compared to 11 percent of the general student population (U.S. Department of

Education, 2002).

• Two-thirds of high school graduates with learning disabilities were rated "not

qualified" to enter a four-year college, compared to 37 percent of nondisabled

graduates (Students with Disabilities in Postsecondary Education: A Profile of

Preparation, Participation, and Outcomes, NCES, 1999, cited in National Center

for Learning Disabilities, 2004).

• Only 13% of students with learning disabilities (compared to 53% of students in

general population) have attended a four-year postsecondary school program

within two years of leaving high school (National Longitudinal Transition Study,

1994, cited in National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2004).

2.10 SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES

Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA), the federal

law that protects students with disabilities, a specific learning disability is defined as:


(i) General: The term means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological

processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that

may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell,

or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual

disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental

aphasia.

(ii) Disorders not included: The term does not include learning problems that

are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental

retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic

disadvantage. (34 C.ER. 300.7[c][10]).

Note that the definition of "a specific learning disability'' under IDEA 2004

remains unchanged from that in IDEA of 1997. However, under the new provisions in

IDEA 2004

• There is no causal link between learning disabilities and substance abuse. However,

the risk factors for adolescent substance abuse are very similar to the behavioural

effects of LD, such as reduced self-esteem and academic difficulty (National

Center for Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999, cited in National Center for


• Of all students with disabilities enrolled at post secondary education institutions,

46% reported having LD. In public two-year institutions, 38% of all students with

disabilities have LD. At public four-year institutions, 51% of students with

disabilities have LD (National Center for 'Education Statistics, 1999, cited in

National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2004).

• Since 1992, the percentage of students with learning disabilities who spend more

than 80 % of their instructional time in general education has more than doubled,

from 21 % to 45 % (U.S. Department of Education, 2002).

• Learning disabilities are not the same as mental retardation, autism, hearing or

visual impairment, physical disabilities, emotional disorders, or the normal process

of learning as second language.

• Learning disabilities aren't caused by a lack of educational opportunities, such as

frequent changes of schools, poor school attendance, or lack of instruction in basic skills.


2.11 CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILI TIES

No one sign shows a person has a learning disability. However, "unexpected

underachievement" is the defining characteristic of learning disabilities Experts look for

a noticeable difference between how well children do in school and how well they could

do, given their intelligence or ability.

A child with a learning disability may exhibit the following characteristics

(Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2008).

A. Cognitive difficulties

• Poor selective attention.

• Inattention or difficulty focusing on the task.

• Problems with memory, whether short-term, long-term, or both.

• Perceptual problems.

B. Academic difficulties

• Difficulty with oral fluency.

• Making many mistakes when reading aloud r and repeating and pausing often .

• Very messy handwriting or holding a pencil awkwardly.

• Difficulty processing information.

• Learning language late and having a limited vocabulary.

• Trouble remembering the sounds that letters make or hearing slight

differences between words.

• Difficulties in written language.

• Mispronouncing words or using a wrong word that sounds similar.

• Trouble organizing what s/he wants to say or not being able to think of the

word s/he needs for writing or conversation.

• Difficulties in reading.

• Difficulties in arithmetic’s.


• Trouble learning the alphabet, rhyming words, or connecting letters to their

sounds.

• Confusing math symbols and in reading numbers.

• Not being able to retell a story in order (what happened first, second, third).

• Not knowing where to begin a task or how to go on from there.

C. Social and emotional difficulties

• Deficits in social skills.

• Rejection by peers and classmates.

• Difficulties in making and keeping friends.

• Feeling lonely and isolated in adolescence.

• Poor social skills.

• Not following the social rules of conversation, such as taking turns, and

perhaps standing too close to the listener.

D. Behavioural difficulties

• Difficulties in communicating with others, leading to inappropriate behaviors.

• Trouble in understanding jokes, comic strips, and sarcasm.

• Trouble in following directions.

2.12 CAUSES OF A SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY

Despite intense research activity over the years, pinpointing the precise cause or

causes of learning disabilities has remained an elusive goal (Deutsch-Smith, 2004;

Turnbull, Turnbull, Shank, & Smith, 2004). Once, scientists thought that all learning

disabilities were due to the effects of a single neurological problem (Hallahan &

Kauffman, 2006). Today, research indicates that the causes are more diverse and

complex (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2006). New evidence seems to show that most learning

disabilities do not stem from a single, specific area of the brain but from difficulties in

bringing together information from various brain regions (Lemer, 2002; University of

Maryland Medical Center, 2004).


Research has suggested various possible causes for specific learning disabilities

(Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2008).

Genetics

Over the years, evidence has accumulated that learning disabilities can be

inherited (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006).

Tobacco, Alcohol, and other Drug use during Pregnancy

Research shows that a mother's use of cigarettes, alcohol, or other drugs during

pregnancy may have damaging effects on the unborn child.

Scientists have found that mothers who smoke during pregnancy may be more

likely to bear smaller babies. This is a concern because small newborns, usually those

weighing less than five pounds, tend to be at risk for a variety of problems, including

learning disorders (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2001). It appears that

alcohol may distort the developing neurons. Any alcohol use during pregnancy may

influence the child's development and lead to problems with learning, attention, memory,

or problem solving.

The extensive use of drugs like marijuana and cocaine has been associated with

increases in symptoms associated with learning disabilities. Because children with

certain learning disabilities have difficulty in understanding speech sounds or letters,

some researchers believe that learning disabilities, as well as ADHD, may be related to

faulty receptors. Current research points to drug abuse as a possible cause of receptor

damage.

Complications during Pregnancy

Other possible causes of learning disabilities involve complications during

pregnancy (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2004). In some cases, the mother's

immune system reacts to the fetus and attacks it as if it were an infection. This type of

disruption seems to cause newly formed brain cells to settle in the wrong part of the

brain. During delivery, the umbilical cord may become twisted and temporarily cut off

oxygen to the fetus. This, too, can impair brain functions and lead to LD.

Low-birth-weight babies are at risk for learning disabilities. According to some

studies, children whose birth weight was less than. 800 grams lagged behind their peers


academically and displayed other subtle behavioural characteristics that undermined

their efforts at school. Poor motor skills and neurological immaturity were found in

many of these preschool-age children (Learning Disabilities Association of British

Columbia, 1997/1998).

Environmental Toxins

New brain cells and neural networks continue to be produced for a year or so

after the child is born. Like fetal cells, these cells are also vulnerable to certain

disruptions. Researchers are looking into environmental toxins that may lead to learning

disabilities, possibly by disrupting childhood brain development or brain processes

(Neuwirth, 1999).

Mercury Poisoning

Mercury, all-prevalent in the environment, is becoming a leading focus of

neurological research. Mercury exposure can result in lowered intelligence, learning

problems, birth defects, and brain damage.

Lead Poisoning

Approximately 434,000 U.S. children aged one to five years have blood lead

levels greater than the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (2004)

recommended level of 10 micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood. Lead was once

common in paint and gasoline and is still present in some water pipes. Children under

the age of six are especially vulnerable to lead's harmful health effects, because their

brains and central nervous systems are still being formed. For them, even very low

levels of exposure can result in reduced IQ, learning disabilities, attention deficit

disorders, behavioral problems, stunted growth, impaired hearing, and kidney damage

(National Safety Council, 2004).

Poor Nutrition

There seems to be a link between nutritional deprivation and poor biochemical

functioning in the brain. A poor diet and severe malnutrition can reduce the child's

ability to learn by damaging intersensory abilities and delaying development. Studies

over the past ten years and clinical trials (conducted at Purdue University in the United

States and Surrey and Oxford in the United Kingdom) indicate that some learning

disabilities may have a nutritional basis. Other studies indicate that some learning


disabilities might be caused by allergies to certain foods, food additives, and dyes or

environmental allergies (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2006).

Maturational Delay

Another theory to explain learning disabilities suggests that they occur because of

maturational delay-rather than permanent dysfunction-within the neurological system.

2.13 PREVALENCE OF SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES

According to the 26th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2004), there

are 2,816,361 students between the ages of 6 to 21 were identified as having Specific

Learning Disabilities. This represents approximately 47% of all students having a

classification in special education, or about 5% of all school-age students.

There are many conflicting reports on the actual number of individuals with

specific learning disabilities. Since 1976-1977, when the federal government first started

keeping prevalence figures, the size of the specific learning disability category has more

than doubled (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006), while the number of students identified as

having a specific learning disability has grown by over 250%, from approximately

800,000 students to almost three million (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).

Learning disabilities has also been the fastest growing category of special

education since the federal law was passed in 1975. Furthermore, the number of students

with learning disabilities has increased almost 30% in the past nine years, a rate of

growth much greater than the overall rate of growth for the number of students in school

(Friend, 2005).

Age of Onset for Specific Learning Disabilities

Some forms of learning disabilities become apparent in preschool, while others

might not be apparent until later in elementary school or even middle school. The

number of students increases steadily between the ages of six and nine, which is not

surprising considering the increasing academic demands of the elementary school

curriculum. The bulk of students served (42%), however, are between the ages of 10 and

13, with a sharp decrease observed for individuals between 16 and 21 (U.S. Department

of Education, 2000, cited in Gargiulo, 2004, p. 211).


Gender Features for Specific Learning Disabilities

The matter of gender and LD is one of controversy among researchers in the

field. Although some studies have indicated that the prevalence of learning disabilities is

equally distributed between males and females (Alexander, Gray, & Lyon, 1993), a

number of researchers have found that the ratio of boys to girls identified as having

learning disabilities is 3:1 (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006), 4:1 (Gargiulo, 2004; Lerner,

2002), or even higher (Lyon, 1997; McLeskey, 1992).

Cultural Features for Specific Learning Disabilities

The 1997 IDEA amendments mandated that states collect special education

"child count" data by race/ethnicity, beginning with the 1998-1999 school year. The

U.S. Department of Education (2000) reported special education identification rates by

race/ethnicity and disability for children ages 6 through 21. According to this report,

4.27 % of White children were identified as having LD; corresponding figures for other

race/ethnicity groups were as follows: American Indian/ Alaska native, 6.29 % ; Black,

5.67 % ; Hispanic, 4.97 % ; and Asian/Pacific Islander, 1.7 % .

Familial Patterns for Specific Learning Disabilities

The fact that learning disabilities tend to run in families indicates that there may

be a genetic link. For example, children who lack some of the skills needed for reading,

such as hearing the separate sounds of words, are likely to have a parent with a related

problem. However, a parent's learning disability may take a slightly different form in the

child. A parent who has a writing disorder may have a child with an expressive language

disorder. For this reason, it seems unlikely that specific learning disorders are inherited

directly. Possibly what is inherited is a subtle brain dysfunction that can, in turn, lead to

a learning disability.

Comorbidity for Specific Learning Disabilities

According to Chandler (2004), comorbidity means that certain diseases and

disorders tend to occur together. For example, heart disease and stroke often occur in the

same person. Many neuropsychiatric disorders tend to occur together. About 50 % of

children with learning disabilities have another neuropsychiatric disorder (Jongmans,

Smits-Engelsman, & Schoemaker, 2003). Assessing children for only learning

disabilities and learning disorders without looking for other comorbid conditions is


problematic. The most important advances in pediatric psychiatry have been the result of

researchers carefully checking children for all possible conditions.

Of particular importance is the comorbid occurrence of attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disorders. Learning disabilities and ADHD

often occur in combination (Deutsch-Smith, 2004). If a student has a learning disorder,

that child has a 20-40 % chance of having ADHD. That is about a five times increase

over the general population. Some studies have even shown that 70 % of children with

ADHD also have a learning disability (Mayes, Calhoun, & Cromwell, 2000).

2.14 T YPES OF SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES

The following are the different type of Specific Learning Disabilities (Pierangelo

& Giuliani, 2008).

A. DYSLEXIA (Reading Disorder)

Dyslexia: Partial inability to read or to understand what one reads silently or

aloud. Condition is usually, but not always associated with brain impairment. May be,

also due to hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) or protein, vitamin and mineral deficiencies.

Familial dyslexia is a form of reading disability believed to be caused by hereditary

factors.

It is assumed that boys with reading problems possess a type of delayed

neurological and perceptual development arising from neuropsychological

characteristics, which they have inherited from their reading disabled fathers.

Dyslexia is mainly due to deficiency in visual - verbal association relating visual

features of a stimulus with its name. (E.g. letter and its name, symbol and its name, etc).

In addition they may have deficiency in visual and/or auditory, perceptual problems,

word analysis and synthesis (analyzing the word into its component sounds and blending

the component sounds into words).

Newer research in brain function is shedding more light on the Dyslexia. Brains

with Dyslexia are working harder during reading-that is, employing more neurons- than

the brains of good readers and there are also differences in how they process phonemes.

The brain regions that are activated during reading are shown as white areas in these

representatives MRI scans.


Figure No. 2.3

The brain regions of Reader with Dyslexia and Good readers

Readers with Dyslexia (left) use different brain regions during reading than do

good readers. Note that readers with dyslexia show little activation in the back of brain

but strong activation in the front regions, especially in broca’s area (front left

hemisphere) Good readers, on the other hand show strong activation in the brain with

lesser activation in the front (Shaywitz, 2003).

Symptoms of reading disability

The specific errors that are indicative of reading disability, though, vary from

language to language. Certain common kinds of errors/difficulties can be noticed among,

reading disabled dyslexic) children, while reading. Thus these errors / difficulties can be

considered as symptoms of reading disability. The following are the behavioural

symptoms of reading disabilities.

1. Slow rate of oral or silent reading.

2. Inability to answer questions about what is read showing lack of comprehension.

3. Inability to state the main topic of a simple paragraph or story.

4. Inability to remember what is read.

5. Faulty study habits, such as failure to re-read or summarized or outline.

6. Lack of skill in using tools to locate information such as index and table of

contents.


7. Inability to follow simple printed or written instructions.

8. Reading word by word rather than in groups, indicating short perception span.

9. Lack of expression in oral reading.

10. Excessive lip movement in silent reading.

11. Vocalization in silent reading, whispering.

12. Lack of interest in reading in or out of school.

13. Excessive physical activity while reading as squirming (slow or fed

embarrassment, wriggle), head movements.

14. Mispronunciation of words.

15. Guessing and random substitutes.

16. Stumbling over long, unfamiliar words, showing inability to attack unfamiliar

words.

17. Omission of words and letters.

18. Insertion of words and letters.

a. That spoil meaning.

b. That do not spoil the meaning.

19. Substitution of words in oral reading (Meaningful / Meaningless).

20. Reversals of whole words or parts of words, largely faulty perception (may be

due to impulsivity or difficulty in sequential memory).

21. Repetition of words or groups of words when reading orally.

22. Character of eye movements (may be due to difficulty in reading).

a. Excessive number of regressive (backward) eye movements.

b. Faulty return sweep to beginning of next line.

c. Short eye voice span.

d. Excessive number of eye fixations in a line.


While diagnosing the reading difficulties the teacher can start with letter

identification, word recognition, and sentence/paragraph reading. The kinds of errors

committed at each level of reading should be noted down. If the child is poor in

identifying the letters and recognizing the words there is no need to go

sentence/paragraph level at all. The speed and accuracy of letter and word recognition

has to be tested separately.

Types of Dyslexia

When there is a diagnosis of Dyslexia, it is often classified into one of several

subtypes. These subtypes are basically labels for the pattern of symptoms that emerged

through testing, and the labels are in part development on the evaluator’s choice of tests

to administer. Some of the common type (Marshall, 2009) are:

Dysphonetic Dyslexia (also called Dysphonesia; Phonological Dyslexia or

Auditory Dyslexia): This form is characterized by difficulties with word attack skills,

including phonetic segmentations and blending. It can be identified by poor non word

with no real meaning used to test phonetic skills.

Dyseidetic Dyslexia (also called Dyseidesia, surface Dyslexia, or Visual

Dyslexia): This is the term used when testing shows the child has a good ability to sound

out words, but reading is laboured. Children with this type have difficulty learning to

recognize whole words visually, and have problems deciphering words that do not follow

regular phonetic rules.

Naming speed deficit (also called semantic Dyslexia, Dysnomia, or anomia):

This subtype of Dyslexia is diagnosed primarily from poor performance on tests of rapid

automatic naming children with naming speed deficits have difficulty with word

retrieval. They hesitate in speech, or frequently substitute a mistaken word for what they

mean.

Double Deficit: Double deficit Dyslexia is label attached to children who have

both the phonological and the naming speed subtype. These children are thought to have

a particularly severe and persistent for of Dyslexia.

B. DYSGRAPHIA (WRITING DISORDER)

Dysgraphia is a neurological disorder characterized by writing disabilities

(Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2006). Specifically, the disorder causes a person's writing to be


distorted or incorrect. In children, the disorder generally emerges when they are

introduced to writing. They make inappropriately sized and spaced letters or write wrong

or misspelled words, despite thorough instruction (National Institute of Neurological

Disorders and Strokes, 2006).

Diagnostic symptoms of Dysgraphia include the following (International

Dyslexia Association, 2000):

• Generally illegible writing (despite appropriate time and attention given the task).

• Inconsistencies: mixtures of print and cursive or upper- and lowercase letters or

irregular sizes, shapes, or slants of letters.

• Unfinished words or letters; omitted words.

• Inconsistent position on page with respect to lines and margins.

• Inconsistent spaces between words and letters.

• Cramped or unusual grip, especially the following:

Holding the writing instrument very close to the paper.

Holding thumb over two fingers and writing from the wrist.

Strange wrist, body, or paper position.

• Talking to self while writing or carefully watching the hand that is writing.

• Slow or labored copying or writing, even if the result is neat and legible.

• Content that does not reflect the student's other language skills.

• Combination of fine-motor difficulty, inability to revisualize letters, and inability

to remember the motor patterns involved with writing.

Students' handwriting problems can arise from their lack of fine-motor

coordination, failure to attend to task, inability to perceive and/or remember

visual images accurately, or inadequate handwriting instruction in the classroom

(Tumbull et al., 2004).

A local educational agency is not required to take into consideration whether a

child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in oral

expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading


comprehension, mathematical calculation or mathematical reasoning. In determining

whether a child has a specific learning disability, a local educational agency may use a

process that determines if a. child responds to scientific, research-based intervention as a

part of the evaluation procedures (34 G.F.R. §300.541).

Most individuals who have significant motor or sensory-motor handwriting

challenges have a form of the neurological disorder known as Dysgraphia-with “Dys”

meaning “difficulty” and “graphia” meaning “writing.”

Dysgraphia is a deficiency in the ability to write, regardless of the ability to read,

not due to intellectual impairment. In childhood, the disorder generally emerges when

children are first introduced to writing. Dysgraphia can occur after neurological trauma

or it might be diagnosed in a person with Physical Impairments, Tourette Syndrome,

ADD/ADHD, Learning Disabilities, or an Autism Spectrum Disorder such as Asperger’s

Syndrome. It is also very possible for a person to be Dysgraphic without showing

evidence of any other disabilities. These individuals often have a parent or other close

family members who show signs of Dysgraphia as well. The DSM IV identifies

Dysgraphia as a “Disorder of Written Expression” as “writing skills (that) ...are

substantially below those expected given the person's ...age, measured intelligence, and

age-appropriate education.”

A medical term for a brain conditions that caused poor handwriting or problems

performing the physical aspects of writing (such as an awkward pencil grip or bad

handwriting) spelling, or putting thoughts on paper. The disorder causes a person’s

writing to be distorted or incorrect.

In children, the disorder generally appears when they are first introduced to

writing, as they make inappropriately sized and spaced letters, or write wrong or

misspelled words. The term may also be used to categorize more general writing

problems, although in many cases there issues may be more clearly attributable to a more

pervasive learning problem such as ADHD or specific reading disability. Children with

the disorder may have other learning disabilities but they usually have no social or other

academic problems.

Causes of Dysgraphia in adults generally occur after an injury or trauma. In

addition to poor handwriting, Dysgraphia is characterised by wrong or odd spelling and


production of words that are not correct (such as using ‘boy’ for ‘child’) the cause of the

disorder is unknown.

Symptoms

A problem with Dysgraphia may be suspected if the person has difficulty in

putting together a written document (such as using outline), bad or illegible handwriting,

awkward or cramped pencil grip, or avoids tasks that involve writing. The person may

have problems in fleshing out ideas on paper or writing the minimum (or less) that the

assignment requires in contrast to the person’s ability to discuss such ideas verbally.

There may be an inconsistency in the way letters and words look, or problems with

writing within the margins or line spacing and inconsistent spacing between words.

Remediation/treatment may include therapy /intervention for motor disorders to

help control writing movements. Other intervention may address memory or other

neurological problems. Many people with Dysgraphia benefit from explicit instructions

in the skills required to produce a written work. Checklists that outline all the steps

involved in a writing process may help. For eg: a student could be taught several

different ways to create an outline and use a checklist to make sure all the steps in

creating an outline have been used.

Some teachers may allow students with a disorder in written expression to use

other methods, such as an oral report, to access their understanding of a subject instead

of asking them to write a paper or take a written test.

Computers can help many students with Dysgraphia, spell check, grammar check,

and other programmes may help individuals with Dysgraphia. A tape recorder or creating

a drawing to capture ideas before putting them on paper may help as well.

Although some individuals with Dysgraphia can improve their writing ability,

others struggle with the problem throughout their lives (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2008).

If the child has problems in

• Learning the alphabet

• rhyming words

• connecting sounds and letters

• counting or learning numbers


• being understood when speaking to a stronger

• using scissors, crayons, or paint

• reaching too much or two little to touch

• using words or using phrases

• pronunciation

• walking up and down stairs

• talking

• remembering names and colours

• dressing

Elementary School

The children have trouble with

• learning new vocabulary

• speaking in full sentences

• understanding conversable rules

• retelling stories

• remembering information

• moving from one activity to another

• expressing thoughts

• holding a pencil

• handwriting

• handling math problems

• following directions

• self-esteem

• remembering routines

• learning


• reading comprehension

• drawing or copying shapes

• deciding what information presented in class is important

• modulating voice

• neatness and organization

• meeting deadlines

• playing age appropriate board games

Symptoms may appear in only one skill area, such as reading or writing, in many

people with Learning Disabilities. The following is a brief outline of warning signs for

possible learning disabilities in specific skill areas.

Attention

• has short attention spaces

• is impulsive

• has difficulty conferring to routines us easily distracted

Auditory

• doesn’t respond to sounds of spoken language

• consistency misunderstands what is being said

• overly sensitive to sound

• has trouble differentiating simultaneous sounds

Language

• can explain things orally but not in writing

• has trouble telling or understanding jokes or stories.

LD is a broad term that covers a range of possible causes, symptoms and

treatments. Party because LD can show up in so many forms, it is difficult to diagnose or

to pinpoints the causes. And since in diagnosis depends on the classification used,

(IDEA, VS. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), child may be

identified as LD under one system but not another.


Not all learning problems are necessarily LD, many children are simply slow to

develop certain skills. Because children show natural differences in their rate of

development, sometimes what seems to be a Learning Disability may simply be a delay

in maturation or a difference in learning style. To be diagnosed as a learning disability,

specific criteria must be met. These criteria appear in the Diagnostic and Statistics

Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). DSM divides LD into three broad categories:

developmental speech and language disorders, academic skills disorders, and ‘other’ a

term that includes certain coordination disorders and learning handicap not covered by

the other terms. Each of these categories includes a number of more specific disorders.

IDEA uses a slightly different classification system that specifies seven areas:

• LD

• Basic reading skill

• Mathematics calculation

• Mathematics reasoning

• Written expression

• Oral expression

• Learning g comprehension

(Under IDEA each area of LD is divided by the severe discrepancy between

potential and achievement “the law requires”)

General Symptoms of Dysgraphia

• A mixture of upper case/lower case letters

• Irregular letter sizes and shapes

• Unfinished letters

• Struggle to use writing as a communications tool

• Odd writing grip

• Many spelling mistakes (Sometimes)

• Decreased or increased speed of writing and copying

• Talks to self while writing


• General illegibility

• Reluctance or refusal to complete writing tasks

• Crying and stress (which can be created by the frustration with the task of

writing and/or spelling. This can also be brought on in Dysgraphic students

by common environmental sources such as high levels of environmental noise

and/or over-illumination).

• Experiencing physical pain in the hand and/or arm when writing

TYPES OF DYSGRAPHIA

The different types of Dysgraphia (Cavey, 2000) are:

Dyslexic Dysgraphia

With Dyslexic Dysgraphia a person’s spontaneously written work is illegible,

copied work is pretty good, and spelling is bad. Finger tapping speed (a method for

identifying fine motor problems) is normal. A Dyslexic Dysgraphic does not necessarily

have Dyslexia. Dyslexia and Dysgraphia appear to be unrelated but often can occur

together.

Motor Dysgraphia

Motor Dysgraphia is due to deficient fine motor skills, poor dexterity, poor

muscle tone, and/or unspecified motor clumsiness. Generally, written work is poor to

illegible, even if copied by sight from another document. Letter formation may be

acceptable in very short samples of writing, but this requires extreme effort, an

unreasonable amount of time to accomplish and cannot be sustained for a significant

length of time. Writing is often slanted due to holding a pen or pencil incorrectly.

Spelling skills are not impaired. Finger tapping speed results are below normal.

Spatial Dysgraphia

Spatial Dysgraphia is due to a defect in the understanding of space. This person

has illegible spontaneously written work, illegible copied work, but normal spelling and

normal finger tapping speed. Students with Spatial Dysgraphia often have trouble

keeping their writing on the lines and difficulty with spacing between words.


Phonological Dysgraphia

Phonological Dysgraphia is characterized by writing and spelling disturbances in

which the spelling of unfamiliar words, non-words, and phonetically irregular words is

impaired. Individuals with Phonological Dysgraphia are also unable to hold phonemes in

memory and blend them in their appropriate sequence to produce the target word.

Lexical Dysgraphia

Lexical Dysgraphia is evidenced when a person can spell but relies on standard

sound-to-letter patterns with misspelling of irregular words. This is more common in

languages such as English and French which are less phonetic than a language such as

Spanish. This type of Dysgraphia is very rare in children.

Some children may have more than one type of Dysgraphia. Symptoms, in

actuality, may vary in presentation from what is listed here.

Stress and Dysgraphia

There are some common problems not related to Dysgraphia but often associated

with Dysgraphia - the most common of which is stress. Often children (and adults) with

Dysgraphia will become extremely frustrated with the task of writing (and spelling);

younger children may cry or refuse to complete written assignments. This frustration can

cause the child (or adult) a great deal of stress and can lead to stress related illnesses.

This can be a result of any type of Dysgraphia.

2.15 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SPCIFIC LEARNING D ISABIIIES

Learning disabilities tend to be diagnosed when children reach school age

(National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, 2004). Given these

difficulties, it is not surprising that 50% of students with learning disabilities have

Individualized Education Programmes (IEP) goals in math. As with reading and writing,

explicit, systematic instruction that provides guided, meaningful practice with feedback

usually improves the math performance of students with learning disabilities

(Heward, 2005).

The researchers showed that effective innovative reading intervention

programmes will lead to better improvement in reading .The following representative

scans show the changes evident n the brains of struggling readers about one year after


their involvement with effective reading interventions. The interventions have helped the

children develop reading areas shown as in white (Shaywitz, 2003).

Figure No. 2.4

Changes in the Brains of Struggling Readers

2.16 FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH A POSITIVE OUTCOMES

• High scores on the IQ tests

• Early diagnosis

• Supportive parents

• Competent special educator

• Understanding / encouraging class room teacher and school authorities

• High determination & motivation

2.17 PARENTS' PERSPECTIVE

Child development experts have identified ages at which certain activities usually

occur in children. Such things as rolling over, sitting, standing, crawling, walking,

talking, and following directions are all checked against accepted norms. Milestones are

duly noted in baby books and in doctors' records. Children's development usually

follows a known and predictable course. Although not all children reach each milestone

at the same age, there is an expected timeframe for reaching these developmental

markers.


Very early in life, most children begin developing eye-hand coordination. They

reach for objects they see. Later, they scribble on paper and discover that they can

produce a particular pattern by moving their arm in a certain way. By changing the

movement, they change the pattern. With both visual and muscle memory, they can

repeat the image. As they mature, children perceive how complex lines and figures fit

together and thus learn to draw and to write. When they see a figure, they know that if

they make a series of movements in a certain sequence, they can reproduce that specific

pattern. Because children gain these skills at different rates, and in different order,

variations are to be expected.

In the normal developmental scheme, children are ready to begin to write at age

6. They have developed the visual and auditory skills required for reading and the eye-

hand coordination necessary to form letters. They can select and organize words into

simple sentences. With maturity and instruction, they learn to express increasingly

complex and abstract ideas in writing.

Children with learning disabilities often fail to acquire written language inspite of

normal intelligence and above-average school opportunities. It is important to remember

that the child with dysgraphia is not retarded. The problems are not caused by emotional,

physical, cultural, or environmental deficits. The actual reason for the failure to develop

writing skills depends on the nature of the disorder and must be evaluated.

There are differences in the preschool years, school years and at home(Cavey,

2000).

I. The Preschool Years

• knocks over blocks, bumps into things, falls out of chairs, crashes into playmates,

and catapults self through space

• overreacts or under reacts to everything

• has difficulty in using hands to manipulate toys, buttons, and so forth

• has difficulty, or avoidance of, playing with puzzles and blocks

• is clumsy

• seems to have good vision, yet he or she doesn't seem to perceive things well,

experiencing difficulty in focusing, distinguishing shapes and colors, remembering


what he or she sees, remembering the order/sequence of what he or she sees, or

understanding what he or she sees

• doesn't seem to be "put together" right: untied shoes, shirt hanging out,

(disorganized movement, difficulty keeping up with his or her things

The following behaviour problems have been linked to LD:

• is distractible, impulsive, hyperactive, and has short attention span

• has low frustration level; overreacts

• relates poorly to other children

• is poorly coordinated and accident prone

• has difficulty with balance (hopping, skipping)

• has difficulty in cutting, colouring, writing

Significant problems with speech may also indicate LD :

• exhibits delayed or immature speech

• has difficulty in finding the right word or forming sentences

Problems with memory have also been associated with LD:

• has difficulty in naming familiar people or things and recalling events

• has poor concentration

• is unable to say the letters of the alphabet or days of the week in correct order

• is unable to follow directions with multiple steps

Problems with time and space can be another indicator of LD:

• is perplexed by concepts such as ''before" and "after"

• cannot judge size and space relationships well

• does not allow enough time to complete work

II. The School Years

• has poor handwriting (sloppy, illegible, poor spacing, inconsistent letter size, strays

from lines on the paper)


• has difficulty in cutting with scissors to coloring inside lines

• is unable to tie shoelaces, button clothes, or use hands well

• creates artwork that looks immature for age (drawings from imagination are usually

better than copying efforts)

• has difficulty in remembering oral assignments

• has tendency to appear indifferent or apathetic

• has trouble in matching shapes and sizes (squares, circles, etc.)

• experiences confusion in discriminating among letters, words, and numbers

• experiences confusion in understanding the difference between up and down, in and

out, left and right, front and back

• has good verbal ability, but trouble reading

• reads mechanically, without comprehension

• produces erratic schoolwork (papers are messy—torn and crumpled with many

smudges, erasures, and cross-outs)

• exhibits marked slowness, exceptional effort, and frustration during writing tasks

• produces written efforts that are short and often incomplete

• produces poor content/style in written assignments (primary focus is on achieving

legibility)

• has awkward pencil grip; experiences delays in learning to write

• is excessively active; seems purposeless, restless, and undirected

• has tendency to be stubborn, hostile, and angry toward teachers

III. At Home

• Praise the child daily for little things done well.

• Do not measure achievements against those of other children.

• Gave rewards for individual improvement.

• Enforce firm rules and structured routines, which are preferable to permissive

environment.


• Keep directions simple. Give one at a time.

• Minimize the number of choices that must be made.

• Provide pull-on shirts and shoes and clothes with zippers or Velcro.

• Assign household chores and responsibilities:

� Kitchen activities develop language (beating, stirring, lukewarm, cool, bake,

broil).

� Following recipes develops sequence, order, and measurement.

� Table setting helps with left-right and counting.

� Muscle control is developed by raking, mowing, mopping, and carrying.

� Sorting nails, screws, nuts, and bolts and observing proper use of tools develops

awareness of differences.

• Encourage hobbies such as care of pets, model building, cooking,

or fishing.

• Avoid activities that may be dangerous. The child may be awkward and clumsy.

Don't expect or encourage activities that are beyond the child's physical

capabilities.

• Encourage games requiring small motor coordination-constructing models,

building with Legos or blocks, drawing and coloring, putting together jigsaw

puzzles, or playing games requiring note taking such as "Clue" or "Yahtzee."

• Make available to the child tools such as a typewriter, computer, calculator, tape

recorder, or word processor. Teach and encourage proficiency with these tools.

• Limit playmates to one at a time. Large parties may be disastrous. The excitement

and stimulation of many children and activities may be too emotionally draining.

• Plan simple and short outings. Avoid crowds and over simulating situations.

• Watch for signs of anger when your child comes home from school. Provide

understanding, not questioning. Some days at school are tough.

• Remember that your child's learning troubles are developmental. Focus on

building self-esteem and feelings of success. In time, developmental delays tend


to take care of themselves.

• Offer a well-balanced diet and be alert to possible allergic reactions to foods.

2.18 ROLE OF TEACHERS

It is pivotal to start by accepting the child as he is, with all his skill deficits. The

concern and respect for him as a person should not be contingent upon his achievement.

Emphasise a little more on the child's positive attitudes, even on his quality to smile.

Give him plenty of praise openly for his efforts and endeavour, instead of performance.

Of course, make it clear what he is being praised for - for instance, "You've made a good

attempt at reading".

Encourage the child to set realistic goals so that he can taste a bit of success. It is

equally important to help the child evaluate his achievement without being too critical of

himself. If the child is about to attempt a task too difficult for him, guide him tactfully to

a more suitable activity.

The child needs, to be taught to praise himself. If he makes some achievement, do

ask him, "How do you think you fared?" or "Are you pleased with the spelling of these

words now?". He must also be taught to praise others for their good work. Only a

Teacher who is pleasant and positive can teach this, seeing "the glass as half-full"

Spend 'quality time' with the child when you can. Give the child attention in a

way that he too feels special, in a way that will add to his self-esteem. This can be done

even as you pass him on the corridor.

Little things to improve his confidence must come naturally to teachers. Help him

make a little choice -like the book to be taken from the library. Admire his choices.

Praise his attempts at self-sufficiency. Create opportunities for him to learn self-reliance

- in projects he can lead or execute, in monitoring the class for sometime etc

2.19 TIPS FOR TEACHERS

Some tips for teachers are:

• The child must be given the means needed for the normal physical and

intellectual development.

• The teacher needs to accept the child's disability and limitations and should act as

a facilitator to help the child achieve his / her targets.


• Let the letters and words are clear and large in size while you write.

• The child should be seated in the front row towards the center of the classroom

away from the windows and other areas of distractions.

• Have the student trace letters, he /she frequently reverses.

• Use colour cueing for correcting the letters written wrongly

• Use wooden cut outs or cardboard cut outs of letters. This aids in differentiating

letters by feeling them.

• Reduce the length of written assignments

• Give more writing drills for wrongly written words (for reversals)

• Accept taped or oral assignments rather than written work.

• Permit the child to dictate assignments to his / her parents.

• Present partially completed letters and have the students complete them.

� Teach common punctuation marks such as comma, question mark, etc.

provide the child with many examples to observe how these can be translated

into daily speech.

� Help the child in arithmetic by providing him / her with many tasks of putting

together and taking apart concrete objects to familiarize him / her with the

concepts of addition and subtraction. This should be done before introducing

the child to the symbols.

• Encourage the child to verbalize as he / she writes. Hearing themselves often

assists in understanding the task better.

• Give the child more time to complete his / her work.

• Praise the child efforts even if his / her performance is poorer than peers.

• Spare the child the ordeals of reading and performing in public.

• The child should not be humiliated, embarrassed or made to feel guilty. The child

should not be told that he / she is lazy, stupid or stubborn.

• The child should not be held accountable for academic work that is beyond his /

her capabilities.


• The child should be encouraged to take part in regular extra curricular activities

like art, drama, music etc.

• The child needs love and respect, which are not conditional on his / her academic

skill of achievements.

• The teacher needs to build a relationship with the child, so that the child can

approach the teacher without feeling ashamed of his / her weaknesses.

• Find the child's strength's helping to identify alternatives careers in which the

child will excel.

• Parents should be counseled to continue in the same school with remedial

treatment.

2.20 PRINCIPLES TO MOTIVATE LEARNING STYLES

The principles to motivate learning styles (Reid, 2005) are:

• Balance: Try to ensure that teaching and planning incorporate a range of

styles and that there are activities that can accommodate to visual, auditory,

kinaesthetic and tactile learners as well as having areas of the room to

accommodate different environmental preferences.

• Planning: Teachers need to engage in learning styles at the planning stage. It

is important that at that stage information about the learners is obtained. The

observational framework in the previous chapter can be useful for this.

• Collaboration: Learning styles should be seen as a whole-school issue and

responsibility. To successfully implement learning styles in the classroom,

environmental considerations need to be acknowledged and this may need the

co-operation of other teachers and in particular the school management.

Implementing learning styles can be more successful when the whole school

is involved and preferably the whole school district or education authority.

• Differentiation: Differentiation is about good teaching and planning and if the

task and the curriculum are effectively differentiated to take account of the

task, the input, output and the resources that are to be used, then it is likely

that all learning styles will be catered for in some way.


• Learner awareness: It is worth while spending time with the learner so that

he/she will be aware of their own learning preferences. It will be useful to

help them understand that there are advantages and disadvantages to every

style.

2.21 TYPE OF LEARNING STYLES

The easiest strategies to implement on the classroom are the Visual, Auditory,

Kinaesthetic / Tactile approaches.

Auditory learners would benefit from:

• Sounding out words in reading

• Verbal instructions

• The use of tapes

• Rehearsing information, repeating it many times to get the sound

Verbal learners would benefit from:

• The use of visual diagrams

• Use of video, flash cards, charts and maps

• Writing out notes for frequent and quick visual scan and review

Kinaesthetic / Tactile learners would benefit from:

• Tracing words as they are being spoken

• Learning facts by writing them out several times

• Moving around while studying

• Taking risk in learning

• Making written notes but also discussing these with others

• Making study plans`


The Eye accessing cues of different learning styles are given in the following figure.

Figure No. 2.5

Eye Accessing Cues of different Learning Styles

2.22 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LEARNING STYLES

A. Auditory learner

Advantages: An auditory learner will benefit from listening to talks and lectures.

Also absorb a lot of information from radio programmes. Very likely have skills in

sequencing and organising information and have a methodical approach to many aspects

in life. They may remember information by using a checklist. They can often be

considered to be a reliable and independent worker.

Disadvantages: There is a possibility to complete one task before embarking on

another. There is also a possibility that focuses on small bits of information and do not

obtain a holistic and broad picture of something you are working on. They may also

prefer to work on own rather than work in groups.


B. Visual learner

Advantages: They will be good at visualising events and information and may be

able to use imagination to some advantage. They can use visual strategies for

remembering information. They may also get considerable pleasure from learning

involving visual and creative skills. They may be able to see the whole picture when

discussing or working on a problem or task.

Disadvantages: They may need more time to complete tasks. They can be more

interested in the appearance of something than its actual value .That may be a

disadvantage in some situations, though not in all. They may not spend enough time or

pay attention to specific detail.

C. Kinaesthetic learner

Advantages: They will enjoy active learning and this is useful for assembling and

making products. They will be able to demonstrate to others how to do something. They

will likely be able to enjoy the actual experience of learning.

Disadvantages: They may miss some instructions or information if it is presented

orally. They may find it difficult to concentrate on a lengthy written task while seated.

They may not pay attention to detail, especially if it is in written form.

Comment

One of the principal points to appreciate in learning styles is that all styles can be

effective. However, the actual task demands can make one type of style less effective

than another. For example, if the student has to locate detailed information from a library

using index cards or computer referencing then an auditory style may be more effective

and the visual learner may have to use a visual strategy to do this. But when it comes to

locating books from the shelf the visual learner may be able to locate the title of the book

from the visual appearance of the book faster than the auditory learner can from the book

reference number. At the same time it is important not to pigeonhole students by their

learning styles as this an be unnecessarily restrictive. It is important not to think that a

certain type of learner is incapable of learning using another mode. It is for that reason

that teaching and planning of learning should involve a range of learning experiences

that can reinforce learning and ensure that all styles are accommodated in the mainstream

classroom.


If children have faith in themselves, they relentlessly pursue the activities that

they have to carry out if not they give up, eroding their self-esteem. Low self-esteem

takes away the motivation to study. This leads to further failure, causing the vicious

cycle of failure. Children caught in this vicious cycle try to evade failure by avoiding

challenges.

The response of avoiding or facing challenges has important implications for the

LD children's future. Children with good self-esteem cope successfully with life, even if

their academic skills are not up to the level.

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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